I.

OIL SPILL

Oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is
usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal
waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude
oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined
petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used
by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.


II. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

Oil spills create many problems throughout the world, including the United
States. The impact on the ecosystem in an area can be severe. Many plants and
animals suffer or are killed within a short time after the spill occurs. Many people spend
their time and money cleaning up the oil. Scientists also spend their time and the
government's money trying to find different types of technology or methods that clean
up oil spills.
In the Philippines, the famous Guimaras Oil Spill has affected hundreds of
kilometers of coastline and threatens rich fishing grounds. The spill has polluted fishing
grounds, dive spots, national marine reserve and adversely affected marine
sanctuaries and mangrove reserves in three out of five municipalities in Guimaras
Island and reached the shores of Iloilo and Negros Occidental, causing what is
considered as the worst oil spill in the Philippines.
Oily sludge and dead wildlife have been washing up on beaches, with reefs, marine
reserves and the tourist industry all affected.

III. CAUSES AND SOURCES OF OIL SPILLS

Oil spill is a type of pollution that occurs mostly on water as well as on land and can
have devastating effects on plants, animal life and environment. It occurs mainly as a
result of human activity like exploration and transport of oil and is the release of oil or
liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the aquatic environment such as oceans and coastal
waters and on land.

Spills may occur of crude oil from tankers, oil rigs, platforms and oil wells as well as
during the transport of the refined petroleum products in vessels and tankers.

Illegal waste oil dumping into oceans by organizations who do not want to invest in
the cost of degrading their waste oil also contributes to increasing oil spill.

An oil spill on Philippines shore

Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes can also contribute to oil spills
from oil rigs as well as during transport of vessels and tankers.

Oil spills take place largely because there is a need and demand for oil as a source
of energy. Oil is used in one way or another in our day to day activities. We use oil to
fuel our cars, trucks, buses and so on as well as to heat or light up our homes. Oil is
used extensively in industries to power large machinery and equipment.

Oil Spills may happen for several reasons.
1. When oil tankers have equipment faults.
When oil tankers break down, it may get stuck
on shallow land. When the tanker is attempted
to move out of shallow land, abrasion may
cause a hole in the tanker that will lead to large
amounts of oil being released into the oceanic
bodies. However, although this form of oil spill
is the most commonly known and has the
highest media attention, only 2% of oil in water
bodies is a result of this action.
2. From nature and human activities on
land. The large majority of oil spilled is from
natural seeps geological seeps from the ocean
floor as well as leaks that occur when products
using petroleum or various forms of oil are used on land, and the oil is washed off into
water bodies.
3. Water Sports. Other causes of oil spills are spills by petroleum users of released oil.
This happens when various water sports or water vehicles such as motorboats and jet
skis leak fuel.
4. Drilling works carried out in sea. When drilling works carried out in the sea, the oil
and petroleum used for such activities are released into the sea, thus causing an oil
spill.
The most common cause of oil pollution by ships comes from what are called
operational oil spills. These are caused mostly by human error or sometimes
intentionally when the ships crew does not follow the strict regulations and break the
law.

At the bottom of the ship under the engines is a space called the bilge. It collects
water, oil and grease. When the ships crew pumps out the engine room bilges, the oil is
separated from the water. The waste oil is put into a special holding tank to be offloaded
in the next port.

The remaining water, which may have traces of oil, is pumped overboard through
an oily water separator. This makes sure only the tiniest amount of permitted oil goes
into the sea. The amount is so small it cannot be seen by the naked eye. If an oil slick
can be seen behind a ship, it means that the ship has broken the law and has
discharged more oil than is allowed.

Other operational spills may happen when a ship is loading bunker oil or lubricating
oil for its engines. A hose can break spilling oil. If someone is not watching the level of
oil going into the ship's tanks, the tanks could overflow.

An operational oil spill can also happen after the crew of an oil tanker has cleaned
the cargo tanks before loading a new cargo of crude oil.

After a cargo oil tank has been cleaned with water and chemicals the oil residue will
float on the wash water in the bottom of the cargo tank. This water can be siphoned off
and put through an oily water separator leaving only cargo oil residue in the bottom of
the cargo tank. The new crude oil cargo can be loaded on top of the remaining old
cargo oil. However, sometimes the crew does the wrong thing and illegally pumps the
oily waste overboard.

IV. EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS

Oil spills are considered form of pollution. The effects of oil spills can have wide
ranging impacts that are often portrayed by the media as long lasting environmental
disaster. The effects will depend on a variety of factors including the quantity and type
of oil spilled and how it interacts with the marine environment.

A. Effects of Oil Spill to the Environment

Oil spills may impact the environment in various ways. First, the physical
smothering of organisms which is caused by oils with a high viscosity, in other words
heavy oils. Smothering will affect an organisms physical ability to continue critical
functions such as respiration, feeding and thermoregulation. Second, the chemical
toxicity which is a characteristic of lighter chemical components which are more bio-
available is absorbed into organs, tissues and cells, and can have sub-lethal or lethal
toxic effects. Third, the ecological changes which is caused by the loss of key
organisms with a specific function in an ecological community. They can be replaced by
different species undertaking similar functions in which case the implications for the
ecosystem as a whole may not be severe. However, more detrimental is the niche in the
community being replaced with organisms performing completely different functions
thereby altering the ecosystem dynamics. Oil spill can somehow results to loss of
shelter or habitat through oiling or clean up operations.

Oil spill can prove fatal for plant, animal and human life. The substance is so
toxic that it can cause massive loss of species that live in the sea. Oil spill penetrates
into the plumage and fur of birds, breaks down the insulating capabilities of feather
which makes them heavier, disallow them to fly and kill them via poisoning or
hypothermia.

B. Effects of Oil Spill on Marine and Coastal Wildlife

Marine and coastal wildlife exposed to oil suffer both immediate health problems
and long-term changes to their physiology and behavior. Oil can cause temporary
physical harm to animals like skin irritation, altering of the immune system, reproductive
or developmental damage, liver disease and other chronic effects such as cancer and
direct mortality of wildlife.

Oil Spills also affect marine plants. The oil forms a thick layer on the water
surface, and this layer blocks out light and prevents gaseous exchange. When this
happens, not only will the plants not be able to photosynthesize, animals underneath
the affected area will find that the supply of oxygen slowly diminishes, and is unable to
be continuously replenished by the environment. When plants cannot photosynthesize,
they eventually die, leading to a vicious effect on the food chain, ultimately affecting all
animals.

Oil spills can impact wildlife directly through three primary pathways, namely:
ingestion, absorption and inhalation.

Ingestion happens when animals swallow oil particles directly or consume prey
items that have been exposed to oil. Ingestion of oil or dispersants can cause
gastrointestinal irritation, ulcers, bleeding, diarrhea, and digestive complications. These
complications may impair the ability of animals to digest and absorb foods, which
ultimately leads to reduced health and fitness.

Absorption is when animals come into direct contact with oil. Absorption of oil or
dispersants through the skin can damage the liver and kidneys, cause anemia,
suppress the immune system, induce reproductive failure, and in extreme cases kill an
animal. Fish and sea turtle embryos may grow more slowly than normal, leading to
lower hatching rates and developmental impairments

Inhalation takes place when animals breathe volatile organics released from oil
or from dispersants applied by response teams in an effort to increase the rate of
degradation of the oil in seawater. This commonly occurs among those species of
wildlife that need to breathe air like manatees, dolphins, whales and sea turtles.
Inhalation of these harmful materials can cause respiratory inflammation, irritation,
emphysema, or pneumonia.

Oil spills can also have indirect effects on wildlife by causing changes in
behavior, namely: changes in foraging locations, increases in foraging time and
disruptions to life cycles.

Changes in foraging locations or the relocation of home ranges as animals
search for new sources of food. If a spill causes direct mortality to the food resources of
particular species, many individuals of this species will need to relocate their foraging
activities to regions unaffected by the spill. This leads to increased competition for
remaining food sources in more localized areas.

Increase in foraging time happens when there are increases in the amount of
time animals must spend foraging. Animals may need to make longer trips to find food
in unfamiliar areas and they may need to forage on less preferred food that takes more
time to acquire or that is digested less efficiently. Decreases in diet diversity due to
lower food availability may lead to reduced overall health.

Disruptions to natural life cycles may become apparent if particular life forms
are more susceptible to the effects of oil than others. Eggs, larvae and juveniles of
many species are more vulnerable to harmful effects from pollutants than adults.
Changes in the relative numbers of individuals from different life stages within a species
may lead to shifts in habitat use patterns which cause ripple effects up and down the
food chain.

C. Effects of Oil Spill on Economy

One of the major effects of oil spill is seen on the economy. When precious crude
oil or refined petroleum is lost, it affects the amount of petroleum and gas available for
use. This means that more barrels have to be imported from other countries. Then the
process of cleaning the oil spill which requires a lot of financing.

The workers that are brought on board to clean up the spill face tremendous health
problems later in life as well. Their medical treatment has to be paid for and becomes
the responsibility of the government. Putting all the methods of recovery into place and
monitoring them takes away resources from other more important works and hits the
economy in subtle but powerful ways.

D. Effects of Oil Spill on Tourism Industry

The local tourism industry suffers a huge setback as most of the tourists stay away
from such places. Dead birds, sticky oil and huge tar balls become a common sight.
Due to this, various activities such as sailing, swimming, rafting, fishing, parachute
gliding cannot be performed. Industries that rely on sea water to carry on their day to
day activities halt their operations till It gets cleared.



V. RECOMMENDATION

The petroleum industry undertakes many measures to reduce the likelihood of oil
spills. Proactive technology includes blowout preventers, which cut off the pump
pressure in case of an accident, and increased hull strength on oil tankers. These
measures help to protect both the environment and the oil companies themselves,
which often lose a great deal of profit and public image in the event of a spill.

A. Recommendations to Prevent Spills Caused by Human Error at Oil Handling
Facilities

These recommendations focus on management support for spill prevention
programs, commitment of sufficient resources to such programs, and commitments to
meeting or exceeding regulatory standards, using redundant safety systems,
discouraging risk taking, and establishing annual performance benchmarks.
Implementation of formal risk assessment and correction programs, and employee
involvement, accountability, and performance incentives are also recommended.

Recommendations on work hour limitations are included, as well as
recommendations for corporate programs to ensure physical competency of employees
responsible for an activity which could result in an oil spill. Security system inspections
are recommended, as are written emergency procedures and drilling of those
procedures.

B. Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills by Boat Owners, Marinas, and
Boatyards

These recommendations stress regular and careful boat maintenance,
knowledge of best management practices for fueling, oil changes, or overhauls, and
responsible management and disposal practices for used oil and oily wastes. This
section also includes recommendations that marina operators implement effective runoff
controls, provide technical assistance and education for their boat owners, and develop
written agreements with those boat owners committing them to implement best
management practices.

C. Recommendations to Prevent Spills from Tankers and Tank Barges

It is recommended that employee involvement and communications are
addressed, and redundant safety systems and annual performance benchmarks are
recommended. Several international standards are recommended for certification of
management policies and programs.

Regarding watch practices, recommendations about covering standards for
navigation watch, anchor watch, engineering watch and security rounds are included.


D. Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills Caused by Human Error

It is recommended that a tanker or tank barge owner/operator ensure that no
crew member is under the influence of alcohol or illicit drugs a coast jurisdiction's
waters, and that regular physical exams and a policy requiring notification of use of
prescription medications be required. Also, tank barge tow vessel masters should
maintain a record of all crew members, and should have three licensed officers or tow
operators on board during transit of coastal waters.

E. Recommendations to Prevent Human Error Spills During Bunkering
Operations

Persons In Charge (PICs) of bunkering operations on both the receiving and
delivering vessels or facilities should emphasize proper procedures and adequate
communications during all phases of a bunkering operation, especially with regard to a
pre-loading plan, a pre-transfer conference, voice and visual communications,
emergency procedures, and safe access between vessels, or between a vessel and a
facility.

PICs must ensure that the duties of all personnel involved in a bunkering
operation are clearly defined and that training is provided. Furthermore, it is recommend
that owners and operators of vessels and facilities involved in bunkering operations
within a jurisdiction's waters be required to demonstrate compliance with these
standards by making relevant documents (logs, written policies and procedures,
standing orders, pre-loading plans, declaration of inspection forms, and training
materials) available upon request.

The creation of emergency response plans that entails oil transporters to have
detailed written plans on what actions they will take if a spill occurs should always be
encouraged. The Government should pay more attention to the activities of militants
engaged in oil bunkering as some of the spills in the oil rich region occur due to this. In
addition, Government should ensure that regulatory bodies have the authority to
sanction oil companies who spill oil in the region. More and stricter laws with stiffer
penalties should be passed so that oil companies are more mindful of their activities and
the spills that they cause.

Moreover, a shift from the dependence on oil to other sources of revenue such
as agriculture will make it more likely for stricter laws and stiffer penalties for
organizations guilty of oil spills to be implemented.

Deterrence in oil pollution is the implementation of Republic Act 9483 or the Oil
Pollution Compensation Act which penalizes oil pollution damage and seeks to
immediately compensate those who suffer from it. This is to secure the enjoyment and
protection of our marine wealth.


VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Chemistry of Oil Spills
http://oilsplat.wordpress.com/about/

WiseGeek: What Causes Oil Spills, Mary McMahon
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-causes-oil-spills.htm

The Ships and the Marine Environment-Main Causes of Oil Pollution by Ships
http://www.ausmepa.org.au/ships-and-the-marine-environment/5/causes-of-oil-
pollution.htm

Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills
http://www.oilspilltaskforce.org/docs/project_reports/HumanFactorRec.pdf

Stopping Oil Spills: Environmental Quality/Recovery of Spilled Oil, Shivani B.,
Christine C., Kristen D.
http://istf.ucf.edu/ISTFSites/98/98325/web1.htm

Sarah Toms (15 August 2006). "Oil spill threatens Philippines". BBC News.
Retrieved 15 July 2013.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4795649.stm

Holly K. Ober (May 2010). :Effects of Oil Spills on Marine and Coastal Wildlife
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw330

Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
http://www.epa.gov/osweroe1/docs/oil/edu/oilspill_book/chap5.pdf

Conserve Energy Future: Oil Spill,Rinkesh Kukreja
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/effects-of-oil-spills.php

Environmental Effects of Oil Spills
http://www.itopf.com/knowledge-resources/documents-guides/environmental-effects/

How Oil Harms Animals and Plants in Marine Environments
http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/how-oil-harms
animals-and-plants.html