LECTURE 1: CONCEPTS OF LIFE, CELL

THEORY, SCIENTIFIC METHOD

CONCEPTS OF LIFE
Life: particular set of processes that result
from the organization of matter
ORGEERM
Organization and Order
o Living things: complex
organization
o Characteristics of life
Reproduction
o Organisms produce their own
kind (fertilization, asexual
reproduction)
Growth and Development
o Heritable info (DNA)
Energy Processing
o Chem energy to power
organisms activities
Evolution
o Natural selection
o Physical differences in related
species
Response to environmental stimuli
o Irritability
o movement
Metabolism and homeostasis
o Energy utilization
o Energy work
o Regulation of internal
environment

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Atom molecule organelles Cell
tissue Organ Organ System
Organism Population Communities
Ecosystem Biosphere
Atom
Smallest unit of an element
Proton + netron (nucleus) + electron
Protons=electrons
Remain intact in most chem rxns
Molecule
2 or more atoms linked together
chemically
types of bonds:
o covalent bonds strongest,
violent events in living things
catalyzed by enzymes
nonpolar covalent bond
weaker, impt when
molecules associate or
dissociate
polar covalent bond
o Ionic bond cation + anion
o H-bond electropositive atom
(H) + strongly electronegative
atom ; weaker than
ionic/covalent bonds
o Van der waals force weak
force of attraction bet.
Electrically neutral molecules
when they collide; WEAKEST
bond.
Water: universal solvent; 4 emergent
properties:
o Cohesion
H-bonds
Adhesion & surface
tension
o Ability to moderate temp
heat bank
absorbs warmer air and
releases it to cooler air
o Expansion upon freezing
o Versatility as a solvent
Organic Molecules (Macromolecules)
Sugars (carbohydrates)
polysaccharides
o Monosaccharide: most basic unit
(ex. glucose)
o multiple unit of CH2O
o major nutrients for cells cellular
respiration
o starch/glycogen: polymer of
glucose = stored energy
o condensation & hydrolysis
Fatty Acids fats, lipids, membrane
o hydrophilic acid group +
hydrophobic carbon chain
o fat = glycerol + fatty acid
o saturated/unsaturated f. acid
o major function: energy storage
o phospholipid: essential cell
structure (membrane)
hydrophilic head
hydrophobic tail
Amino Acids proteins
o 20 sets of amino acids (10 polar,
10 nonpolar)
o polypeptide: group of bonded
amino acids
o protein: biologically functional
molecule made of polypeptides
amino end (N-Terminal)
carboxyl (C-terminus)
side chains (R group)
o Bonds help protein fold (3-4
structures)
o various functions (enzymes,
defensive, storage, transport,
hormonal, receptor, motor,
structural)
Nucleotides nucleic acids
o DNA RNA protein
o enable organisms to reproduce
complex components fr 1 gen to
the next
o nucleotides: pentose +
nitrogenous base + phosphate
grp/s
DNA: pentose =
deoxyribose
RNA: pentose = ribose
o Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidine (cytosine (C),
thymine (T), uranine (U))
Purine (adenine (A),
guanine (G))
only compatible w each
other
no thymine (T) in RNA
Organelle
Functional component present in cells
Cell
Lifes fundamental unit of structure &
function
Organisms: unicellular/multicellular
Tissue
grp of cells that work together to
perform a function
Organ
body part that carries out a specific
function in an organism
Organ System
organs that cooperate in a larger
funtion
Organism
individual living things
Population
all living individuals of a species in an
area
Community
array of organisms in an ecosystem
Ecosystem
living + nonliving things in an area
Biosphere
all living things on earth + places where
living things thrive

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
organisms obey chem/physical laws
organisms: made of matter
matter: made of elements
25/92 natural elements: essential to life
CHON: 96& of living matter
KCaPS: remaining 4%
based on carbon compounds
depends on chem rxns in aq solns
carbon-containing molecules are
incorporated in polymeric molecules
macromolecules: enable cells/organisms
to grow/reproduce

UNIFYING THEMES OF BIOLOGY
Levels of Organization
see above
Emergent Properties
properties a system has, but individual
members of the system dont
due to arrangement and interaction of
parts as complexity increases
ex. Photosynthesis: will only work if
structures in chloroplast are arranged
Structure and Function
structure of organisms is related to how
they work and behave
The Cell
smallest unit of organization that perform
activities required for life
all share certain characteristics
2 types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Cell Theory
o 1839: Schleiden & Schwann;
foundation of modern biology
o Cell Theory: Biology | Atomic
Theory: Physics
o omnis cellula e cellula All
cells arise from pre-existing cells
Modern Tenets of Cell Theory
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cell: structural & functional unit of all
living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by
division. (no spontaneous gen.)
4. Cells contain hereditary info w/c is
passed from cell to cell.
5. Cells: basically same chem. comp.
6. All energy flow of life comes fr cells.
Heritable Information
genes: section of DNA, units of
inheritance, provide blueprints for
making proteins
DNA
o 2 long chains (strands) arranged
in a double helix
o building blocks: nucleotides
o A-T; C-G
Gene expression: info in a gene directs
the making of a cellular product
RNA: translated into protein (mRNA) etc.
Genome: library of genetic instructions
an organism inherits
Energy and Life
energy: required for lifes activities
chem energy: created by producers
(photosynthesis) and passed to
consumers (feed on producers/other
consumers)
energy is lost when performing work
can be recycled: chemical cycling
Interaction with the Environment
organisms interact w/ surroundings &
other organisms
o relationships: symbiotic, parasitic,
predatory, etc
o photosynthesis: ex of interaction
w the environment
Regulation
Molecules: interaction w/in organisms
crucial to smooth operation
feedback regulation
many processes: self-regulating the
output of a process regulates it
o negative feedback (product
slows down/stops process)
o positive feedback (product
speeds up process)
Unity and Diversity of Life
Taxonomy: branch of biology that
names & classifies species
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class
Order Family Genus Species
3 Domains:
o Bacteria, Archaea (prokaryotic)
o Eukarya: Protists, Animalia,
Plantae, Fungi
Evolution
Charles Darwin:On the Origins of Species
o Descent w modification/Natural
Selection
Natural Selection
o adaptation to environment
o as populations adapt to local
environments, they become
separate species
o can edit heritable variations of
a population
o Artificial Selection choosing
organisms w specific
characteristics as breeding stock
(ex. dogs)
Scientific Inquiry
inquiry: search for information &
explanations of phenomena
Scientific Method
o Observation
o Hypothesis (may be >1)
o Prediction: expected
consequence of correct hyp.
o Experiment: test of hypothesis
o Conclusion: reject/fail to reject
hyp. based on results
Deductive Reasoning: apply general
principles to solve a case
Inductive Reasoning: discover general
principles by solving a case
Theory: hypotheses tested through time;
generally accepted
Limitations of Science
o cant address all questions
o bound by practical limits
(temporal + spatial)
o limited to what can be observed
& measured
Science, Technology, & Society
goal of science: understand natural
phenomena
technology: apply knowledge for a
scientific purpose
Diversity among scientists = progress

LECTURE 2: ATTRIBUTES OF THE CELL

CELL
all organisms are made of cells
simplest collection of matter alive
structure is correlated to function
related by descent from earlier cells
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Similarities of all cells
o plasma membrane
o cytosol
o chromosomes
o ribosomes
Prokaryotes
o no nucleus
o DNA: found in nucleoid
(unbound region)
o no membrane-bound organelles

Eukaryotic cell: plasma membrane
selective barrier: passage of oxygen,
nutrients, waste products
microvilli: long projections from surface
that increases surface area
phospholipid bilayer (most abundant
lipid in the membrane) + attached
proteins
o hydrophobic interior
o hydrophilic exterior: contact w/
aqueous solns
o amphipathic molecules
(hydrophilic/phobic)
o carbohydrate side chains can be
attached to proteins/lipids
extracellular membrane

Eukaryotic cell: nucleus & ribosomes
Nucleus
contains most genes (some can be
found in mitochondrion & chloroplast)
Nuclear envelope: encloses nucleus
o double membrane (lipid bilayer)
o pore complex: regulates
entry/exit of proteins & RNA
o nuclear lamina: proteins that
maintain structure of nucleus
o nuclear matrix: proteins in the
interior that help organize
genetic material
chromosomes: carry genetic info
o chromatin: complex of DNA/
protein that make chromosomes
nucleolus: adjoins chromatin, synthesizes
rRNA (ribosomal RNA), creates ribosome
subunits
directs protein synthesis by creating
mRNA
Ribosomes
protein synthesis
made of ribosomal RNA and protein
not membrane bound = not organelles
free ribosomes: suspended in cytosol,
make proteins wc function in cytosol;
bound ribosomes: attached to
ER/nuclear envelope, make proteins for
membrane insertion
o can alternate between the 2

Eukaryotic cell: endomembrane system
components:
o Nuclear envelope
o ER
o Golgi apparatus
o Lysosomes
o Vacuoles
o Plasma membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
> half of total membrane
cisternae: network of membranous
tubules/sacs
ER lumen: cisternal space, separated fr
cytosol via ER membrane
Smooth ER
o lacks ribosomes
o synthesizes lipids: steroids, oils,
new membrane phospholipids
o metabolizes carbs
o stores calcium
o detoxifies poison
Rough ER
o studded with ribosomes
o produces proteins secreted by
cell (glycoproteins)
distributed by vesicles
o membrane factory: grows in
place by adding proteins &
phospholipids to itself
portions of these become
transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus
modifies products of ER, and transports
them
consists of cisternae
receiving end = cis face; transporting
end = trans face
o ER products are modified in
between the transfer fr 1 face to
another
manufactures some macromolecules
packages materials & transports via
transport vesicles
Lysosomes
membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
o work best in acidic environments
enzymes: hydrolyze macromolecules
phagocytosis: engulf small
organisms/food particles for digestion
autophagy: recycle organic material
Vacuoles
vesicles fr ER and Golgi apparatus
membrane-bound sacs w diff. functions
solution inside differs from cytosol
food vacuole: formed by phagocytosis
contractile vacuole: pump excess water
from cell
central vacuole: plant cells main
repository of inorganic ions

Eukaryotic cell: mitochondria & chloroplast
NOT PART OF THE ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
Mitochondria
found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
number correlates w cells level of
metabolic activity
outer membrane: smooth
inner membrane: convoluted w/ folds
called cristae (give membrane large SA)
o intermembrane space: narrow
region bet. inner & outer mem
o mitochondrial matrix: enclosed,
contains diff. enzymes +
mitochondrial DNA/ribosomes
Chloroplast
green pigment: chlorophyll
found in leaves + other green organs of
plants and algae
enzymes + molecules aiding photosyn-
thesis
contents are separated by 2
membranes separated by some
intermembrane space
thylakoids: membranous, flattened,
interconnected sacs
granum: stacks of thylakoids
stroma: fluid outside the thylakoid that
contains DNA & enzymes
mobile (also mitochondria)
member of family of plant organelles
called plastids
o amyloplast: colorless starch-
storing organelle
o chromoplast: yellow/orange
pigment found in fruits/flowers
Peroxisome
oxidative organelles
bound by a single membrane
uses enzymes to convert O2 into H2O2
and then to water
compartmental functions of cells (H2O2 =
toxic to cells)
gloxysomes: found in plant seeds;
convert fatty acids to sugar

Eukaryotic cell: cytoskeleton
network of fibers extending throughout
the cytoplasm
organizes cells structure, shape, &
activities
anchors organelles
cell motility: interaction of cytoskeleton
and motor proteins (ex vesicles traveling
along the cytoskeleton)
regulate biochemical activities
manipulates plasma membrane
Microtubules
structure: hollow tubes
Tubulin polymers
Functions:
o Maintenance of cell shape
(girders)
o cell motility (cilia/flagella)
o chromosome/organelle
movement
centrosomes: microtubules grow from
these structures (microtubule organizing
center)
centriole: found w/in centrosomes, 9 sets
of triplet microtubules in a ring
Cilia and Flagella
made of a core of microtubules
sheathed in plasma membrane
basal body: anchorage
dynein: motor protein w/c drives the
bending movement
o dynein arms grab, move, and
release outer microtubules
o doublets curve, bending the
cilium/flagellum
cilia usually large numbers; flagella
1/few per cell, longer
cilia:oars, flagella:tail of a fish
cilium: can be signal-receiving antenna
called primary cilium
Microfilaments
Actin (globular protein)
Functions:
o maintenance of cell shape
(tension-bearing elements)
o cell motility (amoeboid)
o change in cell shape
o muscle contraction
o division of animal cells
movement: interaction of myosin and
actin (amoeboid movement +
cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells)
form 3D network inside PM to support
shape
Intermediate Filaments
keratins & other proteins
Functions:
o Maintenance of cell shape
(tension-bearing elements)
o anchorage of nucleus/etc
o formation of nuclear lamina
More permanent than other 2




Eukaryotic cell: extracellular components
Materials external to plasma membrane
synthesized/secreted by most cells
cell wall, ECM, intercellular junctions
Cell Wall
protects plant cell, maintains shape,
prevents excessive uptake of water
made of cellulose fibers
much thicker than plasma membrane
primary cell wall: relatively thin/flexible
middle lamella: glues adjacent walls
together, rich in pectins
secondary cell wall: bet. PM and primary
cell wall
o several laminated layers
plasmodesmata: channels between
adjacent plant cells
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
made of glycoproteins + other
macromolecules
o collagen: most abundant
glycoprotein, forms strong fibers
o embedded in proteoglycan
networks
fibronectin: attaches cells to ECM
bind to cell-surface receptor proteins
called integrins
functions: support, adhesion, movement,
regulation
Intercellular Junctions
neighbor cells interact through contact
intercellular junctions facilitate this
contact
Plants: plasmodesmata
o channels that perforate cell walls
o passage of water/solutes/protein
/DNA from cell to cell
Animals: tight junctions
o neighbor membranes are
pressed together, preventing
leakage of extracellular fluid
Animals: desmosomes
o aka anchoring junctions
o fasten cells into strong sheets
o anchored by intermediate fil
Animals: gap junctions
o aka communicating junctions
o cytoplasmic channels bet. cells
o similar to plasmodesmata
o necessary for communication

LECTURE 3 MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Plasma Membrane
separates living cell fr its surroundings
selective permeability
phospholipid: most abundant lipid
most membrane proteins are
amphipathic
membrane sidedness: asymmetrical
arrangement of molecules in the 2 sides
Fluidity of the membranes
membrane: held together by
hydrophobic interactions (weaker than
covalent bonds)
lateral movement (rapid)
flip-flop (rare), switches lipid fr one layer
to the other
proteins: much larger than lipids & move
slowly
o many are immobile due to
attachment to cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix
remain fluid until temp decreases
o phospholipids with unsaturated
hydrocarbon tails heighten
fluidity (kinks in the tails)
o saturated tails pack together,
increasing viscosity
cholesterol = fluidity buffer
o high temp: restrains movement
o low temp: prevents tight packing
must be fluid to work properly
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
membrane = collage of diff proteins
embedded in the lipid bilayer
determine specific functions
Integral Proteins
o penetrate the hydrophobic
interior
o transmembrane proteins span
membrane, others only go into
the interior
o can have hydrophilic channels
o hydrophobic regions are made
of nonpolar amino acids (alpha
helices)
Peripheral Proteins
o loosely bound to surface of PM
o cytoplasmic side: held by
cytoskeleton
o extracellular side: attached to
ECM fibers
6 major functions of membrane proteins
1. Transport
o hydrophilic channels
o change shape to shuttle
substances
o use ATP in active transport
2. Enzymatic activity
o active site exposed to substance
o carry out steps in a metabolic
pathway
3. Signal transduction
o binding sites
o relay to inside of cell thru
cytoplasmic proteins
4. Cell-cell recognition
o identification tags that are
recognized by other cells
o usually short lived
5. Intercellular Joining
o hook together via junctions
o long lasting
6. Attachment to cytoskeleton/ECM
o noncovalently bonded to the
cytoskeleton: maintain shape,
stabilize location of proteins
o ECM-bound: coordinate extra
/intracellular changes
Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-
Cell Recognition
cell-cell recognition: ability to distinguish
1 cell from another
o basis for rejection of foreign cells
recognize each other by binding to
surface molecules usually containing
carbohydrates
covalently bonded to lipids or proteins
Carbohydrates on the external side vary
among species & cell types

Membrane structure = selective
permeability
cells must exchange materials w
surroundings
selectively permeable: regulates cells
molecular traffic (cell has control over
what crosses)
Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
nonpolar = easily dissolved through
bilayer (hydrophobic)
polar = cannot pass through lipid
bilayers (hydrophilic)
Transport Proteins
allow passage of hydrophilic substances
channel proteins: hydrophilic tunnel that
allows passage of some molecules/ions
o water: aquaporins
o ion channels: open/close in
response to a stimulus
carrier proteins: changes shape and
shuttles molecules across membrane
o specific per protein

Passive Transport
diffusion: high concentration low
concentration
o costs no energy: PASSIVE
TRANSPORT
o diffuse down their concentration
gradient
osmosis: diffusion of water
o low solute concentration high
solute concentration
o until concentrations are equal
Water Balance of Cells
Tonicity ability of solution to cause cell
to gain/lose water
Isotonic
o no net movement
o same solution-solute
concentration
o animal cell: normal
o plant cell: flaccid
Hypertonic
o S-S concentration is greater
outside the cell
o animal cell: shriveled
o plant cell: plasmolyzed
Hypotonic
o S-S concentration is greater
inside the cell
o animal cell: lysed (burst)
o plant cell: turgid (normal)
Facilitated Diffusion
polar molecules are passively diffused by
transport proteins
channel proteins & carrier proteins

Active Transport
pump solute against concentration
gradient
all carrier proteins
maintain cells ideal internal
concentrations
ATP supplies energy
Sodium-potassium pump
1. Cytoplasmic Na
+
binds to SPP (Na
+

concentration is high)
2. Binding stimulates phosphorylation of
ATP (P group attaches to protein)
ATP ADP
3. Change in protein shape: decreases Na
+

affinity & releases outside
4. New shape has affinity for K
+
: binds ot EC
side and releases phosphate group
5. Loss of phosphate group restores protein
shape: lower affinity for K
+

6. K
+
released, and Na
+
affinity is high again
How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane
Potential
membrane potential: voltage diff. across
a membrane (inside of cell is more
negative than outside)
voltage: created by differences in dist.
of + and atoms
cations into cell, anions out of cell
2 forces: chem + electrical force =
electrochemical gradient
electrogenic pump: transport protein
that generates voltage across a
membrane
o SPP = major electrogenic pump
in animal cells
o plants etc: proton pump
(transports protons out of cell)
Cotransport
active transport drives transport of
another molecule
transport proteins couple diffusion of a
solute with the transport of a second
substance against its own CG
plants use gradient of H
+
ions to drive
active transport
o ex. sucrose-H
+
co-transporter
diffusion of H
+
drives uptake of
sucrose

Bulk Transport
small molecules: cross membrane thru
lipid bilayer or transport proteins
large molecules (polysaccharides and
proteins) cross in BULK via vesicles
requires energy
Exocytosis
Transport vesicles move to PM proteins
rearrange the bilayer so that they fuse
contents of the vesicle spill out
export products
Endocytosis
cell takes in molecules by forming
vesicles
reversal of exocytosis (diff proteins used)
ligands: any molecule that binds to a
receptor on another molecule
vesicles: remodel/rejuvenate PM
o amt of PM remains constant
despite continuous endo/
exocytosis
Phagocytosis
o cellular eating
o cell engulfs particle in vacuole
by extending pseudopodia
around it
o vacuole fuses w a lysosome to
digest the particle
Pinocytosis
o cellular drinking
o molecules are gulped into tiny
vesicles
o nonspecific substances
o lined by coat proteins
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o specialized pinocytosis
o proteins w receptor sites bind w
solutes cluster around coated
pits forms vesicle (other
molecules present) receptors
are recycled

LECTURE 4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
process that converts solar energy into
chemical energy
in/directly nourishes entire world
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light energy C6H12O6
+ 6O2 + 6H2O
o carbon dioxide + water + light
energy Glucose + Oxygen +
water
chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and
oxygen electrons of hydrogen into
sugar molecules
o O2 is from H2O, not CO2
REDOX REACTION: H2O = oxidized; CO2 =
reduced
Autotrophs
self-feeders
producers of the biosphere: organic
materials from CO2 + inorganic materials
photoautotrophs: use energy fr. sunlight
to make organic molecules fr. H2O/CO2
o plants and algae
o some unicellular eukaryotes
feed themselves and most of living world
Heterotrophs
obtain organic material fr. other
organisms
consumers: carnivores, herbivores,
decomposers
Chloroplasts
leaves: major sites of photosynthesis
found in cells of the mesophyll (tissue in
the interior of the leaf)
o 30-40 chloroplasts per cell
stomata: microscopic pores where CO2
enters and O2 exits
chlorophyll: green pigment w/in
chloroplast
o found in thylakoid membrane
structure: see page 6
stroma: dense fluid
Two Stages of Photosynthesis
Light reactions (photo) + Calvin cycle
(synthesis)
Light rxn in thylakoids:
o split H2O: H
+
ions + electrons
o O2 is a by-product
o NADP
+
NADPH (via H ions and
electrons)
o ATP generated by
photophosphorylation
light energy chemical energy (NADPH
+ ATP)
Calvin cycle in stroma: forms sugar from
CO2 via ATP + NADPH
o carbon fixation: incorporating
CO2 into organic molecules
Nature of Sunlight
light = electromagnetic energy
o electromagnetic radiation:
travels in rhythmic waves
wavelength: distance bet. crests of
electromagnetic waves
o determines type of EM energy
o visible light: made of WL
photons: light seems to behave as if it is
made of discrete particles
o shorter wavelength, greater
energy of each photon
visible light: drives photosynthesis
Photosynthetic pigments
pigment: substance that absorbs light
diff pigments absorb diff wavelengths
chlorophyll a: main photosynthetic
pigment, participates directly
chlorophyll b: accessory pigment,
broaden spectrum used
carotenoids: absorb excess light
o photoprotection
absorption spectrum: light absorption vs
wavelength
violet-blue light: most effective, green
light = least effective (reflected)
Structure of chlorophyll molecule
o Porphyrin ring: light-absorbing
head
o magnesium: central atom, allows
plants to convert light to energy
o hydrocarbon tail: interacts w
hydrophobic regions inside
thylakoid membrane
Photosystem
reaction-center complex
o proteins holding a special pair of
chlorophyll a molecules
surrounded by light harvesting
complexes
o pigment molecules bound to
proteins
o funnel energy of photons to rxn
center
primary electron acceptor: accepts
excited electron fr chlorophyll a
PS II
o functions first
o absorbs wavelength of 680 nm
o reaction-center chlorophyll a =
P680
PS I
o absorbs wavelength of 700 nm
o P700
Linear Electron Flow
flow of electrons thru photosystems &
other components in thylakoid
membrane
1. Photon strikes PS II boosts e
-
to higher
energy level neighboring e
-
is boosted
as first falls back to ground state goes
on until it reaches P680 chlorophyll a &
excites an electron
2. Excited electron is transferred to primary
electron acceptor
P680 P680
+
(missing an electron)
3. Enzyme splits H2O into 2 H
+
, 2 e
-
, O atom
electrons replace ones lost in P680
+

H
+
atoms are released into thylakoid
space O atom combines w another
to form O2
4. Photoexcited electron goes from PSII to
PSI via electron transport chain
pq cytochrome complex pc
5. Exergonic rxn of e
-
causes synthesis of
ATP H
+
are pumped into thylakoid
space as e
-
passes cytochrome complex
6. Same as step 1, except in PSI P700
becomes P700
+
= electron acceptor
accepts electron from electron transport
chain
7. Primary acceptor of PSI second ETC
via Fd (no ATP produced)
8. NADP
+
reductase catalyzes transfer of e
-
to NADP
+
(reduction)
NADP
+
+ 2 e
-
= NADPH
removes H
+
from stroma
Cyclic Electron Flow
alternate path of photoexcited e
-

Fd cytochrome complex instead of
Fd NADP
+
reductase
Only uses PS1
no NADPH produced, but a surplus of
ATP for Calvin cycle
Chemiosmosis: Chloroplasts vs Mitochondria
chemiosmosis: generation of ATP in
chloroplasts & mitochondria
mitochondria: chem energy ATP
chloroplast: light energy ATP
different structures show similarities
o ETC transports H
+
to higher
gradient, diffusion + ATP synthase
ATP

Calvin Cycle
builds sugar fr small molecules thru ATP
and reducing power of NADPH
3CO2 G3P
reaction of 3 CO2 molecules
1. Carbon Fixation
I. Each CO2 attached to RuBP
(catalyzed by rubisco)
II. Reaction generates 2 molecules
of 3-phosphoglycerate (so 6)
2. Reduction
I. Each of the 6 receive a
phosphate group from ATP
II. Makes 6 1,3-biphosphoglycerate
(6 ATP 6 ADP)
III. 2 e
-
from NADPH reduces it and
makes it lose a phosphate grp
IV. Makes 6 G3P (6 NADPH 6
NADP
+
, 6 phosphate grps)
V. 1 G3P is net gain; 5 are recycled
3. Regeneration of CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
I. Carbon skeletons of 5 G3P are
rearranged into 3 RuBP (3 ATP
3 ADP)
for 1 G3P molecule, 6 NADPH and 9 ATP
are used
G3P: starting material for synthesis of
other organic compounds
Aternative mechanisms of carbon fixation
dehydration: major problem of plants in
terrestrial climate
stomata: also route of evaporated H2O
photorespiration: RuBP accept O2 and
product is shipped to mitochondria to
produce CO2, produces no ATP
o decreases photosynthetic output
o happens in hot climates
C4 Plants: PEP carboxylase in mesophyll
causes CO2 + PEP oxaloacetate
o pump CO2 in bundle sheath cells,
keeping CO2 levels high for CC
o minimizes photorespiration,
enhances sugar production
o thrive in hot regions
CAM Plants: stomata open at night,
close during the day
o night: fix CO2 into other organic
materials
o day: CO2 is released and energy
from light is used to power Calvin
Cycle

LECTURE 5: CELLULAR RESPIRATION