Satellite Navigation

External communication equipment

Satellite Communication
In 1962, the American telecommunications giant AT&T launched the
world's first true communications satellite, called Telstar. Since then, countless
communications satellites have been placed into earth orbit, and the technology
being applied to them is forever growing in sophistication. Communication satellites
are orbiting relays which receive, amplify, process, and retransmit signals from one
point to another point on the surface of the Earth. Communication satellites have
been in use since the 1960s for providing wideband global connectivity and long-
range circuits of high quality virtually unencumbered by propagation difficulties. A
satellite provides coverage within its footprint that is the area from which it is visible.
In the maritime community, satellite communication systems such as
Inmarsat provide good communication links to ships at sea. These links use a VSAT
type device to connect to geosynchronous satellites, which in turn link the ship to a
land based point of presence to the respective nations telecommunications
system. With the overcrowding of the hf spectrum, the need for new and advanced
long-range communications became apparent. Satellite communications
(SATCOM) systems have shown they can provide survivable, reliable, high-capacity,
secure, and cost-effective telecommunications for the military.


Diagram- Satellite communications system.
Functional block diagram.

Principle of operation.
The communications systems use satellites that are either
geostationary or orbiting. With a geostationary system the satellite remains in a fixed
position relative to a given geographical location (the satellite is actually in a fixed
orbit and moves in a consistent relationship to the Earth). With this type of system
the satellite can, at all times, receive and transmit messages to any transmitter or
transceiver that is within the fixed geographical area visible to the satellite. A
communications system based on geostationary satellites may have more than one
satellite to cover a greater percentage of the Earths surface.

An orbiting communications satellite moves in an orbit so that it passes
above a given geographical location at periodic time intervals. Such a system
means that earth bound transmitters or transceivers come into the satellites range
at these periodic time intervals and transmit or receive only while the satellite is in
range or visible. The transmitter may store messages until the satellite is in range.
When messages are transmitted to the satellite, they may also be stored in the
satellite until the satellite comes into range of a receiving earth station. Unlike a
geostationary system, a single satellite can feasibly cover the whole of the Earths
surface. However, there will be time gaps in coverage when the satellite is not in
view of given geographical locations. Increasing the number of satellites will
increase the coverage of the system by decreasing the time gaps when a satellite
is not in view of a given location.

In both types of system a fixed or mobile transmitter can be used. Such a transmitter
is mounted on a vessel, aircraft, building etc. and uses a radio signal to send a
message to the satellite mounted transponder. The message can be stored in the
satellite for later forwarding or immediately forwarded to a receiver or transmitter
with a receiving capability (transceiver) mounted on another vessel, aircraft,
building etc. In some cases the receiving station will be a large fixed station (an
earth station) which will link to the normal terrestrial telephone system.

Purpose of use/Applications.
One important aspect of the satellite communications network is that it continues in
operation under conditions that sometimes render other methods of communications
inoperable. Because of this, satellites make a significant contribution to improved reliability
of Navy communications. Satellite communications have unique advantages over
conventional long distance transmissions. Satellite links are unaffected by the propagation
variations that interfere with hf radio. They are also free from the high attenuation of wire or
cable facilities and are capable of spanning long distances. The numerous repeater
stations required for line-of-sight are no longer needed. They furnish the reliability and
flexibility of service that is needed to support a military operation.
Telephony
The first and still, arguably, most important application for communication satellites
is in international telephony. Mobile telephones (to and from ships) must be directly
connected to equipment to uplink the signal to the satellite, as well as being able
to ensure satellite pointing in the presence of disturbances, such as waves onboard
a ship.
Television and Radio
There are two types of satellites used for television and radio:
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS): DBS is a term used to refer to satellite television
broadcasts intended for home reception, also referred to as direct-to-home signals.
It covers both analogue and digital television and radio reception, and is often
extended to other services provided by modern digital television systems, including
video-on-demand and interactive features.
Fixed Service Satellite (FSS): FSS is the official classification for geostationary
communications satellites used chiefly for broadcast feeds for television and radio
stations and networks, as well as for telephony, data communications, and also for
Direct-To-Home (DTH) cable and satellite TV channels.
Mobile Satellite Technology
.
Initially available for broadcast to stationary TV receivers, popular mobile direct
broadcast applications made their appearance with that arrival of two satellite
radio systems: Sirius and XM Satellite Radio Holdings. Some manufacturers have also
introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. Using GPS
technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no
matter where or how the vehicle (that the antenna is mounted on) is situated.

Amateur radio
.
Amateur operators have access to the OSCAR satellites that have been designed
specifically to carry amateur radio traffic. Most such satellites operate as space
borne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or
VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas.
Due to the limitations of ground-based amateur equipment, most amateur satellites
are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited
number of brief contacts at any given time.

Satellite Broadband
.
In recent years, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to
connect to the internet via broadband data connections. This is very useful for users
to test who are located in very remote areas, and can't access a wireline broadband
or dialup connection.
Role of satellite communications
SATCOM links, one of several kinds of long distance communications links, interconnect
communications centres located strategically throughout the world. These SATCOM links
are part of the Defence Satellite Communications System (DSCS) and Fleet Satellite
Communications. Satellite communications systems are very important to the worldwide
military communications network for two primary reasons. First, they continue to operate
under conditions that cause problems for other methods of communication. Second,
they provide reliable and secure communications to previously inaccessible areas.
In many cases, these communications requirements can only
be satisfied by sophisticated satellite communications systems. By satisfying such needs,
SATCOM makes a significant contribution to the improved reliability of naval
communications.

Advantages of satellite communications
Some of the unique advantages SATCOM has over conventional long-distance
communications are as follows:
SATCOM links are unaffected by the propagation problems associated with hf radio
communications.
SATCOM links are free from the high attenuation problems of facilities that use wire or
cable for routing communications.
SATCOM links span long distances.
The numerous repeater stations required for line-of-sight and troposcatter systems are
not needed.
Satellite links provide the required flexibility and reliability needed to support military
operations
Capacity
Currently, military SATCOM systems can provide communications between backpack,
shore, airborne, and shipboard terminals. These SATCOM systems can handle thousands
of communications channels at the same time.
Reliability
SATCOM frequencies are only slightly affected by atmospheric phenomena and do not
depend on reflection or refraction. Reliability is based on the skill of operators and
maintenance personnel and the condition of the satellite communications equipment.
Vulnerability
Communications satellites are relatively safe from threats of harm. Because these
satellites are in such high orbits, any attempt to disable or destroy them from the Earth
would be difficult and expensive. However, Earth terminals are a different story. They
offer a more attractive target for destruction by conventional methods. But these
terminals can be protected by the same methods taken to protect other vital
installations. So overall, the satellite system is nearly free from harm by an enemy.
Operationally, highly directional earth terminal antennas provide a high degree of
freedom from jamming. The wideband system can use ant jamming techniques, which
also reduces vulnerability.

Flexibility
Mobile military satellite earth terminals with trained crews can be deployed and put into
operation anywhere in the world within hours.
Limitations
The technical characteristics of the satellite and its orbital parameters are the main
limitations to a satellite communications system. Two additional limiting factors for active
satellites are transmitter power and receiver sensitivity. Energy for electricity is limited to
whatever can be produced by the solar cells, which limits the satellites output power.
This problem is made worse by users who increase their output power to the satellite,
causing the satellite to try to retransmit at the new power level, at the expense of
reducing signals to other users.
References

wikipedia.com
marineinsight.com
Role of Satellite communications- electriciantraining.tpub.com
Satellite applications- Encyclopedia Britannica
Naval Shipboard Communications Systems- John C. Kim, Eugen I. Muehldorf


VHF Radio
Marine VHF radio refers to the radio frequency range between 156.0 and
162.025 MHz, inclusive. In the official language of the ITU the band is called the VHF
maritime mobile band.
It's installed on all large ships and most seagoing small craft. It is also used, with
slightly different regulation, on rivers and lakes. It is used for a wide variety of
purposes, including summoning rescue services and communicating
with harbours, locks, bridges and marinas, and operates in the very high
frequency (VHF) range, between 156 and 162.025 MHz. Although it is widely used
for collision avoidance, its use for that purpose is contentious and is strongly
discouraged by some countries, including the UK.
Diagram


vhf set and vhf channel.
standard handheld maritime vhf.

Block diagram-Vhf transmit and receive system.

Principle of operation
A marine VHF set is a combined transmitter and receiver and only operates on
standard, international frequencies known as channels. Channel 16 (156.8 MHz) is
the international calling and distress channel. Transmission power ranges between 1
and 25 watts, giving a maximum range of up to about 60 nautical miles (111 km)
between aerials mounted on tall ships and hills, and 5 nautical miles (9 km; 6 mi)
between aerials mounted on small boats at sea level.
[1]
Frequency modulation (FM)
is used, with vertical polarization, meaning that antennas have to be vertical in
order to have good reception.
Marine VHF mostly uses "simplex" transmission, where
communication can only take place in one direction at a time. A transmit button
on the set or microphone determines whether it is operating as a transmitter or a
receiver. The majority of channels, however, are set aside as "semi-duplex"
transmission channels where communication can take place in both directions
simultaneously.
[1]
Each semi-duplex channel has two frequency assignments. Semi-
Duplex channels can be used to place calls on the public telephone system for a
fee via a marine operator. Sets can be fixed or portable. A fixed set generally has
the advantages of a more reliable power source, higher transmit power, a larger
and more effective aerial and a bigger display and buttons. A portable set (often
essentially a waterproof, VHF walkie-talkie in design) can be carried on a kayak, or
to a lifeboat in an emergency, has its own power source and is waterproof
if GMDSS-approved. A few portable VHFs are even approved to be used as
emergency radios in environments requiring intrinsically safe equipment (e.g. gas
tankers, oil rigs, etc).
Vhf Transmit
A typical vhf transmit and receive system is shown in the block diagram. On the
transmit side, the operator, at a remote location, talks into the handset. The
handset is connected to radio set control, C-1138. The radio set control output is fed
to transmitter transfer switchboard, SB-988/SRT. The switchboard performs the same
function as it does in the lf and hf systems. The output of the switchboard is
connected to the transmit side of the transmitter/receiver (transceiver), AN/VRC-46
or AN/VRC-80. The transceiver converts the input signal to an rf signal for
transmission and the rf is radiated into the atmosphere by the antenna.
Vhf Receive
In the diagram, the incoming signal is picked up by the antenna. This signal is fed to
the receive side of the transceiver. The transceiver output is fed to the receiver
transfer switchboard. The switchboard output is connected to either radio set
control or to a speaker amplifier, AM-3729, or both, depending on the users
preference. The output of the radio set control is fed to the handset and the
speaker amplifier output is routed to the speaker.

Purpose of use
Marine VHF Radios are two-way communicators which are used to transfer and
receive messages. However, the most important function of a Marine VHF Radio is
that it is very helpful when it comes to sending distress signals across the channels to
coast guards and other ships and boats in the periphery. Also, certain Marine VHF
Radios can be used for the purposes of making calls through a marine operator for
a certain sum making it double up as a telephonic communicator too. Another
important aspect of Marine VHF Radios is the fact that they come in two main
categories: portable ones and non-portable ones. The portable ones have
waterproof coverings and are battery operated in order to facilitate the power
transmission. The fixed or the non-portable Marine VHF Radios cover a lot of aerial
ground, their source of power transmission and energy, huger in comparison to their
portable counterparts and are therefore far more feasible in terms of their
operational facilities.
It is used for a wide variety of purposes, including summoning rescue services and
communicating with harbours, locks, bridges and marinas, and operates in the very
high frequency (VHF) range, between 156 and 162.025 MHz. Although it is widely
used for collision avoidance, its use for that purpose is contentious and is strongly
discouraged by some countries.


References
Marine VHF Radio- Wikipedia.
marineinsight.com
Communications system pdf- US Navy education and training center.












Ships service telephone system
The Ships Service Telephone Circuit (J-Dial) requires an
external electrical power source and has a keypad just like a home phone. When
installed, it may be used as an alternate means of communication. The J-Dial
system shouldnt be relied upon because it is not as rugged as the sound-powered
phone system and may go out of commission early in action. Some of the newer
systems have a limited battery backup in the event of a loss of electrical power. On
some ships, the J-Dial phones are available for damage control communications
when located near or at repair stations and may be used when other damage
control communication systems are inoperative.
Although the ships service telephones are not part of the
battle communication system, they can prove invaluable if the regular systems fail.
They are standard telephones powered by the ships generators and are normally
used in carrying out the administrative routine aboard ship. Two features expedite
the telephone-calling process: the executive cut-in telephone and the hunt-the-
not-busy-line feature. Executive cut-in telephones, clearly marked, are for
emergency calls and for the use of persons in authority. Operationally, these
telephones are the same as a standard telephone but are limited in number and
can be used to call a station that is in use. Instead of a busy signal being returned,
the cut-in phone breaks into the circuit. The caller then can interrupt the
conversation in progress to deliver an important message. The hunt-the-not-busy-
line feature can be used when a call is made to an area that has a group of
consecutively numbered telephone stations. After the lowest numbered station has
been dialed, the switchboard connects the calling station to the lowest numbered
idle telephone. When all the circuits of the group called are in use, a busy signal is
returned as with a standard telephone
Image- Ships service telephone


Radiotelephone
Radiotelephone is one of the most useful military communications methods.
Radiotelephone equipment for tactical use usually is operated on frequencies that
are high enough to have line-of-sight characteristics; that is, the waves do not
follow the curvature of the earth. As you know, these characteristics limit the usual
range of radiotelephone from 20 to 25 miles. This is important because it reduces
the chances of the enemy intercepting the message. Radiotelephone procedures
can be learned easily by persons with no other training in communications.
The Marine Radiotelephone Service or HF ship-to-shore operates
on shortwave radio frequencies, using single-sideband modulation. The usual
method is that a ship calls a shore station, and the shore station's marine operator
connects the caller to the public switched telephone network. This service is
retained for safety reasons, but in practice has been made obsolete by satellite
telephones (particularly INMARSAT) and VoIP telephone and email via satellite
internet.
Short wave radio is used because it bounces between the ionosphere and the
ground, giving a modest 1,000 watt transmitter (the standard power) a world-wide
range. Most shore stations monitor several frequencies. The frequencies with the
longest range are usually near 20 MHz, but the ionospheric weather (propagation)
can dramatically change which frequencies work best.
Single-sideband (SSB) is used because the short wave bands are crowded
with many users, and SSB permits a single voice channel to use a narrower range of
radio frequencies (bandwidth), about 3.5 kHz. In comparison, AM radio uses about
8 kHz, and narrowband (voice or communication-quality) FM uses 9 kHz. Marine
radiotelephony first became common in the 1930s, and was used extensively for
communications to ships and aircraft over water. In that time, most long-range
aircraft had long-wire antennas that would be let out during a call, and reeled-in
afterward.
Radiotelephone has some disadvantages. You may find
transmissions unreadable because of static, enemy interference, or high local noise
level caused by shouts, gunfire, and bomb or shell bursts. Wave propagation
characteristics of radiotelephone frequencies sometimes are unpredictable, and
tactical transmissions may be heard from great distances. Most radiotelephone
messages are in plain language, and if information is to be kept from the enemy,
users must keep their messages short, stick to the proper procedures, and be
careful of what they say.
Purpose of use
The ships service telephones are not part of the battle communication
system, they can prove invaluable if the regular systems fail. The radiotelephone,
because of its directness, convenience, and ease of operation, is used by ships,
aircraft, and shore stations. It has many applications and is used for ship-to-shore,
shore-to-ship, ship-to-ship, air-to-ship, ship-to-air, air-to-ground, and ground-to-air
communications. Modern means of operation make it possible to communicate
around the world by radiotelephone. One of the most important uses of
radiotelephone is short-range tactical communications. This method permits
tactical commanders to communicate directly with other ships. Little delay results
while a message is prepared for transmission, and acknowledgments can be
returned instantly. One of the most important uses of marine radiotelephony has
been to change ships' itineraries, and to perform other business at sea.


References
Pdf on Introduction to radio-frequency communications by US Navy.