Biological Psychology 5 (1977) 179-190

North-Holland Publishing Company

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
JAMES A. HORNE
Department of Human Sciences, University of Technology, Loughborough, Leicestershire
LEl l 3TU, England
and
OLOV OSTBERG *
Department of Occupational Health, National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, Fack,
S-100 26 Stockholm, Sweden
Accepted for publication 30 November 1976
Research into individual differences in circadian rhythms is reviewed, particularly mornlng-
ness-eveningness. It was hypothesised that extraverts would be inclined towards eveningness
and introverts towards morningness. Forty-eight subjects took regularly their oral temperature.
Peak times were identified from smoothed temperature curves. Results showed that extraverts
had a peak time insignificantly later than introverts. Re-grouping of the data into the mornlng-
ness-eveningness dimension, based upon the results of a self assessment questionnaire, showed
that evening types had significantly later peak times than morning types. Morningness-evening-
ness was not significantly correlated with extraversion-introversion, although there was a
trend. No significant differences were found for sleep lengths with either groupings, or for
sleep-wake habits within extraversion-introversion. Morning types retired and arose signifi-
cantly earlier than evening types. Although sleep-wake habits and extraversion-introversion
help to determine peak times there are other contributory factors to peak time which appear to
be partly covered by the questionnaire.
1. Introduction
Whilst one of the earliest reports of individual differences in circadian rhythms 1
was by Jiirgensen (1873) who categorised people i nt o those with a marked rhyt hm
and those wi t hout , the first questionnaire designed to determine individual differ-
ences in these rhythms appears t o have been produced by O' Shea (1900) and incor-
porated such questions as, "During what hours of the day are you at your best?"
and, "When are you dullest?". Later, Marsh (1906) used this questionnaire and
* Present address to which requests for reprints should be sent: Department of Human Work
Sciences, University of Lule~, S-95187 Lule~, Sweden.
I Although the term 'circadian' was only introduced by Halberg in 1959 and has only recently
come into regular usage, the term will be used to refer to the work of early studies.
179
180 J.A. Home and O. O'stberg /Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
from the results proposed that 'morning workers' and 'evening workers' could be
identified. More specifically, Jundell (1904) considered that the shape of the cir-
cadian curve depended upon the degree of 'Morningness' and 'Eveningness' of an
individual.
A greater orientation towards the consequence of sleeping habits upon morning-
ness-eveningness became apparent with the work of Wuth (1931) and of Winter-
stein (1932) who differentiated 'evening sleepers' (early to bed, early to rise) and
'morning sleepers' (late to bed, late to rise). IAopold-IAvi (1932) had a more
extended typology which also included early to bed, early to rise, and late to bed,
early to rise individuals. He believed that the predisposing factor was a dominance
of either the sympathetic or para-sympathetic nervous systems.
In a very thorough review of individual differences in circadian rhythms incor-
porating sleeping habits, Freeman and Hovland (1934) proposed that the circadian
curves could be divided into one of four types; (1) the continuous rise, (2) the con-
tinuous fall, (3) morning rise; afternoon fall, and (4) morning fall; afternoon rise.
Kleitman (1939) rejected this classification scheme as having 'too many niches'.
Kleitman did not allow for more than two major types of people: those who have
temperature and performance peaks early in the day and those who peak much
later. The former were called 'Morning types' and the latter 'Evening types'. There
was also an intermediate class of ' Afternoon types', but this category was of minor
importance.
Later, when Kleitman (1949) himself reviewed the literature it was explained
that the four types of curve of Freeman and Hovland were the result of employing
too small groups of subjects, with the groups being dominated by either morning or
evening types and the studies being carried out predominantly either before or after
3 p.m. Some recent investigators, for example Folkard (1975),have proposed that
individual differences in daily peak times of performance are not very evident.
Folkard extends Kleitman's critiscisms of Freeman and Hovland to also include
Kleitman's own work, by proposing that individual differences were only apparent
because comparisons were made mostly between the peak times of different types
of psychological performance tasks, rather than intra-test comparisons.
A revival in the application of morningness--eveningness is now evident and
several morningness-eveningness questionnaires have recently been developed.
Oquist (1970) produced a Swedish language questionnaire which appeared to be
able to distinguish between these two extremes. Ostberg (1973a) modified this
questionnaire for use in a circadian rhythm study of food intake and oral tempera-
ture, and concluded that the questionnaire did distinguish between the two types
and that there are morning type-evening type differences in patterns of food
intake and oral temperature.
Ostberg (1973b) re-designed the questionnaire for a shiftwork study. The ques-
tionnaire had 14 questions and Ostberg claimed that this Swedish questionnaire had
the ability to discern individual differences for suitability to shift work. He con-
cluded that morning types did not adapt their habits to the need of shift work as
J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms 181
readily as evening types and that morning types have a more autonomous circadian
rhythm. Home and Ostberg (1976) produced an English language morningness-
eveningness questionnaire and found that morning types had a significantly earlier
circadian peak time of oral temperature than evening types, and also tended to have
a higher daytime temperature and a lower postpeak temperature. Although peak
times were significantly correlated with bed time and arising time the questionnaire
had a better predictive ability for peak time, suggesting that there is more to
morningness-eveningness than sleep/wake habits.
The dividing up to people according to their rhythm strength or degree of
morningness-eveningness has been related to personality theories. In Sheldon's
(1942) classification of temperaments the viscerotonics were long sleepers (and pos-
sibly morning types), the somatotonics were clearcut morning types, and the
cerebrotonics were evening types (and possibly short sleepers). Oquist (1970)
investigated the relationships between the personality factors of Cattell's 16 PF and
morningness-eveningness and found co-variations between morningness and
schizothymia and between eveningness and cyclothymia.
Extraverts and introverts have been shown to have different circadian charac-
teristics. Colquhoun (1960) studied visual inspection efficiency in introverts and
extraverts. At I0 a.m. the introverted subjects tended to be more efficient than the
extraverted subjects and at 3 p.m. the reverse was so.
Later, Blake (1967) showed that extraverts and introverts differ slightly in their
circadian rhythms of body temperature. Blake's main finding was that extraverts
tended to have, on average, a later peak than introverts, but as his graphs were made
up of two-point running means no definite conclusion can be drawn about the
absolute time displacement between the peak times. These results might be seen to
support the viewpoint of Eysenck (1967) that extraverts, being more inclined
towards the night life, would tend to reach an activity peak later than introverts.
It is possible, therefore, that introverts are more inclined to be the 'early to bed,
early to rise' type of individual than extraverts, and the question arises as to
whether morning and evening types are related to the extraversion scale, with the
hypothesis being that extraverts are more inclined to be evening types, and intro-
verts morning types.
The purpose of this study was to investigate this hypothesis by re-categorising
the data from the Home and Ostberg (1976) morningness-eveningness study into
the extraversion-introversion dimension, and to see whether extraversion-introver-
sion was related to circadian peak time, sleep/wake habits and morningness-
eveningness.
2. Method
2.1. Morni ngness-eveni ngness
This was determined by means of the Morningness-Eveningness self-assessment
questionnaire presented and described in detail elsewhere (Horne and Ostberg,
182 J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
1976). Briefly, the questionnaire asks 19"questions, selected to assess morningness-
eveningness. Most of the answers are forced choice, with no 'do not know/cannot
decide' category. Four choices of answer are given, indicating: definite morning
type, moderate morning type, moderate evening type, and defmite evening type. A
time scale is employed for a few questions. Each question is given a loading factor
determined from item analysis. The scores are added and the sum converted into a
five point morningness-eveningness scale:
Score
Definitely morning type 70-86
Moderately morning type 59-69
Neither type 42-58
Moderately evening type 31--41
Definitely evening type 16-30
2.2. Extraversion-Introversion
This was assessed by means of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI).
2.3. Subjects
Forty-eight subjects within the age range 18-32 years, divided approximately
equally between the sexes, were paid to take part in the study. It was found from
the completed Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire that the sample consisted
of 18 moderate to definite morning types, 20 moderate to definite evening types,
and 10 intermediate types. From the EPI scale the subjects consisted of 16 extra-
verts (scoring 15 or more) 13 introverts (scoring 9 or less) and 19 ambiverts (scoring
between 10 and 14 inclusive). Subjects were also required to log carefully their bed
time, arising time and any nap times for each day throughout the three weeks of
the study.
2.4. The circadian variation of oral temperature as an external criterion
Individual differences in the circadian rhythm of oral temperature were taken as
an external criterion of both the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire and of
possible circadian differences between extraverts and introverts. Subjects took
regularly and logged their oral temperature, using mercury-in-glass-thermometers, at
approximately half hour intervals for each day throughout a three week period
during the early summer (British Summer Time: BST). Measurement commenced
upon awakening and ended at bedtime. Measurements were not taken during sleep.
A high daily sample rate over many days was necessary to average out:
(a) error of free measurement inherent with mercury-in-glass thermometers,
(b) daily individual fluctuations within the trend of oral temperature.
Subjects retained their own thermometer. They were carefully trained in reading
thermometer scales and were instructed to place the thermometer well under the
J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms 183
tongue with mouth shut for five minutes. Measurements were not taken
(1) during eating, drinking, smoking, changing environment, and within 20
minutes of completing these activities,
(2) during exercise, and within 2 hours of completing exercise.
Subjects were not restricted in their normal daily activities.
At the end of the period an averaged waking oral temperature change was com-
piled for each subject by dividing up the waking day into ! hour epochs, making
about sixty epochs in all, and averaging all measurements taken over the three week
period which fell into each epoch. On average these epochs each contained four
readings.
In order to smooth the averaged waking oral temperature curve for each subject
and to objectively identify the peak time a curve fitting technique had t o be
employed. The commonly accepted least squares fitting of a cosine model, the
'cosinor analysis', was not seen to be suitable in this instance. The reasons being
that, firstly, the temperature data were not available for the complete 24 hour
period as data were not collected during sleep. Secondly, Harris (1974) has noted
that the cosinor analysis is not very sensitive to skewness, and as the present study
was particularly interested in individual differences in temperature curves and pos-
sible differences in skewness, this method of analysis would be inappropriate.
Instead, the method of least squares fitting of polynomials was considered to be
more suitable and a polynomial curve fitting program (BMDO5R-1966-Health
Sciences Computing Facility, UCLA), using the sextic term, was employed.
Peak times were identified from each subject's polynomial curve. The tempera-
ture for every hour from 09. 00-23. 00 hours was assessed from each curve and
3ZO.
,9,
,8.
,7.
,6.
c.5.
,4.
,3.
,2.
, | .
36,0.
Deviation For Hourly
Introvert {E.P.I.,9.N 13) Means
Ambi verts(N 19) I E
v Extrovert (E.P.I.~I$.N 16) N
06 o'7 de ~ 1'o 11 1'2 13 14 1'5 1'6 I r l's ;9 ~ 2'1 2'2 2'3 2'+
Hours Summer ILS.T.
Fig. 1. Mean dayti me oral temperature curves for 3 extraversion groups based on E.P.[. scores
(N = 48) .
184 J.A. Horne and O. Ostberg ~Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
37,0.
,9.
,8.
.7.
,6.
C ,5.~
, 4.
,3_
,2.
J.
36,0.
Mmax
/V .V" w, ...
v..
. . V
Morning Type (1'4 18)
Intermediate Type ( N 10)
v Evening Type (N 20)
t Average Standard Deviation
For Hourly Means(All Types)
06 0'7 0'8 09 I'0 I'I 1'2 1'3 I~I I'5 I'6 I'7 I~ (9 20 2'I 2'2 2'3 24
Hours Summer B.S.T.
Fig. 2. Mean daytime oral temperature curves for morning & evening types based upon question-
naire (N = 48).
pooled for,
(a) each of the morning, evening and intermediate groupings.
(b) each of extravert, introvert, and ambivert groupings. Data were pooled for
each of the hourly points and for peak times in respect of (a) and (b). Both for the
hourly points and for the peak times unrelated ' t tests' were performed with pairs
of groups taken from within (a) and (b).
The smoothed temperature curves were pooled for each of the categories in
these two groupings and are shown in figs. 1 and 2.
To assess whether or not any differences in peak times between the three cate-
gories of each grouping might be related to differences in sleep-waking patterns,
the temperature logs of each subject were scrutinised for bed times and arising
times. Each of these times was averaged for the categories within (a) and (b). Sub-
jective estimates of sleep length were also taken. Spearman rank order correlations
were calculated between pairs of dimensions taken from: morningness-eveningness,
extraversion-introversion, oral temperature peak time, bed tin]e, arising time and
sleep length.
3. Re s ul t s
Fig. 1 shows that the average oral temperatures upto the peak times tend to
be higher for introverts than for extraverts, with the reverse trend after the peak
J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
Table I
Sleep parameters and temperature peak times for Extraverts, Introverts and Ambiverts.
185
Extraverts Ambiverts Introverts
(iV = 16) (N = 19) (N = 13)
Bed time
Mean (BST) 00.12 hr 00.17 hr 23.50 hr
s.d. (min) 80 60 53
Arising time
Mean (BST) 08.17 hr 08.28 hr 08.14 hr
s.d. (min) 67 93 57
Sleep length
Mean (min) 439 457 436
s.d. (min) 55 51 41
Peak time
Mean (BST) 20.25 hr 20.13 hr 19.52 hr
s.d. (min) 111 118 97
time. However t he st andard deviations for each hourl y poi nt were fairly large,
averaging 0. 13C, especially for t he ambivert group. This factor, t oget her with a
relatively small difference bet ween the average curves, produced no statistically sig-
nificant bet ween group differences for the points. Al t hough extraverts t ended, on
average, t o have peak times 33 min l at er t han introverts, it can be seen from table 1
t hat t he variance around these peak times was large, resulting in an insignificant dif-
ference bet ween these times. The average hourl y t emperat ures and the peak time of
t he ambiverts t ended to be l ocat ed bet ween those of the ot her t wo groups. Tables 1
and 2 show t hat al t hough there were t rends for extraverts to retire and arise l at er
t han introverts, these differences were not significant.
Fr om fig. 2 it is apparent t hat the averaged t emperat ure curves of the morning,
evening and internaediate t ypes t end to show similar t rends to the respective
groupings of extraverts, introverts and ambiverts, shown in fig. 1. Morning t ypes
t end t o have a higher t emperat ure upt o the peak t i me t han the evening t ype, wi t h a
reversed t rend following the peak. Al t hough the standard deviations for each hourl y
poi nt wi t hi n each group of fig. 2 were generally smal l er' t han for t he groupings of
Table 2
Statistical comparisons of sleep parameters and peak times between Extravert, Introvert and
Ambivert groups, using two-tailed t-tests.
Bed time Arising time Peak time Sleep length
Extraverts ! Introverts n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Extraverts X Ambiverts n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Introverts X Ambiverts n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
186 J.A. Horne and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
Table 3
Sleep parameters and temperature peak times for Morning, Evening and Intermediate types.
Evening Intermediate Morning
type (N = 20) type (N = 10) type (N = 18)
Bed time
Mean (BST) 01.05 hr 23.30 hr 23.26
s.d. (min) 27 58 42
Arising time
Mean (BST) 09.18 hr 08.07 hr 07.24
s.d. (min) 68 52 45
Sleep length
Mean (min) 434 452 454
s.d. (min) 47 51 54
Peak time
Mean (BST) 20.40 20.25 19.32
s.d. (min) 82 134 113
hr
hr
fig. I , t hey were still relatively large, averaging 0.1C. Consequent l y, t here were
no significant differences bet ween any of the morni ngness-eveni ngness groupings
for any of t he hourl y points. However, there was a significant difference (p = 0. 05)
bet ween t he peak times of the morni ng and evening t ypes, with the former peaking
on average 68 min earlier t han t he l at t er. This is reflected in the significant differ-
ences for bed time (p = 0. 001) and arising time (p = 0. 001) bet ween morni ng and
evening types, wi t h i nt ermedi at e t ypes retiring at a similar t i me t o the morning
t ypes, but significantly different (p = 0. 001) from t he evening t ypes. The inter-
medi at e t ype t ended to arise at a t i me bet ween, and significantly different from
(p = 0. 001) t he arising times of the ot her two groups. Again, sleep length shows no
significant differences bet ween t he morning, evening and i nt ermedi at e types.
Al t hough t here are t rends in t he mat ri x of table 5 in the correlations bet ween
extraversion-introversion and with bot h morningness--eveningness and with peak
times, in t he di rect i on of extraverts tending t o be inclined t owards eveningness and
a l at er peak time, these do not reach statistical significance. The correlations
Table 4
Statistical comparisons of sleep parameters and peak times between Morning, Evening and
Intermediate types, using two-tailed t-tests.
Bed Arising Peak Sleep
time time time lenth
Evening X Morning types 0.001 0.001 0.05 n.s.
Evening X Intermediate types 0.001 0.001 n.s. n.s.
Morning X Intermediate types n.s. 0.001 n.s. n.s.
J.A. Home and O. Ostberg /Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
Table 5
Correlations of measures with significance levels using Spearman rank order correlations.
187
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Morningness-Eveningness
2. Peak time -0.51 **
3. Bed time -0.67 *** +0.37 *
4. Arising time -0.79 *** +0.42 ** +0.65 ***
5. Sleep length +0.07 -0.13 -0.16 -0.08
6. Extraversion- Introversion -0.22 +0.29 -0.02 -0.06 -0.12
*** Significant at p:O.O01 (two-tail)
** Significant at p:O.O1 (two-tail)
* Significant at p:O.05 (two-tail)
between extraversion-introversion and with bed time, arising time and sleep length
are low and without obvious trends. Morningness-eveningness significantly cor-
related with peak time (p - 0.51 ; p = 0.01) and with bed time (p - 0.67; p = 0.001)
and arising time (p - 0.79; p = 0.001). Although both bed time and arising time
significantly correlated with peak time (p + 0.37; p = 0.05) (p + 0.42; p = 0.01)
they have a lower predictive ability of peak time than does morningness-evening-
ness. As might be expected, bed time and arising time are significantly correlated
(p + 0.65; p = 0.001). Sleep length is not significantly correlated with any of the
other variables.
4. Di s cus s i on
Comparison of Blake's (1967) findings with those of the present study reveal an
obvious similarity between the two sets of results. Both show similar peak times for
each of the extravert and introvert groups, a slightly higher daytime temperature
upto the peak for introverts and a post-peak reversal of this trend. Whilst Blake and
Corcoran (1972) reported that introverts had a temperature peak time at least an
hour earlier than extraverts the present study found this difference to be only 33
min. Blake and Corcoran considered that the curve differences between extraverts
and introverts was due to a phase shift, and it would appear that a similar conclu-
sion can be made with the present extraversion-introversion temperature data.
However, from both the peak time and the correlation data of the present study it
appears that although there is a tendency for extraverts to be evening types and
introverts morning types a more significant differentiation of the peak times of
these subjects can be attained though the morningness--eveningness dimension.
Although extraversion-introversion might appear to play a minor role in morning-
ness-eveningness there is clearly much more to momingness-eveningness than
extraversion-introversion. Therefore the hypothesised relationship between extra-
188 J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms
version-introversion and morningness-eveningness is not substantiated statistically.
The present findings of insignificant differences in sleep-wake habits between
extraverts and introverts is in accordance with Tune's (1969) data for 20- 29 year
olds. But, Tune also found that sleeping habits are to some extent dependent upon
the interaction between age and extraversion-introversion. Although he found no
significant differences in sleep-wake habits between extraverts and introverts in
this younger age group, there were clear differences for older subjects. With increas-
ing age above 40 years the extraverts slept progressively longer and awoke later, and
in effect became more and more like evening types, whilst the introverts slept
shorter and effectively became more like morning types. Thus, from the work of
Tune it is possible that a higher and perhaps significant correlation between extra-
version-introversion and morningness-eveningness may develop in middle age.
However, it must be noted that Tune used subjective reports of times of falling
asleep and awakening, whereas the present study employed bed and arising times. It
is well known amongst sleep researchers that sleep estimates such as those obtained
by Tune are not always reliable, and for this reason it is felt that 'bed time' and
'arising time' might be more valid estimates of sleep-wake habits. Unlike the
present study, Tune included daytime naps in his daily sleep length data, but over
the entire eight week sampling period used by Tune each individual in the 20- 29
years age group took a daytime nap on an average of only 0. 5-2. 0 occasions. The
incidence of daytime naps in the present study was almost negligable, averaging 0.2
naps per person over the entire three.week sample period.
From the morningness-eveningness data of fig. 2 and tables 3 and 4 some
interesting trends can be seen. Although the average morning type appears to start
the day nearly two hours earlier than the evening type the overall higher tempera-
ture curve upto the peak time for the former group appears not be be merely an
advancement on the latter by two hours. There is some indication that whilst the
morning type displays a relatively rapid waking temperature rise, culminating in a
plateau which is terminated in a slight but obvious peak at about 19.30 hr, the
evening type tends to display a steady temperature rise throughout the day even-
tually reaching a distinct peak of similar amplitude but about 70 min later than that
of the morning type. After the peaks have been reached the rates of temperature
decline for both groups appear to be similar, but with the evening type lagging
behind the morning type by about an hour, leading to a difference in bed time of
about I~A hours. Whilst the difference in peak times between the two groups is
probably related to the evidence that morning types have a sleep-wake life style
about an hour in advance of evening types, the dynamics of the temperature curves
of the two groups from arising to peak times appears not just to be a reflection of
such a phase lag.
Even though bed time and arising time are significantly correlated with peak
time, squaring these correlations to obtain the variance shows that only a minority
of the total variance of peak times can be accounted for by either bed time or
arising time. Thus there appears to be more to the determination of peak time than
sleep-wake habits.
J.A. Home and O. Ostberg / Individual differences in human circadian rhythms 189
However, it must be noted that these subjects are not necessarily typical of a
normal population, particularly in respect of life style. For example from table 3
the arising time for these students, particularly the evening types, would seem to be
later than an arising time which could be expected from an older population having
to start a regular job of work at 07. 00-09. 00 hr with various family commitments
prior to work.
The question of whether or not the apparent afternoon temperature dip of the
intermediate group in fig. 2 can be equated with the post-lunch dip in perfor-
mance reported by Blake (1967) must at present remain unanswered, particularly as
the present temperature data for this group were only made up of ten subjects.
However, this is an area worthy of further investigation, especially as Hockey and
Colquhoun (1972) point out in their review that although there is support for a
post lunch dip in performance there is no evidence of an accompanying tempera-
ture dip.
From the present study further research issues can now be raised, for example,
whether aspects of personality other than extraversion-introversion might relate to
morningness-eveningness, and whether the degree of morningness-eveningness for
any individual is a constant or labile phenomenon throughout life. Unfortunately,
there is little guidance over these matters from the literature and these questions
must remain unanswered at present.
It must also be noted that although the peak time has been used as a reference
point in this study it can vary within individuals who lead a fairly regular life. For
example, the magnitude of the peak-time differences between morning and evening
types may be influenced by seasonal changes in the circadian peak-time of body
temperature. Horne and Coyne (1975) found in a study conducted in the climatic
and environmental conditions of the British Isles, that the circadian peak time of
oral temperature became delayed by about an hour from December to June. This
change was not related to clock time changes. Thus, there may be a seasonal inter-
action between temperature peak times and morningness-eveningness.
Acknowledgement
At the time of this research O. Ostberg was in receipt of a Leverhulme Travelling
Fellowship, tenable at Loughborough University.
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