Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
k
where
P
k
= path gain or transmittance of the k
th
forward path
= determinant of graph = 1 (sum of all individual loop gains)
+ (sum of gain products of all combinations of two nontouching
loops) (sum of gain products of all combinations of non
touching loops)+.....
k
= obtained from
by removing the loops that touch path P
k
Transient and steady state response
analysis
c(t) = c
tr
(t) + c
ss
(t)
where
c(t) is time response of system
c
tr
(t) is transient response i.e. Manner in which
system behaves as it goes from initial state to
final state
c
ss
(t) is the response at steady state i.e. As t
approaches infinity
First order system
Input output relationship given by
C(s)/R(s) = 1/(Ts+1)
For 1
st
order systems the response to the
derivative of an input signal can be obtained by
differentiating theresponse of a system to the
original signal
Unit-step response
For unit-step response taking R(s) = 1/s
c(t) = 1 e
-t/T
At t = T, response is 63.2% of total change
Unit-Ramp response
For unit-ramp response taking R(s) = 1/s
2
c(t) = t - T(1 e
-t/T
)
Error signal
e(t) = T(1 e
-t/T
)
e() = T
Unit-Impulse response
For unit-impulse response taking R(s) = 1
c(t) = (1/T)* e
-t/T
Second order system
Transfer function is given by
C(s)/R(s) = K/(Js
2
+ Bs + K)
K/J =
n
2
B/J = 2
n
= 2
where
is called attenuation
n
is undamped natural frequency
is called damping ratio
Second order system contd.
Standard form is
C(s)/R(s) =
n
2
/(s
2
+ 2
n
s +
n
2
)
If 0 < < 1 system is called underdamped and
transient response is oscillatory
If = 0 transient response does not die out
If = 1 system is called critically damped
If > 1 system is overdamped
Underdamped
c(t) = 1 (e
-
n
t
/(1-
2
))*(sin (
d
t + tan
-1
(1-
2
)/ )) for t>=0
If =0 response becomes undamped and
oscillations continue indefinitely
Critically damped
c(t) = 1 e
-
n
t
( 1 +
n
t)
Over damped
c(t) = 1+ (
n
/2(
2
-1))*(e
-s
1
t
/s
1
e
-s
2
t
/s
2
)
Where s
1 =
+ (
2
-1)
s
2 =
- (
2
-1)
Transient response specifactions
Delay time is the time reqd for the response to reach half the
final value the very first time
Rise time is the time reqd for the response to rise from 10% to
90% of its final value
Peak time is the time reqd for the response to reach the first
peak of the over shoot
Maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity
Settling time is the time reqd for the response curve to reac
and stay within a range about the final value of size specified
by absolute percentage of the final value
Transient response specifactions for
second order systems
Rise time = 1/
d
*(tan
-1
(-
d
/) )
Peak time = /
d
Maximum overshoot = e
- / (1-2)
Settling time = 4/
n
(2% criterion)
3/
n
(5% criterion)
Routh's Stability Criterion
Tells us whether or not there arre unstable
roots in a polynomial eqn without actually
solving it
When it is applied to a control system,
information about absolute stability can be
obtained directly from coefficients of
characteristic eqn
Routh's Stability Criterion procedure
1) Write the polynomial in s in the following form
a
0
s
n
+ a
1
s
n-1
+ + a
n-1
s + a
n
= 0
2)If any of the coeffs are zero or negative in the
presence of atleast one positive coeff there is
a root or roots that have +ve real parts and
system is unstable
3) If all are positive, arrange the coeffs in rows
and columns according to the following pattern
sn a0 a2 a4 a6
sn1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn2 b1 b2 b3 b4
...
...
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g0
b1 = (a1a2 a0a3)/a1
b2 = (a1a4 a0a5)/a1
This is continued till all rows are completed.
Rouths Stability criterion states that no of roots
with positive real parts is equal to the no of
changes in sign of the first column of the array.
Special cases
If a 1
st
column term in any row is 0 but remaining
terms are not zero, the zero term is replaced by a
very small positive number and the rest of the array
is evaluated
If the sign of the coeff above is same as that below
it, it indicates that there is a pair of imaginary roots
If the sign of coeff above is opposite to that of sign
below it, it indicates that there is one sign change
If all coeffs in any derived row are 0, it indicates that
there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially
opposite in s-plane
Instrumentation
Definitions
Threshold is the minimum value of input signal below which there
is no output indication
Resolution is the minimum change in input signal for a change in
output
Precision indicates an instrument's ability to reproduce a given
reading
Accuracy indicates a reading deviation from theoretical value
Non-linearity indicates the maximum possible deviation of any
reading from the theoretical linear characteristics of the instrument
Zero drift is the reading shown when there is no input
Sensitivity drift is the change in sensitivity due to temperature
changes
Transducers
Can be used to measure displacement
velocity and acceleration
Active transducers generate electric energy
directly from mechanical energy input
Passive transducers generate electrical
signals other than voltage and current. Here,
mechanical signal is converted into a change
in resistance or inductance or capacitance
Different transducers
Displacement measuring - Hand vibrograph,
LVDT's seismometers, Piezoelectric
transducers, eddycurrent transducers, fibre
optic probe
Velocity Measuring seismic velocity
transducers, electromagnetic transducer
Acceleration measuring inductive
accelerometer, MEMS accelerometer
GAUGE FACTOR G
is often denoted by G and is called gauge
factor and the term is called the piezo-
resistance effect of the material.
(d/ )/(d/ ) RR LL
(d/ )/(d/ ) LL
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistance-
measuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the
remaining two for voltage output.
BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms
and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with
voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those
with signal leads, S (for Signal).
1
L
=PL/EI
L
= longitudinal strain,
P= Transverse load,
L= distance between the
load and the gauge,
E = modulus of elasticity.
Section modulus, I = bt
2
/6
where b = beam width and
t= thickness.
L
0
E
I
E
b
L
P
L
b
L
t
P
1
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
Bending Strain 1/2 Poisson Bridge
1
b
L
t
P
1
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
BENDING STRAIN 1/2 BRIDGE
1
O
E
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE
I
E
BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE
This four-gauge version is the most
popular bending beam configuration.
The linear bridge output is twice that of the
preceding half bridge version.
Note that the two gauges on the top
surface are in opposite arms of the
Wheatstone bridge, as are the two gauges
on the bottom surface.
b
t
P
1
t
1
AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE
1
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
0
E
I
E
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistance-
measuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the
remaining two for voltage output.
BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms
and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with
voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those
with signal leads, S (for Signal).
1
b
t
P
3
b
t
1
0
E
I
E
AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE
This full-bridge configuration with a longitudinal gauge
and transverse Poisson gauge on both top and bottom
surfaces is the most popular for axial loads.
The output is not only higher by approximately a factor of
(1+ ) than for the previous two gauge version but, is
also less nonlinear (approximately (1- ) /10 % per each
1000 produced by axial loads).
This version has good temperature compensation
because gauges are present in all adjacent arms of the
bridge.
Note that both gauges on a given surface are in adjacent
arms of the bridge.
b
L
t
BENDING STRAIN ANALYSIS -CANTILEVER BEAM
EXERCISE
P
From mechanics, the strain
at a point on a simple
cantilever beam is
L
=PL/EI
L
= longitudinal strain,
P= Transverse load,
L= distance between the
load and the gauge,
E = modulus of elasticity.
Section modulus, I = bt
2
/6
where b = beam width and
t= thickness.
L
R
T
1
2
3 4
T
T
1
O
E I
E
FULL TORSION BRIDGE
FULL TORSION BRIDGE
Like the full-bridge configuration for bending
loads, this torsional version has a linear output
and good temperature compensation.
All effects of both bending and axial loads are
cancelled in this most popular design for torque
measurement.
However, very accurate gauge orientation and
placement of all four gauges is crucial for
success.
Gauges 3 and 4 are located on the reverse side
and are mirror images of gauges 1 and 2.