$R9H6U56

Conveyor belt using two link robotic arm
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INTRODUCTION
The technology has been developing even since the Stone Age. The ancient man
applied their minds towards the techniques to have comfort and betterment in their life. The
same phenomenon is continuing even till today. Always there is tendency and thirsty with
human beings to develop a better technique in any working process to attain or to provide less
fatigue and mental stress and more comfort to the operators. There will be always a desire to-
do things in a better way and speedy. The project CONVEYOR BELT USING TWO LINK
ROBOTIC ARM is also based on the above-mentioned facts. The industries, which are
having manual process of filling, can be automated using Automation & Controlling
techniques.
Application of Automation components as per requirement resulted the project of
automatically filling and transporting. In this plant following major operations are
performed. The first one is designing the whole plant as it is in the field and secondly filling
of the bottle to the required level and then transporting it with help of conveyor belt and
robotic arm mechanism to pick and place the bottle in particular location inside the plant from
where the bottles will go for packaging purpose.
The Automation components used in the plants are conveyor system, sensors, control
valves, submersible pump and robotics arm. After the end of a process, the filled bottle is
collected and the bottle is now ready to be transported further for sealing and packing
purpose. The manual error in filling operation, due to repeated similar operation, can be
eliminated. The fatigue and mental stress of the operator is removed. The operation cycle is
also increased considerably.


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BLOCK DIAGRAM

OPERATION
The project mainly deals with automation and process control, which performs the
duty of filling the bottles automatically. This is a fully automatic machine with a specifically
designed software application.
To move the bottles continuously along with the conveyer belt, the mechanism is
designed with stepper motor, which drives the conveyer belt the container is a glass
bottle, and the robotic arm used to pick & place the bottle over the conveyer belt at
some particular reference point.

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Placing the bottle, automatically solenoid valve energizes through the relay contact and
fills the bottle with liquid to certain level, and then the controller de-energizes the valve.
After filling the bottle, the bottles travels along a horizontal axis on a conveyer belt at a
constant speed, and leaves the bottle over the platform arranged very close to the
conveyer belt.
After placing the bottle over the belt with the help of robotics arm, the filling process
begins.
To sense the bottle, IR sensors are used and the output of sensor is fed to
microcontroller. On receipt of a high signal from the sensor, the microcontroller drives
the motor automatically.
Finally after filling the bottle to the required level the bottle is picked and placed with
the help of robotics arm to another conveyer belt to perform packaging
POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to run the other
circuits. The voltage we get from the main line is 230V AC but the other components of our
circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down transformer is used to get 12V AC which is later
converted to 12V DC using a rectifier. The output of rectifier still contains some ripples even
though it is a DC signal due to which it is called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples and
obtain smoothed DC power filter circuits are used. Here a capacitor is used. The 12V DC is
rated down to 5V using a positive voltage regulator chip 7805. Thus a fixed DC voltage of 5V
is obtained.
A 5V regulated supply is taken as followed:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.


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TRANSFORMER
Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another with little loss
of power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two types of transformers as Step-up
and Step-down transformer. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers
reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously
high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. Here a step down transformer is used to get 12V
AC from the supply i.e. 230V AC.
RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signals to DC. A rectifier circuit is made using
diodes. There are two types of rectifier circuits as Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier
depending upon the DC signal generated.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
It is the rectifier circuit that rectifies only half part of the AC signal. It uses only a
single diode. It only uses only positive part of the AC signal to produce half-wave varying DC
and produce gaps when the AC is negative.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

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It is also called as Bridge Rectifier. A bridge rectifier can be made using four
individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes
required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses the total AC wave (both positive and
negative sections).

SMOOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the
DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and
the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC,
and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Here a capacitor of 330uF is used as a
smoothing circuit.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulators produce fixed DC output voltage from variable DC (a small
amount of AC on it). Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the
output of the filtered DC. It can also used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC
voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage
regulators
1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx)
2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification
1. Positive voltage regulators
2. Negative voltage regulators
POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS
This includes 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and
7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V-20). You may sometimes
have questions like, what happens if input voltage is <7.5 V or some 3V, the answer is that
regulation won't be proper. Suppose if input is 6V then output may be 5V or 4.8V, but there
are some parameters for the voltage regulators like maximum output current capability, line
regulation etc. won't be proper. Remember that electronics components should be used in the
proper voltage and current ratings as specified in datasheet. You can work without following
it, but you won't be able to get some parameters of the component.
NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Mostly available negative voltage regulators are of 79xx family. The mainly available
79xx IC's are 7905,7912 1.5A output current, short circuit protection, ripple rejection are the
other features of 79xx IC's.


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Many of the fixed voltage regulators have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such
as the 7805 (+5V 1A) regulator shown on the above. If adequate heat sinking is provided then
it can deliver up to maximum 1A current. For an output voltage of 5v-18v the maximum input
voltage is 35v and for an output voltage of 24V the maximum input voltage is 40V.For 7805
IC, for an input of 10v the minimum output voltage is 4.8V and the maximum output voltage
is 5.2V. The typical dropout voltage is 2V.

RESISTOR
Resistors offer a resistance to the flow of current. Mainly resistors are classified
according to their resistance values and their power ratings. Resistances range from 10 ohm to
56 M Ohm (or more) and power ratings from 1/8W to 20W. We mostly use resistance in this
range even though more power rating high value resistors are available. So when you select a
resistor its value and power rating should be the deciding parameter. Normally available
resistors are 1/8 W, you can see this type of resistors in the resistance box which contain
resistances from 10 ohm to around 56Mohm, costs around Rs.30. But this resistor leads are
flexible such that it will get bend easily. These 1/8W resistors are used in low power devices
.The one which available in shops are of 1/4W which we mainly use. P=I^2 * R, heat
dissipation on resistor depends on the current flowing through it. Therefore for high current
operations we use resistance of higher current ratings.


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POTENTIOMETER (POT ' )
Potentiometer is a variable resistor which is used to vary the resistance by rotating the
shaft. Potentiometers are available from 100 ohm to 470Kohm (or more). Cost depends on the
size of potentiometer, vary from Rs.4 onwards.

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CAPACITOR
A capacitor is used to store charge. Like resistors there is fixed as well as variable
capacitor. Variable capacitors are mainly used in analog communication. There are capacitors
with no polarity and polarity. Ceramic and Mica capacitors available are of no-polarity, but
electrolytic capacitors are of polarity. There is a variation in their symbols also.


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DIODES
Diodes are two terminal devices which conduct electricity in one direction. Current
flows from anode to cathode when the diode is forward biased. In a normal forward biased
diode, energy is dissipated as heat in the junction, but in LED's energy dissipated as visible
light.

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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):
The main specification of LED are its current rating=20mA, typical cut in voltage=2V,
life time=2lakh hours, max. Voltage is around 4.5V. There is different color LED's depending
on the semi conducting material. LED has two leads- cathode and anode. They are identified
by the length of the lead. Cathode lead is of lesser length. But seen some LED's with
manufacturing defect having cathode lead longer .So in order to identify the cathode of the
LED see the figure below. In that you can see that cathode is of broader filament.

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STRIP-BOARD/VERO-BOARD:
Strip-board is a widely-used type of electronics prototyping board characterized by a
0.1 inch (2.54 mm) regular (rectangular) grid of holes, with wide parallel strips of copper
cladding running in one direction all the way across one side of the board. It is usually known
by the name Vero-board, which is a trademark, in the UK, of British company Vero
Technologies Ltd and company Canadian Pixel Print Ltd. In using the board, breaks are made
in the tracks, usually around holes, to divide the strips into multiple electrical nodes. With
care, it is possible to break between holes to allow for components that have two pin rows
only one position apart such as twin row headers for IDCs.

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(Dotted Vero-board) (Shorted Vero-board)
SMPS
Switched-Mode Power Supply (Switching-Mode Power Supply, SMPS,
Or Switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert
electrical power efficiently.
Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power,
to a load, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics.
Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually
switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the
high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-mode power
supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off
time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating
power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important
advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be
substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and
weight.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher
efficiency, smaller size or lighter weights are required. They are, however, more complicated;
their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and
simple designs may have a poor power factor.


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EXPLANATION
A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power
in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collectoremitter region of a pass transistor in its
active mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the
excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage-
out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted. In contrast, a switched-mode power supply
regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements,
like inductors and capacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal
switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance
when "closed" and carry no current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically
operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted
as dissipated heat).
For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical
ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the peak-to-peak
voltage of the waveform measured across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the
DC source. This is because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own
voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the source voltage while the
switch is open. If a diode-and-capacitor combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the
peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with
an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost converter acts
like a step-up transformer for DC signals. A buckboost converter works in a similar manner,
but yields an output voltage which is opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck
circuits exist to boost the average output current with a reduction of voltage.
In an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage
elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width
modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. The spectral
density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies.
As such, switching transients, like ripple, introduced onto the output waveforms can be
filtered with small LC filters.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The main advantage of this method is greater efficiency because the switching
transistor dissipates little power when it is outside of its active region (i.e., when the transistor
acts like a switch and either has a negligible voltage drop across it or a negligible current
through it). Other advantages include smaller size and lighter weight (from the elimination of
low frequency transformers which have a high weight) and lower heat generation due to
higher efficiency.

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Disadvantages include greater complexity, the generation of high-amplitude, high-
frequency energy that the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic
interference (EMI), a ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic
frequencies thereof. Very low cost SMPSs may couple electrical switching noise back onto
the mains power line, causing interference with A/V equipment connected to the same phase.
Non-power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion.
THEORY OF OPERATION

INPUT RECTIFIER STAGE
If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is
called rectification. A SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. In some power
supplies (mostly computer ATX power supplies), the rectifier circuit can be configured as a
voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This
feature permits operation from power sources that are normally at 115 V or at 230 V. The
rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The
current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the
AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the
power factor. To correct for this, many newer SMPS will use a special PFC circuit to make
the input current follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage, correcting the power
factor. Power supplies that use Active PFC usually are auto-ranging, supporting input
voltages from~100 VAC 250 VAC, with no input voltage selector switch.
A SMPS designed for AC input can usually be run from a DC supply, because the DC
would pass through the rectifier unchanged. If the power supply is designed for 115 VAC and
has no voltage selector switch, the required DC voltage would be163 VDC (115 2). This
type of use may be harmful to the rectifier stage, however, as it will only use half of diodes in
the rectifier for the full load. This could possibly result in overheating of these components,
causing them to fail prematurely. On the other hand, if the power supply has a voltage selector
switch for 115/230V (computer ATX power supplies typically are in this category), the
selector switch would have to be put in the 230 V position, and the required voltage would
be 325 VDC (230 2). The diodes in this type of power supply will handle the DC current

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just fine because they are rated to handle double the nominal input current when operated in
the 115 V modes, due to the operation of the voltage doublers. This is because the doublers,
when in operation, uses only half of the bridge rectifier and runs twice as much current
through it. It is uncertain how an Auto-ranging/Active-PFC type power supply would react to
being powered by DC.
INVERTER STAGE
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier
stage described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output
transformer is very small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz.
The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The
switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier.
MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high current-handling
capacity.
VOLTAGE CONVERTER AND OUTPUT RECTIFIER
If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains
power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-
frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on
its secondary winding. The output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output
voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower
voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the
advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher
frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages,
MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have
even lower conducting state voltage drops. The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter
consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with
lower capacitance and inductance are needed.
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer.
This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the buck-boost converters. These
belong to the simplest class of single input, single output converters which use one inductor
and one active switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to the
ratio of conductive time to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For example an
ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average
output voltage of 5 V. A feedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by
varying the duty cycle to compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of
a boost converter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck-boost output voltage is
inverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage.

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There are many variations and extensions to this class of converters but these three form the
basis of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters. By adding a second
inductor the uk and SEPIC converters can be implemented, or, by adding additional active
switches, various bridge converters can be realized.
Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor-diode voltage multiplier instead of inductors
and transformers. These are mostly used for generating high voltages at low currents
(Cockcroft-Walton generator). The low voltage variant is called charge pump.
REGULATION
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference
voltage, which shown in the block diagram serves this purpose. Depending on design/safety
requirements, the controller may contain an isolation mechanism (such as opto-couplers) to
isolate it from the DC output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these
opto-couplers to tightly control the output voltage.
Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on feeding a
constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume that the output will be
correct. Regulated designs compensate for the impedance of the transformer or coil.
Monopolar designs also compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core.
The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional
non-switching power-supply for stand-by is added.
TRANSFORMER DESIGN
Any switched-mode power supply that gets its power from an AC power line (i.e. off-
line converters) requires a transformer for galvanic isolation. Some DC-to-DC converters may
also include a transformer, although isolation may not be critical in these cases. SMPS
transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and space savings) in off-line
power supplies result from the smaller size of high frequency transformer compared to the
50/60 Hz transformers formerly used. There are additional design tradeoffs.
The terminal voltage of a transformer is proportional to the product of the core area,
magnetic flux, and frequency. By using a much higher frequency, the core area (and so the
mass of the core) can be greatly reduced. However, core losses increase at higher frequencies.
Cores generally use ferrite material which has a low loss at the high frequencies and high flux
densities used. The laminated iron cores of lower-frequency (<400 Hz) transformers would be
unacceptably loss at switching frequencies of a few kilohertz. Also, more energy is lost during
transitions of the switching semiconductor at higher frequencies. Furthermore, more attention
to the physical layout of the circuit board is required as parasitics become more significant,
and the amount of electromagnetic interference will be more pronounced.

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MICROCONTROLLER
MICROPROCESSOR and MICROCONTROLLER have always been confused with
each other. Both of them have been designed for real time application. They share many
common features and at the same time they have significant differences. Both the ICs i.e., the
microprocessor and microcontroller cannot be distinguished by looking at them. They are
available in different version starting from 6 pin to as high as 80 to 100 pins or even higher
depending on the features.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICROPROCESSOR AND
MICROCONTROLLER
Microprocessor is an IC which has only the CPU inside them i.e. only the processing
powers such as Intels Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5 etc. These microprocessors dont
have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the chip. A system designer has to add them
externally to make them functional. Application of microprocessor includes Desktop PCs,
Laptops, notepads etc.
But this is not the case with Microcontrollers. Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition
with a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip. At
times it is also termed as a mini computer or a computer on a single chip. Today different
manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of features available in different
versions. Some manufacturers are ATMEL, Microchip, TI, Free scale, Philips, Motorola etc.
Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific tasks. Specific means applications
where the relationship of input and output is defined. Depending on the input, some
processing needs to be done and output is delivered. For example, keyboards, mouse, washing
machine, dig-cam, pen-drive, remote, microwave, cars, bikes, telephone, mobiles, watches,
etc. Since the applications are very specific, they need small resources like RAM, ROM, I/O
ports etc and hence can be embedded on a single chip. This in turn reduces the size and the
cost.
Microprocessor find applications where tasks are unspecific like developing software,
games, websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. In such cases the relationship
between input and output is not defined. They need high amount of resources like RAM,
ROM, I/O ports etc.
The clock speed of the Microprocessor is quite high as compared to the
microcontroller. Whereas the microcontrollers operate from a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz,
todays microprocessor operate above 1GHz as they perform complex tasks.
Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor in terms of cost is not justified.
Undoubtedly a microcontroller is far cheaper than a microprocessor. However microcontroller
cannot be used in place of microprocessor and using a microprocessor is not advised in place

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of a microcontroller as it makes the application quite costly. Microprocessor cannot be used
stand alone. They need other peripherals like RAM, ROM, buffer, I/O ports etc and hence a
system designed around a microprocessor is quite costly.
ATMEGA16:
Features
High-performance, Low-power AVR

8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories
16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Program True Read-While-Write Operation
512 Bytes EEPROM
Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
1K Byte Internal SRAM
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and
Compare Modes
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare
Mode, and Capture
Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Four PWM Channels
8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
Programmable Serial USART
On-chip Analog Comparator
I/O and Packages
32 Programmable I/O Lines
40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF
Operating Voltages
4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16

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Speed Grades
0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16

PIN DIAGRAM

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DESCRIPTION
The ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR
enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock
cycle, the ATmega16 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the
system designed to optimize power consumption versus processing speed.
The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one
clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs
up to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
The ATmega16 provides the following features: 16K bytes of In-System
Programmable Flash Program memory with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes
EEPROM, 1K byte SRAM, 32 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, a JTAG interface for Boundary-scan, On-chip Debugging support and
programming, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, Internal and External
Interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire Serial Interface, an

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8-channel, 10-bit ADC with optional differential input stage with programmable gain
(TQFP package only), a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI
serial port, and six software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU
while allowing the USART, Two-wire interface, A/D Converter, SRAM; Timer/Counters,
SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the
register con- tents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the
next External Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the Asynchronous Timer
continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is
sleeping.
The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
Asynchrony- nous Timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions.
In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is
sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low-power consumption. In
Extended Standby mode, both the main Oscillator and the Asynchronous Timer continue to
run.
The device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory
technology. The On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-
system through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program
can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash
memory. Soft- ware in the Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application
Flash section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-
bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
ATmega16 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.
The ATmega16 AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system
development tools including: C compilers, macro assemblers, program
debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation kits.

PIN DESCRIPTIONS:
VCC Digital supply voltage

GND Ground

Port A (PA7...PA0) Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port

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A also serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D
Converter is not used. Port pins can provide internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers
have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as
inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current
if the internal pull-up resistors are activated. The Port A pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if
the clock is not running.

Port B (PB7...PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-
up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that
are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a
reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not
running.

Port C (PC7...PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-
up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that
resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a
running. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up
resistors on pins PC5 (TDI), PC3 (TMS) and PC2 (TCK)
will be activated even if a reset occurs.

Port D (PD7...PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-
up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that
resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a
running.

RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the

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minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the
clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to
generate a reset.

XTAL1: Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2: Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D
Converter. It should be externally connected to V
CC
, even
if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to V
CC
through a low-pass filter.

AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter
I/O PORTS
INTRODUCTION
All AVR ports have true Read-Modify-Write functionality when used as general
digital I/O ports. This means that the direction of one port pin can be changed without
unintentionally changing the direction of any other pin with the SBI and CBI instructions.
The same applies when changing drive value (if configured as output) or enabling/disabling
of pull-up resistors (if configured as input). Each output buffer has symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. The pin driver is strong enough to
drive LED displays directly. All port pins have individually selectable pull-up resistors with
a supply-voltage invariant resistance. All I/O pins have protection diodes to both V
CC and

Ground.
All registers and bit references in this section are written in general form. A lower
case x represents the numbering letter for the port, and a lower case n represents the bit
number. However, when using the register or bit defines in a program, the precise form must
be used. i.e., PORTB3 for bit no. 3 in Port B here documented generally as PORTxn.
Three I/O memory address locations are allocated for each port, one each for the Data
Register PORTxn, Data Direction Register DDRx, and the Port Input Pins PINx. The
Port Input Pins I/O location is read only, while the Data Register and the Data Direction
Register are read/write. In addition, the Pull-up Disable PUD bit in SFIOR disables the pull-
up function for all pins in all ports when set.
Using the I/O port as General Digital I/O is described in Ports as General Digital I/O
below. Most port pins are multiplexed with alternate functions for the peripheral features on

~ 25 ~

the device. How each alternate function interferes with the port pin is described in Alternate
Port Functions on next session.
Note that enabling the alternate function of some of the port pins does not affect the use of the
other pins in the port as general digital I/O.

PORTS AS GENERAL DIGITAL I/O
The ports are bi-directional I/O ports with optional internal pull-ups.
Configuring the Pin Each port pin consists of three register bits: DDxn,
PORTxn, and PINxn. The DDxn bits are accessed at the
DDRx I/O address, the PORTxn bits at the PORTx I/O
address, and the PINxn bits at the PINx I/O address.
The DDxn bit in the DDRx Register selects the direction
of this pin. If DDxn is written logic one, Pxn is configured
as an output pin. If DDxn is written logic zero, PINxn is
configured as an input pin.

If PORTxn is written logic one when the pin is configured
as an input pin, the pull-up resistor is activated. To switch
the pull-up resistor off, PORTxn has to be written logic
zero or the pin has to be configured as an output pin. The
port pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if no clocks are running.

If PORTxn is written logic one when the pin is configured
as an output pin, the port pin is driven high (one). If
PORTxn is written logic zero when the pin is configured as
an output pin, the port pin is driven low (zero).
Reading the Pin Value Independent of the setting of Data Direction bit DDxn, the
port pin can be read through the PINxn Register bit. The
PINxn Register bit and the preceding latch constitute a
synchronizer. This is needed to avoid meta-stability if the
physical pin changes value near the edge of the internal
clock, but it also introduces a delay.

Unconnected pins If some pins are unused, it is recommended to ensure that
these pins have a defined level. Even though most of the
digital inputs are disabled in the deep sleep modes floating
inputs should be avoided to reduce current consumption in
all other modes where the digital inputs are enabled (Reset,

~ 26 ~

Active mode and idle mode).

The simplest method to ensure a defined level of an unused
pin is to enable the internal pull-up. In this case, the pull-up
will be disabled during reset. If low power consumption
during reset is important, it is recommended to use an
external pull-up or pull-down. Connecting unused pins
directly to V
CC
or GND is not recommended, since this
may cause excessive currents if the pin is accidentally
configured as an output.

WORKING WITH AVR
AVR studio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) by ATMEL for
developing applications based on 8-bit AVR microcontroller. Prior to installation of AVR
Studio you have to install the compiler WinAVR. This will allow AVR Studio to detect the
compiler.
Step 1:

Step 2:

~ 27 ~

Click on new project

Step 3:

Click on AVR GCC
Write the project name
Select your project location.
Click on Next>>
Step 4:

~ 28 ~

Click on AVR Simulator in left block and then select your controller (e.g.: ATmega16).
Click on finish button

Step5:

Write the code in main body area.
Save the project file.
Step6:

~ 29 ~

Go to PROJECT -> Configuration Options

Step 7:

Write the crystal frequency if you are using external crystal.
Check the checkbox corresponding to Create Hex File and then click on OK.
Save the project again.


~ 30 ~

Step 8:

Go to BUILD -> Compile.
This will compile your code and generate error if any.

For the first time it will generate two errors, ignore them.
Step 9:

~ 31 ~

Again go to BUILD and click on Build.
This will generate hex file of the code.
Use that Hex file to burn your microcontroller.
Where you will find Hex file?
Just go to the location which you selected at the starting. Open that folder you will find one
more folder named Default. This is the default location of where the hex file is generated.
While working in real time if you want to change the code, make changes and build the file
again. This will automatically update the previous hex file.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
INTRODUCTION
The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's HD44780
controller or other which are compatible with HD44580. In this tutorial, we will discuss
about character based LCDs, their interfacing with various microcontrollers, various
interfaces (8-bit/4-bit), programming, special stuff and tricks you can do with these simple
looking LCDs which can give a new look to your application.
PIN DESCRIPTION
The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1 Line, 2 Line or 4
Line LCDs which have only 1 controller and support at most of 80 characters, whereas LCDs
supporting more than 80 characters make use of 2 HD44780 controllers.
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two
pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections). Pin description is shown in the table
below.


~ 32 ~

Figure: Character LCD type HD44780 Pin diagram
Pin No. Name Description
Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
Pin no. 4 RS
0 = Instruction input
1 = Data input
Pin no. 5 R/W
0 = Write to LCD module
1 = Read from LCD module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)

Table: Character LCD pins with 1 Controller

LCD DESCRIPTION

~ 33 ~

Before using the LCD for display purpose, LCD has to be initialized either by the
internal reset circuit or sending set of commands to initialize the LCD. It is the user who has
to decide whether an LCD has to be initialized by instructions or by internal reset circuit.
For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-bit
data bus it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display is not
enabled, data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high impendence (as though
they are disconnected) and this means they do not interfere with the operation of the
microcontroller when the display is not being addressed.

The LCD also requires 3 "control" lines from the microcontroller:

Enable :
(E)
This line allows access to the display through R/W and RS lines. When
this line is low, the LCD is disabled and ignores signals from R/W and
RS. When (E) line is high, the LCD checks the state of the two control
lines and responds accordingly.
Read/Write :
(R/W)
This line determines the direction of data between the LCD and
microcontroller. When it is low, data is written to the LCD. When it is
high, data is read from the LCD.

Register select
(RS) :

With the help of this line, the LCD interprets the type of data on data
lines. When it is low, an instruction is being written to the LCD. When it
is high, a character is being written to the LCD.

LOGIC STATUS ON CONTROL LINES
E : 0 Access to LCD disabled
1 Access to LCD enabled
R/W : 0 Writing data to LCD
1 Reading data from LCD
RS : 0 Instruction
1 Character

~ 34 ~

LCD REGISTERS
There are two 8-bit registers in HD44780 controller Instruction and Data register. The
HD44780U controller has two 8-bit registers:

Instruction Register (IR)
Instruction register corresponds to the register where you send commands to LCD e.g.
LCD shift command, LCD clear, LCD address etc.. When send the enable signal of
the LCD is asserted, the data on the pins is latched in to the data register and data is then
moved automatically to the DDRAM and hence is displayed on the LCD.
Data Register (DR):
DR temporarily stores data to be written into DDRAM and finally is to be displayed on
LCD .Data Register is not only used for sending data to DDRAM but also for CGRAM,
the address where you want to send the data, is decided by the instruction you send to
LCD.

COMMANDS AND INSTRUCTION SET
Only the instruction register (IR) and the data register (DR) of the LCD can be
controlled by the MCU. Before starting the internal operation of the LCD, control information
is temporarily stored into these registers to allow interfacing with various MCUs, which
operate at different speeds, or various peripheral control devices. The internal operation of the
LCD is determined by signals sent from the MCU. These signals, which include register
selection signal (RS), read/write signal (R/W), and the data bus (DB0 to DB7), make up the
LCD instructions.

No. Instruction Hex Decimal
1 Function Set: 8-bit, 1 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x30 48
5 Entry Mode 0x06 6
6
Display off Cursor off
(clearing display without clearing DDRAM content)
0x08 8

~ 35 ~

7 Display on Cursor on 0x0E 14
8 Display on Cursor off 0x0C 12
9 Display on Cursor blinking 0x0F 15
10 Shift entire display left 0x18 24
12 Shift entire display right 0x1C 30
13 Move cursor left by one character 0x10 16
14 Move cursor right by one character 0x14 20
15 Clear Display (also clear DDRAM content) 0x01 1
16 Set DDRAM address or courser position on display 0x80+add* 128+add*
17
Set CGRAM address or set pointer to CGRAM
location
0x40+add** 64+add**

(LIST OF USEFUL COMMANDS
WHICH ARE USED FREQUENTLY WHILE WORKING ON THE LCD)


~ 36 ~

SERVO MOTORS
A servomotor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of angular position.

It
consists of a motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback, through a reduction gearbox. It
also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed
specifically for use with servomotors. Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics,
computer numerical control (CNC) machinery or automated manufacturing.
Servo Motors are DC Motors with a servo mechanism to provide a precise angular
motion. Pulse width modulation (PWM) technique is used to set the angle of rotation.
Generally RC servo motors have a rotation limit of 90
0
to 180
0
but servos with high rotation
angles are also available.
Servo refers to an error sensing feedback control which is used to correct the
performance of a system. Servo or RC Servo Motors are DC motors equipped with a servo
mechanism for precise control of angular position. The RC servo motors usually have a
rotation limit from 90 to 180. Some servos also have rotation limit of 360 or more. But
servos do not rotate continually. Their rotation is restricted in between the fixed angles.
APPLICATION
The Servos are used for precision positioning. They are used in robotic arms and legs,
sensor scanners and in RC toys like RC helicopter, airplanes and cars.

SERVO MOTOR MANUFACTURERS

~ 37 ~

There are four major manufacturers of servo motors: Futaba, Hitec, Airtronics and JR
radios. Futaba and Hitec servos have nowadays dominated the market. Their servos are same
except some interfacing differences like the wire colors, connector type, spline etc.

SERVO CONTROL
The servo motor can be moved to a desired angular position by sending PWM (pulse
width modulated) signals on the control wire. The servo understands the language of pulse
position modulation. A pulse of width varying from 1 millisecond to 2 milliseconds in a
repeated time frame is sent to the servo for around 50 times in a second. The width of the
pulse determines the angular position.
For example, a pulse of 1 millisecond moves the servo towards 0, while a 2
milliseconds wide pulse would take it to 180. The pulse width for in between angular
positions can be interpolated accordingly. Thus a pulse of width 1.5 milliseconds will shift the
servo to 90.
It must be noted that these values are only the approximations. The actual behavior of
the servos differs based on their manufacturer.
A sequence of such pulses (50 in one second) is required to be passed to the servo to
sustain a particular angular position. When the servo receives a pulse, it can retain the
corresponding angular position for next 20 milliseconds. So a pulse in every 20 millisecond
time frame must be fed to the servo.
FUTABA S3003 SERVO
The Futaba S3003 Standard Servo can be used in cars, boats, or where a standard
servo is required. The S3003 is supplied loose with a pre-installed round servo horn.

~ 38 ~

FUTABA S3003 - SERVO STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS
Weight 37.2g
Operating speed: 0.23 sec/60 (at 4.8v) 0.19 sec/60 (at 6.0v)
Output torque: 3.2kg.cm (at 4.8v) 4.1kg.cm (at 6.0v)
40.4 x 19.8 x 36mm

PLASTIC GEARS
These are durable in nature and are strictly in compliance with the international
standards of quality. In order to suit the varied requirements of different machinery, these
plastic gears are available with us in various sizes and specifications.

ROBOTICS ARM:
A robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm, usually programmable, with similar
functions to a human arm; the arm may be the sum total of the mechanism or may be part of a
more complex robot. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either

~ 39 ~

rotational motion (such as in an articulated robot) or translational (linear) displacement. The
links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The terminus of the
kinematic chain of the manipulator is called the end effectors and it is analogous to the
human hand.

The end effectors, or robotic hand, can be designed to perform any desired task such
as welding, gripping, spinning etc., depending on the application. For example robot arms
in automotive assembly lines perform a variety of tasks such as welding and parts rotation and
placement during assembly. In some circumstances, close emulation of the human hand is
desired, as in robots designed to conduct bomb disarmament and disposal.
The most common manufacturing robot is the robotic arm. A typical robotic arm is made up of
seven metal segments, joined by six joints. The computer controls the robot by rotating individual step
motors connected to each joint (some larger arms use hydraulics or pneumatics). Unlike ordinary
motors, step motors move in exact increments. This allows the computer to move the arm very
precisely, repeating exactly the same movement over and over again. The robot uses motion sensors to
make sure it moves just the right amount.
An industrial robot with six joints closely resembles a human arm -- it has the equivalent of a
shoulder, an elbow and a wrist. Typically, the shoulder is mounted to a stationary base structure rather
than to a movable body. This type of robot has six degrees of freedom, meaning it can pivot in six
different ways. A human arm, by comparison, has seven degrees of freedom.

~ 40 ~

Your arm's job is to move your hand from place to place. Similarly, the robotic arm's job is to
move an end effectors from place to place. You can outfit robotic arms with all sorts of end effectors,
which are suited to a particular application. One common end effectors are a simplified version of the
hand, which can grasp and carry different objects. Robotic hands often have built-in pressure
sensors that tell the computer how hard the robot is gripping a particular object. This keeps the robot
from dropping or breaking whatever it's carrying. Other end effectors include blowtorches, drills and
spray painters.
Industrial robots are designed to do exactly the same thing, in a controlled environment, over
and over again. For example, a robot might twist the caps onto peanut butter jars coming down an
assembly line. To teach a robot how to do its job, the programmer guides the arm through the motions
using a handheld controller. The robot stores the exact sequence of movements in its memory, and
does it again and again every time a new unit comes down the assembly line.
Most industrial robots work in auto assembly lines, putting cars together. Robots can do a lot
of this work more efficiently than human beings because they are so precise. They always drill in the
exactly the same place, and they always tighten bolts with the same amount of force, no matter how
many hours they've been working. Manufacturing robots are also very important in the computer
industry. It takes an incredibly precise hand to put together a tiny microchip.
MOTOR DRIVERS:
Motor drivers are essentially little current amplifiers; their function is to take a low-
current control signal, and turn it into a proportionally higher-current signal that can drive a
motor. Note here that the control signal is likely on the order of 10 mA, and the motor may
require 100's of mA to make it turn.
You can think of motor drivers connecting control circuits and motors, very simply, as
a "wrapper" around the motor. Schematically, the arrangement looks like this:

There are a whole slew of motor driver designs available to meet most any robotic
need -- they all vary in the requirements they try to meet (so read their descriptions very
closely).
There are some things to look for in a driver design, based on your requirements (bear
in mind that there are always trade-offs):
Output power capability -- as a rule you don't want overkill here; higher-gain drivers
generally also have higher power consumption, among other costs.

~ 41 ~

Number of circuit connections -- this is a good indication of how difficult it will be to
build the circuit. This is particularly important if you're making your own PCB, since
drilling lots of holes can be a pain if you don't have a drill press (and honestly, it gets to
be a pain even with one).
"Smoke proof" (or not) design -- unless you're amplifying a signal from a bi-core, your
bridge design needs to be "smoke proof". Drivers generally have two control inputs;
"smoke proof" designs won't self-destruct if both control inputs are "low", or if both
inputs are "high".
Size -- more-compact designs are easier to fit into an arbitrary BEAM bot design
Reversibility -- most (but not all) motor driver designs allow your motor to run in both
forward and reverse
Output voltage -- some drivers provide (or at least allow for) output voltages higher than
the input (control signal) voltage
Braking circuitry -- if you are using really good motors, you'll need to provide an
electronic motor brake to keep the motors from moving around when no control signal
is being applied.
MOTOR DRIVING CIRCUITS (H-BRIDGE)

In robotics India and many other forums I have seen questions about connecting
motors directly to parallel port ,output of IC555,opamp etc.. The answer is that if you connect
motor directly to parallel port, 555,324 etc. then the IC may be damaged, same with parallel
port (sometimes burning your motherboard). So if you want to connect motor to the output
parallel port etc. You should have a motor driving circuitry. The reason is that a normal motor
current rating is greater than 250mA, for steppers it is 600mA. The output current capacity of
these ICs is very low. For IC555 the maximum output current is 200mA. So if you connect a
250mA motor to the output, it drives more current from the IC and the IC is not able to
provide enough current motor requires and finally this may result in the burning of IC. So if
you start with an IC, see its maximum voltage, current ratings etc.. Same problem occur with
741, its maximum power dissipation is 500mW and the voltage of 741 is about 12V . For DC
I=P/V=500mW/12v which is less than 100mA, so it is not able to drive a motor. A parallel
port basically consist of digital IC's of 74LS series having maximum source current of 2mA
and sink current 24mA(see IBM definitions for parallel port). In digital IC's there are two
current sources current, i.e., when output is LOGIC HIGH and sink current when output is
LOGIC LOW. So if you want to drive a motor the output should be LOGIC HIGH, if you use
parallel port voltage for the motor. You can do other way connecting external voltage at one
terminal and other terminal of motor to parallel port. In this case output should be LOGIC

~ 42 ~

LOW (0) to the motor to run. But in both cases the required current is greater than the source
and sinks current, so it is not possible to drive. But in case of a power transistor you can see
that we connect motor at the collector side and maximum collector current in the range of
Amperes. So a power transistor is able to drive the motor. See the other parameter VCEO it is
greater than 50V for a normal power transistor. Therefore a power transistor ratings is decided
by comparison between the maximum voltage and current ratings of the motor and
VCEO(max) and maximum collector current of transistor. Here we are talking about driving a
DC motor. Stepper motor driving will be discussed later. In DC motor driving H-bridges are
used. While choosing an H-bridge compare the maximum current and voltage ratings of your
motor and that of H-bridge.

Figure shows the representation of a DC motor. If you apply Vcc to A and Gnd to B
then motor will rotate in clockwise direction (assume the direction as clockwise). If you apply
Vcc to B and gnd to A then motor will rotate in anticlockwise direction. If you apply gnd to A
and B then motor will stop, but some movement is there due to inertia. If you apply Vcc to
both A and B then motor will break suddenly, only very small movement due to inertia. That
is why if A, B=Vcc it is called breaking. Here Vcc refers to the voltage applied to the motor
and it should not be greater than maximum voltage rating of motor. We normally apply 12V
to the motor, Vcc=12V. So now your aim is to make a circuit which will drive motor with the
output of parallel port or a microcontroller.

~ 43 ~

Here I1 and I2 are the outputs of parallel port or a comparator or a microcontroller. So
now your aim is to design a circuit which performs this function.

This is an ideal H-bridge using 4 transistors. This circuit is called H-bridge because; it
has a shaped of 'H' with central limb as motor. A transistor become saturated when Vbe>.8V
and in cut off when Vbe<.5V (normally). Suppose I1=12v (logic HIGH of a digital circuit)
then transistorQ1 is cut off Vbe1=Vb1-Ve1= 12-12=0V. So transistor Q1 is in saturation
because it is a PNP transistor. When I1=0v (logic LOW) Vbe1=0-12v =-12V , it is in

~ 44 ~

saturation. When I1=0V Vbe3=0-0=0V make Q3 in cut off. When I1=12V then Q3 is
saturated. When I1=HIGH and I2=LOW then Q3 and Q2 are ON and the current flow in one
direction while I1=LOW and I2= HIGH Q1 &Q4 become ON and current flow in other
direction. When I1=I2=LOW, then Q1 and Q2 are ON and motor get's braking. When
I1=I2=HIGH then Q3,Q4 become ON and the motor gets normal stopping. So this is not an
ideal H-bridge because when you apply (1, 1) then the motor is not braking. Now you try to make it
ideal H-bridge so that when (1,1) come motor will brake and (0,0) the motor will stop. Try to
make and see the circuit below.

Here you can see that I just interchanged the position of transistors. Remember that
transistor is a current controlled device. The switching speed of a transistor is around 10 KHz.
So if you want more switching speed you have to go for MOSFET which is having speed
around 100K. Second thing MOS is a voltage controlled device. Suppose if a device you are
using have high voltage and current rating (suppose if you are driving a big motor), then you
can use relay circuit to make H-bridge. Try to make the circuit and see what the practical
limitations are.

~ 45 ~

In this circuit you can see two relay driving circuitry. This circuit has a limitation of
relay contacts in default position. In default position it should be connected to ground, so that
when I1=I2=0 motor get's zero. I assumed the motor will be DC motor of high ratings. This
circuitry can be applied to small 12V DC motor, but the main problem coming is about the
switching speed of the relay. It is around 10ms at maximum. So the circuit won't switch firstly
compared to H-bridge using transistor or Mosfets. This is one of the limitations of this circuit;
second limitation is that when connecting the default position would be gnd for both relays.
The most commonly used H-bridges are L293D and L298. L293 have maximum
current rating of 600mA while that of L298 is 2A. L293B and L293D are available in market.
If you use L293B you have to put 4 protection diodes while in L293D, diodes are inside the
IC. L298 requires external protection diodes. Let's start with L293D

~ 46 ~

L293D has two channels. i.e., you can connect two motors to the same bridge. I have
driven 4 motors of 250mA using L293D, with 2 motor in each channel. Now let's see the
ratings of L293D Output Current 1 A Per Channel (600 mA for L293D) Peak Output Current
2 A Per Channel (1.2 A for L293D) Maximum VC 4.5 to 36V (>VSS)( it should be greater
than or equal the supply voltage,vss) input side(input to L293D from parallel port or
microcontroller) VIH High-level input voltage( a voltage which L293D takes input as
HIGH(1)) VC 7 V (2.3 to VC) VC 7 V (2.3 to 7 V) VIL High-level input voltage( a
voltage which L293D takes input as LOW(0)) (-.3 to 1.5V), remember that VIL should not be
less than -.3V output side(output of L293D to motor) VOH High-level output voltage (VCC2
1.8, VCC2 1.4) VOL Low-level output voltage (1.2v , 1.8v) If you want to use PWM to
control L293D then apply PWM output to the chip inhibit of the IC. Remember all these
parameters when you connect L293D in circuits. L293B are available, if you use it use 4
external protection diodes. L293D costs around Rs.90. I have seen too many post about the
problems occurring L293D, so here i am explaining things in more detail, how to connect
L293D in circuit so that it won't create any problems to you.
RELAY DRIVER
A relay is an electro-magnetic switch which is useful if you want to use a low voltage
circuit to switch on and off a light bulb (or anything else) connected to the 220v mains supply.

~ 47 ~

The diagram below shows a typical relay (with normally-open contacts)

The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips
(op. amps etc), so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.

Use BC547 or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The diode is
needed to short circuit the high voltage back emf induced when current flowing through the
coil is suddenly switched off.
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of
resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger
current at collector & emitter terminals.
BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum
current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of
its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the
absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
PIN DIAGRAM

~ 48 ~

RELAY DRIVER WITH FLIP-FLOP
In many situations in which you use a relay, you will also need a bistable flipflop. One
useful integrated circuit flip-flop is the 4013. (This i.c. actually contains two flip-flops.) With
the connections as shown in the circuit below, when the voltage on pin 3 changes (rapidly)
from 0v to the positive supply voltage, the flip-flop changes state (it flips). The next time
the same thing happens, the flip-flop changes back to its original state again (it flops).

The transistor is still needed because the 4013 can only supply a very small amount of
current (about 1mA).
Vero diagram for relay driver with flip-flop

The diagram below shows how the relay is used in circuits such as the sound operated
switch.
CONTROL VALVE
Control valves are valves used to control conditions such
as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in

~ 49 ~

response to signals received from controllers that compare a "set point" to a "process variable"
whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such conditions. The actuator
accepts a signal from the control system and, in response, moves the valve to a fully-open or
fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed position (depending on whether 'on /
off' or 'continuous' control action is used).There are several ways of providing this actuation.
The two major ones are
Pneumatic.
Electric.
The opening or closing of control valves is usually done automatically
by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Petitioners are used to control the opening or
closing of the actuator based on electric or pneumatic signals.
These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common now
are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, and the introduction of "Smart"
systems, HART, Field bus Foundation, and Profibus being the more common protocols.
TYPES OF CONTROL VALVE BODIES
The most common and versatile types of control valves are sliding-stem globe and angle
valves. Their popularity derives from rugged construction and the many options available that
make them suitable for a variety of process applications, including severe service.

SPECIFICATION
Type HR 2
Power 24 v DC
Pressure 0-120 psi
Orifice 2.5 mm

~ 50 ~

SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has
a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is
submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it
prevents pump cavitations, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between
pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet
pumps having to pull fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.


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IR SENSOR
OVERVIEW
Based on a simple basic Idea, this proximity sensor, is easy to build, easy to calibrate
and still, it provides a detection range of 35 cm (range can change depending on the ambient
light intensity). This sensor can be used for most indoor applications where important ambient
light is present.
OBJECT DETECTION USING IR LIGHT
It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send
infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the sensor.
Then all we have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected IR light,
we are going to use another IR-LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led
off the exact same type.

This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that
a led produces a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was
a photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by
the leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from light, It can barely
be detected.

~ 52 ~

The basic effects of light when it shines on a black or white surface. When light shines
on a white surface, most of the incoming light is reflected away from the surface. In contrast,
most of the incoming light is absorbed if the surface is black. Therefore, by shining light on a
surface and having a sensor to detect the amount of light that is reflected, a contrast between
black and white surfaces can be detected.
ADVANTAGES
Because it have good range which is fulfill our requirements for robots
It is very low cost and can be constructed on general purpose PCB
It is of very small size. which is best for robots
You can increase numbers of transmitter as you want for good result
Good immunity to ambient light and waves are invisible to eyes.

HOW IT WORKS
Working of IR sensor is very simple and working principle is totally based on change
in resistance of IR receiver which is similar to LDR ( light dependent register ) and reflection
of light.
Here in this sensor we connect IR receiver in reverse bias so it give very high
resistance if it is not exposed to IR light. The resistance in this case is in range of Mega ohms.
but when IR light reflected back and fall on IR receiver. The resistance of Rx it comes in
range between Kilo ohms to hundred of ohms.
We convert this change in resistance to change in voltage. Then this voltage is applied
to a comparator IC which compares it with a threshold level (defined by us according to
required range and sensitivity). If voltage of sensor is more than threshold then output is high

~ 53 ~

else it is low (depends on your connection to comparator) which can be used directly for
microcontroller.
IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

IR LED is used as a source of infrared rays. It comes in two packages 3mm or 5mm.
3mm is better as it is requires less space. IR sensor is nothing but a diode, which is sensitive
for infrared radiation. This infrared transmitter and receiver is called as IR TX-RX pair. It can
be obtained from any decent electronics component shop and costs less than 10Rs. Following
snap shows 3mm and 5mm IR pairs. Color of IR transmitter and receiver is different.
However you may come across pairs which appear exactly same or even has opposite colors
than shown in above picture and it is not possible to distinguish between TX and RX visually.
In case you will have to take help of multimeter to distinguish between them.
HOW TO IDENTIFY IR TX AND RX
Here is how you can distinguish between IR TX-RX using DMM:
Connect cathode of one LED to +ve terminal of DMM
Connect anode of the same LED to common terminal of DMM (means connect
LED such that it gets reverse biased by DMM)
Set DMM to measure resistance up to 2M Ohm. Check the reading.
Repeat above procedure with second LED.
In above process, when you get the reading of the few hundred Kilo Ohms on
DMM, then it indicated that LED that you are testing is IR sensor.
In case of IR transmitter DMM will not show any reading.

~ 54 ~

But there is a simple way to identify Tx and Rx by connect to supply. Connect +ve to
5volt and -ve to GND with a series resistor around 330Ohms or higher. Then look both
through us a camera of mobile. One which glowing is transmitter.
TSOP 1738 BASED PROXIMITY SENSOR
This is a simple yet effective IR proximity sensor built around the TSOP 1738 module.
The TSOP module is commonly found at the receiving end of an IR remote control system;
e.g., in TVs, CD players etc. These modules require the incoming data to be modulated at a
particular frequency and would ignore any other IR signals. It is also immune to ambient IR
light, so one can easily use these sensors outdoors or under heavily lit conditions. The TSOP
Sensor with Robosoft Systems is a miniaturized receiver for infrared remote control systems.
PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as IR
filter. The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. TSOP is
the standard IR remote control receiver series, supporting all major transmission codes.
SENSOR CIRCUIT
This is the circuit of sensor which has IR Tx and Rx. you can test different value of
Resistor and Capacitor according to your requirement. it will effect range and sensitivity of
sensor only.
Such modules are available for different carrier frequencies from 32 kHz to 42 kHz. In
this particular proximity sensor, we will be generating a constant stream of square wave signal
using IC555 centered at 38 kHz and would use it to drive an IR led. So whenever this signal
bounces off the obstacles, the receiver would detect it and change its output.
Since the TSOP 1738 module works in the active-low configuration, its output would
normally remain high and would go low when it detects the signal (the obstacle).

~ 55 ~

FEATURES:
1.Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
2.Internal filter for PCM frequency
3.Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance
4.TTL and CMOS compatibility
5.Output active low
6.Low power consumption
7.High immunity against ambient light
8.Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps)
SPECIFICATION
1. Supply Voltage: 0.3...6.0 V.
2. Supply Current: 5 mA.
3. Output Voltage: 0.3...6.0 V.
4. Output Current: 5 mA.
5. Junction Temperature: 100 C
6. Storage Temperature Range: 25...+85 C
7. Operating Temperature Range: 25...+85C
CONVEYOR BELT
A conveyor belt (or belt conveyor) consists of two or more pulleys, with a continuous
loop of material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them. One or both of the pulleys are
powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward. The powered pulley is called
the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is called the idler. There are two main industrial
classes of belt conveyors; those in general material handling such as those moving boxes
along inside a factory and bulk material handling such as those used to transport industrial and
agricultural materials, such as grain, coal, ores, etc. generally in outdoor locations. Generally
companies providing general material handling type belt conveyors do not provide the
conveyors for bulk material handling. In addition there are a number of commercial
applications of belt conveyors such as those in grocery stores.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material. They can be made out of rubber.
Many belts in general material handling have two layers. An under layer of material to
provide linear strength and shape called a carcass and an over layer called the cover. The
carcass is often a woven fabric having a warp & weft. The most common carcass materials are
polyester, nylon and cotton. The cover is often various rubber or plastic compounds specified
by use of the belt. Covers can be made from more exotic materials for unusual applications
such as silicone for heat or gum rubber when traction is essential.

~ 56 ~

Material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a beltweigher. Belts
with regularly spaced partitions, known as elevator belts, are used for transporting loose
materials up steep inclines. Belt Conveyors are used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in
live bottom trucks. Conveyor technology is also used in conveyor transport such as moving
sidewalks or escalators, as well as on many manufacturing assembly lines. Stores often have
conveyor belts at the check-out counter to move shopping items. Ski areas also use conveyor
belts to transport skiers up the hill.
A wide variety of related conveying machines are available, different as regards
principle of operation, means and direction of conveyance, including screw conveyors,
vibrating conveyors, pneumatic conveyors, the moving floor system, which uses reciprocating
slats to move cargo, and roller conveyor system, which uses a series of powered rollers to
convey boxes or pallets.

~ 57 ~

ADVANTAGES:
Speed - They can process information much more quickly than humans. This means
they are good for controlling machinery that might need to be adjusted instantly.

~ 58 ~

Repetition - Automated systems can do the same task over and over again without
getting bored, needing breaks or making mistakes.
Accuracy - They can do very detailed work and follow precise instructions without
error.
Safety - Automated systems can work in places where it would be unsafe to put a
human, for example, in a nuclear power plant, under water or in space.
Efficiency - They get more done than humans but cost less to operate. This is because
the do need breaks, wages, holidays, canteens, heating and lighting. The quality of the
work done is always of the same standard being materials are not wasted due to human
error.
Adaptability - Automated systems can be reprogrammed to do different tasks. For
example, a robot that was used to make one type of car could be reprogrammed to work
with a new model or be used to spray paint a car instead of being used to weld parts
together.

FUTURE WORK:
This project has a vast field for expansion. The system is designed with latest
technology of robotics, automation and control. This project is designed as a conceptual work
towards the automatic control due to constraint of time the project is not able to complete in
all respect. This project can be modified and expanded in the following fields:
A limit switch
Automatic pick up of bottle after filling up it.
Lids to be fixed on the mouth of the bottle.
Automatic labeling of bottle.
The number of bottles filled and accumulated over the platform can be counted and
displayed automatically.
CONCLUSION:
The project is designed as a concept to control system and automation. The project
performs satisfactorily in the laboratory condition. This can be implemented where fewer
work forces is available to run bottle filling plant. The manual error in filling operation, due to
repeated similar operation, can be eliminated. The fatigue and mental stress of the operator is
removed. The operation cycle is also increased considerably.

~ 59 ~

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Robotics and Control, R.K. Mittal and I.J. Nagrath, Tata McGraw Hill
Ajay V. Deshmukh, Microcontrollers [Theory and Applications], TMH, New Delhi,
2005.
Elaine Rich, Kevin Knight, & Shivashankar B Nair, Artificial Intelligence, McGraw
Hill, 3rd ed.,2009
Shibu K.V., I ntroduction to Embedded Systems, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private
Limited, New Delhi, 2009.
Principles of Industrial Instrumentation, Third Edition, D Patranabis, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi
Wireless Sensor Networks: An Information Processing Approach- by Feng Zhao,
Leonidas Guibas , Morgan Kaufmann Series in Networking 2004.
REFERENCE LINKS:
http://www.mylot.com
http://www.google.co.in/
http://ls12-www.cs.uni-dortmund.de/~marwedel/kluwer-es-book
http://www.ee.princeton.edu/~wolf/embedded-book
http://www.wikipedia.org/
http://www.pslab.co.in
http://www.howstuffworks.com

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Conveyor belt using two link robotic arm

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