Lec10 Mixers

6.
976
High Speed Communication Circuits and Systems
Lecture 10
Mixers
Michael Perrott
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Copyright 2003 by Michael H. Perrott
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
Mixer Design for Wireless Systems
Design Issues
- Noise Figure impacts receiver sensitivity
- Linearity (IIP3) impacts receiver blocking performance
- Conversion gain lowers noise impact of following stages
- Power match want max voltage gain rather than power
match for integrated designs
- Power want low power dissipation
- Isolation want to minimize interaction between the RF, IF,
and LO ports
- Sensitivity to process/temp variations need to make it
manufacturable in high volume
Z
in
Z
o
LNA
To Filter
From Antenna
and Bandpass
Filter
PC board
trace
Package
Interface
Local Oscillator
Output
Mixer
RF in IF out
Ideal Mixer Behavior
RF spectrum converted to a lower IF center frequency
- IF stands for intermediate frequency
If IF frequency is nonzero heterodyne or low IF receiver
If IF frequency is zero homodyne receiver
Use a filter at the IF output to remove undesired high
frequency components
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f
f -f
Undesired
component
Undesired
component
Channel
Filter
The Issue of Aliasing
When the IF frequency is nonzero, there is an image
band for a given desired channel band
- Frequency content in image band will combine with that
of the desired channel at the IF output
- The impact of the image interference cannot be removed
through filtering at the IF output!
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
LO Feedthrough
LO feedthrough will occur from the LO port to IF output port
due to parasitic capacitance, power supply coupling, etc.
- Often significant since LO output much higher than RF signal
If large, can potentially desensitize the receiver due to the extra
dynamic range consumed at the IF output
If small, can generally be removed by filter at IF output
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
LO
feedthrough
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO Feedthrough
Reverse LO feedthrough will occur from the LO port
to RF input port due to parasitic capacitance, etc.
- If large, and LNA doesnt provide adequate isolation,
then LO energy can leak out of antenna and violate
emission standards for radio
- Must insure that isolate to antenna is adequate
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
Self-Mixing of Reverse LO Feedthrough
LO component in the RF input can pass back through
the mixer and be modulated by the LO signal
- DC and 2f
o
component created at IF output
- Of no consequence for a heterodyne system, but can
cause problems for homodyne systems (i.e., zero IF)
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
Self-mixing
of reverse
LO feedthrough
Removal of Image Interference Solution 1
An image reject filter can be used before the mixer to
prevent the image content from aliasing into the desired
channel at the IF output
Issue must have a high IF frequency
- Filter bandwidth must be large enough to pass all channels
- Filter Q cannot be arbitrarily large (low IF requires high Q)
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
Self-mixing
of reverse
LO feedthrough
Image
Rejection
Filter
Mix directly down to baseband (i.e., homodyne approach)
- With an IF frequency of zero, there is no image band
Issues many!
- DC term of LO feedthrough can corrupt signal if time-varying
- DC offsets can swamp out dynamic range at IF output
- 1/f noise, back radiation through antenna
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f=0
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
LO
feedthrough
Reverse LO
feedthrough
Self-mixing
of reverse
LO feedthrough
Rather than filtering out the image, we can cancel it out
using an image rejection mixer
- Advantages
Allows a low IF frequency to be used without requiring a
high Q filter
Very amenable to integration
- Disadvantage
Level of image rejection is determined by mismatch in gain
and phase of the top and bottom paths
Practical architectures limited to 40-50 dB image rejection
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
RF in IF out 2cos(2f
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
c(t)
d(t)
Lowpass
Image Reject Mixer Principles Step 1
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
1
f
1
0
f
-f
1
f
1
0
f
-f
1
f
1
A(f)
0
f
-f
1
f
1
B(f)
0
c(t)
d(t)
j
-j
1 1
1
j
-j
Lowpass
Lowpass
Lowpass
Note: we are assuming RF in(f)
is purely real right now
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
f
-f
1
f
1
0
f
-f
1
f
1
0
f
-f
1
f
1
C(f)
0
f
-f
1
f
1
D(f)
0
c(t)
d(t)
j
-j
1 1
1
j
-j
Lowpass
e(t)
g(t)
IF out 2cos(2f
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
f
-f
2
f
2
0
f
-f
2
f
2
0
-f
2
f
2
C(f)
0
D(f)
0
c(t)
d(t)
j
-j
1 1
1
j
-j
-f
2
f
2
E(f)
0
-f
2
f
2
G(f)
1
2
1
2
1
-1
1
-1
-2
f
f
f
f
e(t)
g(t)
IF out
-f
2
f
2
E(f)
0
-f
2
f
2
G(f)
1
2
1
2
1
-1
1
-1
-2
f
f
-f
2
f
2
0
2
f
IF out(f)
Baseband
Filter
Image Reject Mixer Principles Implementation Issues
For all analog architecture, going to zero IF
introduces sensitivity to 1/f noise at IF output
- Can fix this problem by digitizing c(t) and d(t), and then
performing final mixing in the digital domain
Can generate accurate quadrature sine wave signals
by using a frequency divider
0
2
f
IF out(f)
(after baseband filtering)
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
c(t)
d(t)
Lowpass
What if RF in(f) is Purely Imaginary?
Both desired and image signals disappear!
- Architecture is sensitive to the phase of the RF input
Can we modify the architecture to fix this issue?
0
f
IF out(f)
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
c(t)
d(t)
Lowpass
-j
j
Modification of Mixer Architecture for Imaginary RF in(f)
Desired channel now appears given two changes
- Sine and cosine demodulators are switched in second
half of image rejection mixer
- The two paths are now added rather than subtracted
Issue architecture now zeros out desired channel
when RF in(f) is purely real
0
f
IF out(f)
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
e(t)
g(t)
RF in IF out
2cos(2f
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
c(t)
d(t)
Lowpass
-j
j
2
Overall Mixer Architecture Use I/Q Demodulation
Both real and imag. parts of RF input now pass through
0
f
IF out(f) (I component)
f
-f
1
f
1
2cos(2f
1
t)
2sin(2f
1
t)
a(t)
b(t)
RF in
IF out
I
2cos(2f
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
Lowpass
Desired
channel
Image
Interferer
0
Lowpass
1
2
f
-f
1
f
1
real part of RF in(f)
0
-j
j
1
imag. part of RF in(f)
2cos(2f
2
t)
2sin(2f
2
t)
IF out
Q
0
f
2
IF out(f) (Q component)
Mixer Single-Sideband (SSB) Noise Figure
Issue broadband noise from mixer or front end filter
will be located in both image and desired bands
- Noise from both image and desired bands will combine
in desired channel at IF output
Channel filter cannot remove this
- Mixers are inherently noisy!
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
Image
band
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1 1
LO out
IF out
LO out(f)
f
IF out(f)
0
f -f
f -f
Image
Rejection
Filter
Noise
RF in
Noise from Desired
and Image bands add
Noise
N
o
2N
o
S
RF
S
RF
Channel
Filter
Mixer Double-Sideband (DSB) Noise Figure
For zero IF, there is no image band
- Noise from positive and negative frequencies combine, but
the signals do as well
DSB noise figure is 3 dB lower than SSB noise figure
- DSB noise figure often quoted since it sounds better
For either case, Noise Figure computed through simulation
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2cos(2f
o
t)
RF in(f)
Desired
channel
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
1
LO out
LO out(f)
f
IF out(f)
0 f -f
Image
Rejection
Filter
Noise
RF in
Noise from
positive and negative
frequency bands add
Noise
N
o
2N
o
S
RF
2S
RF
IF out
Channel
Filter
A Practical Issue Square Wave LO Oscillator Signals
Square waves are easier to generate than sine waves
- How do they impact the mixing operation when used as
the LO signal?
- We will briefly review Fourier transforms (series) to
understand this issue
= 2sgn(cos(2f
o
t))
RF in
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
1
t
T T
W
LO out(t)
Two Important Transform Pairs
Transform of an impulse train in time is an impulse
train in frequency
T
2
T
2
1
x(t)
t
X(f)
f
T
1
T
s(t)
t
S(f)
f
T
1
T
1
T
1
T
1
T
Transform of a rectangle pulse in time is a sinc function
in frequency
Decomposition of Square Wave to Simplify Analysis
Decomposition in time
1
y(t)
t
T T
W
s(t)
t
T
1
T
*
1
x(t)
t
W
Consider now a square wave with duty cycle W/T
Associated Frequency Transforms
Decomposition in frequency
1
y(t)
t
T T
W
X(f)
f
W
1
W
S(f)
f
T
1
T
1
T
1
Consider now a square wave with duty cycle W/T
Overall Frequency Transform of a Square Wave
Fundamental at frequency 1/T
- Higher harmonics have lower magnitude
If W = T/2 (i.e., 50% duty cycle)
- No even harmonics!
If amplitude varies between 1 and -1 (rather than 1 and 0)
- No DC component
1
y(t)
t
T T
W
Y(f)
f
T
1
1
T
W
W
Resulting transform relationship
Analysis of Using Square-Wave for LO Signal
Each frequency component of LO signal will now mix
with the RF input
- If RF input spectrum sufficiently narrowband with respect
to f
o
, then no aliasing will occur
Desired output (mixed by the fundamental component)
can be extracted using a filter at the IF output
f
-f
o
f
o
= 2sgn(cos(2f
o
t))
RF in
RF in(f)
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
Local Oscillator
Output
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
3f
o
-3f
o
-3f
o
3f
o
2f
o
2f
o
2f
o
-2f
o
Desired
Output
Even order harmonic
due to not having an
exact 50% duty cycle
DC component
of LO waveform
Voltage Conversion Gain
Defined as voltage ratio of desired IF value to RF input
Example: for an ideal mixer with RF input = Asin(2(f
o
+
f)t) and sine wave LO signal = Bcos(2f
o
t)
For practical mixers, value depends on mixer topology
and LO signal (i.e., sine or square wave)
f
-f
o
f
o
Bcos(2f
o
t)
RF in =
Acos(2(f
o
+f)t)
RF in(f)
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
LO ouput =
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f
f -f
A
2
B
2
AB
4
Impact of High Voltage Conversion Gain
Benefit of high voltage gain
- The noise of later stages will have less of an impact
Issues with high voltage gain
- May be accompanied by higher noise figure than could be
achieved with lower voltage gain
- May be accompanied by nonlinearities that limit
interference rejection (i.e., passive mixers can generally
be made more linear than active ones)
f
-f
o
f
o
Bcos(2f
o
t)
RF in =
Acos(2(f
o
+f)t)
RF in(f)
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
LO ouput =
IF out
LO out(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f
f -f
A
2
B
2
AB
4
Impact of Nonlinearity in Mixers
Ignoring dynamic effects, we can model mixer as
nonlinearities around an ideal mixer
- Nonlinearity A will have the same impact as LNA
nonlinearity (measured with IIP3)
- Nonlinearity B will change the spectrum of the LO signal
Causes additional mixing that must be analyzed
Changes conversion gain somewhat
- Nonlinearity C will cause self mixing of IF output
Memoryless
Nonlinearity A
y
w
1
0
w
2
W
RF in(w)
Desired
Narrowband
Signal
Interferers
Ideal
Mixer
RF in IF out
LO signal
Memoryless
Nonlinearity B
Memoryless
Nonlinearity C
Primary Focus is Typically Nonlinearity in RF Input Path
Nonlinearity B not detrimental in most cases
- LO signal often a square wave anyway
Nonlinearity C can be avoided by using a linear load
(such as a resistor)
Nonlinearity A can hamper rejection of interferers
- Characterize with IIP3 as with LNA designs
- Use two-tone test to measure (similar to LNA)
Memoryless
Nonlinearity A
y
w
1
0
w
2
W
RF in(w)
Desired
Narrowband
Signal
Interferers
0
w
1
2w
2
+w
1
w
2
2w
2
2w
1
-w
2
2w
1
+w
2
2w
2
-w
1
w
1
+w
2
w
2
-w
1
2w
1
3w
2
3w
1
W
Y(w)
Corruption of desired signal
Ideal
Mixer
RF in IF out
LO signal
Memoryless
Nonlinearity B
Memoryless
Nonlinearity C
x
z
The Issue of Balance in Mixers
A balanced signal is defined to have a zero DC
component
Mixers have two signals of concern with respect to
this issue LO and RF signals
- Unbalanced RF input causes LO feedthrough
- Unbalanced LO signal causes RF feedthrough
Issue transistors require a DC offset
f
-f
o
f
o
RF in
RF in(f)
0
f
-f
o
f
o
0
LO sig
IF out
LO sig(f)
f
-f
o
f
o
IF out(f)
0
f
f -f
LO
feedthrough
RF
feedthrough
DC component
DC component
Achieving a Balanced LO Signal with DC Biasing
Combine two mixer paths with LO signal 180 degrees
out of phase between the paths
- DC component is cancelled
RF in
LO sig
IF out
1
-1
RF in
LO sig
IF out
1
0
LO sig
1
0
0
Single-Balanced Mixer
Works by converting RF input voltage to a current, then
switching current between each side of differential pair
Achieves LO balance using technique on previous slide
- Subtraction between paths is inherent to differential output
LO swing should be no larger than needed to fully turn on
and off differential pair
- Square wave is best to minimize noise from M
1
and M
2
Transconductor designed for high linearity
M
1
I
1
I
o
= G
m
V
RF
Transconductor
V
RF
I
o
I
2
M
2
V
LO
V
LO
DC
V
RF
(t)
Transconductor Implementation 1
Apply RF signal to input of common source amp
- Transistor assumed to be in saturation
- Transconductance value is the same as that of the
transistor
High V
bias
places device in velocity saturation
- Allows high linearity to be achieved
M
1
R
s
V
RF
V
bias
C
big
I
o
R
big
Apply RF signal to a common gate amplifier
Transconductance value set by inverse of series
combination of R
s
and 1/g
m
of transistor
- Amplifier is effectively degenerated to achieve higher
linearity
I
bias
can be set for large current density through
device to achieve higher linearity (velocity saturation)
M
1
R
s
V
RF I
bias
C
big
I
o
V
bias
Add degeneration to common source amplifier
- Inductor better than resistor
No DC voltage drop
Increased impedance at high frequencies helps filter out
undesired high frequency components
- Dont generally resonate inductor with C
gs
Power match usually not required for IC implementation
due to proximity of LNA and mixer
M
1
R
s
V
RF
V
bias
C
big
L
deg
I
o
R
big
LO Feedthrough in Single-Balanced Mixers
DC component of RF input causes very large LO
feedthrough
- Can be removed by filtering, but can also be removed by
achieving a zero DC value for RF input
M
1
I
1
I
o
= G
m
V
in
Transconductor
V
RF
I
o
I
2
M
2
V
LO
V
LO
DC
0 -f
1
f
1
V
RF
(t)
V
RF
(f)
0 -f
o
f
o
V
LO
(f)-V
LO
(f)
f
f
0 f
o
-f
1
I
1
(f)-I
2
(f)
f
f
o
f
o
+f
1
-f
o
-f
o
-f
1
-f
o
+f
1
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Double-Balanced Mixer
DC values of LO and RF signals are zero (balanced)
LO feedthrough dramatically reduced!
But, practical transconductor needs bias current
M
1
I
1
I
o
= G
m
V
in
Transconductor
V
RF
I
o
I
2
M
2
V
LO
V
LO
DC
0 -f
1
f
1
V
RF
(t)
V
RF
(f)
0 -f
o
f
o
V
LO
(f)-V
LO
(f)
f
f
0 f
o
-f
1
I
1
(f)-I
2
(f)
f
f
o
f
o
+f
1
-f
o
-f
o
-f
1
-f
o
+f
1
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Higher order
harmonics
Achieving a Balanced RF Signal with Biasing
Use the same trick as with LO balancing
RF in
LO sig
IF out
1
0
LO sig
1
0
DC
V
RF
(t)
RF in
LO sig
IF out
1
0
LO sig
1
0
RF in
LO sig
IF out
1
0
LO sig
1
0
DC
V
RF
(t)
DC
V
RF
(t)
signal
signal
DC component
cancels
signal component
adds
Double-Balanced Mixer Implementation
Applies technique from previous slide
- Subtraction at the output achieved by cross-coupling
the output current of each stage
M
1
I
1
I
o
= G
m
V
RF
Transconductor
V
RF
I
o
I
2
M
2
V
LO
V
LO
DC
V
RF
(t)
M
1
I
3
I
o
= G
m
V
RF
Transconductor
V
RF
I
o
I
4
M
2
V
LO
V
LO
DC
V
RF
(t)
Gilbert Mixer
Use a differential pair to achieve the transconductor
implementation
This is the preferred mixer implementation for most
radio systems!
RF DC
V
RF
(t)
M
5
M
6
V
LO M
3
I
1
I
2
M
4
V
LO
V
LO
M
1
M
2
I
bias
V
RF
(t)
RF DC
LO DC
LO DC
A Highly Linear CMOS Mixer
Transistors are alternated between the off and triode
regions by the LO signal
- RF signal varies resistance of channel when in triode
- Large bias required on RF inputs to achieve triode operation
High linearity achieved, but very poor noise figure
V
LO
V
LO
R
f1
C
f1
C
b1
R
f2
C
f2
C
b2
V
RF
V
RF
M
1
M
2
M
3
M
4
V
IF
V
IF
Passive Mixers
We can avoid the transconductor and simply use
switches to perform the mixing operation
- No bias current required allows low power operation to
be achieved
You can learn more about it in Homework 4!
V
RF
C
L
R
L
/2 R
L
/2
R
S
/2 C
big
R
S
/2 C
big
V
IF
V
IF
2A
in
V
LO
V
LO
V
LO
V
LO
Square-Law Mixer
Achieves mixing through nonlinearity of MOS device
- Ideally square law, which leads to a multiplication term
- Undesired components must be filtered out
Need a long channel device to get square law behavior
Issue no isolation between LO and RF ports
M
1
V
RF
V
bias
L
L
R
L
C
L
V
IF
V
LO
Alternative Implementation of Square Law Mixer
Drives LO and RF inputs on separate parts of the
transistor
- Allows some isolation between LO and RF signals
Issue - poorer performance compared to multiplication-
based mixers
- Lots of undesired spectral components
- Poorer isolation between LO and RF ports
I
bias
M
1
V
bias
L
L
R
L
C
L
V
IF
R
big
C
big
V
RF
C
big2
V
LO

Lec10 Mixers

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Lec10 Mixers

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

6.

Potrebbero piacerti anche