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sin
8
2
r
F
air
P
T =
where
T = mechanical shaft torque
P = number of poles
air
= air-gap flux
F
r
= rotor field MMF
= power (rotor) angle
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-33 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
The torque equation defines the relationship between the mechanical shaft torque, the stator voltage, the
excitation system, and the rotor angle. Changes in any one of them will cause the rotor angle to readjust
itself to a new position.
Swing Equation (Generator Case)
elec
P
mech
P
dt
d
D
dt
d
M = +
2
2
where
M = inertia constant
D = damping constant
P
mech
= input mechanical power
P
elec
= output electrical power
The swing equation shows that the solution of the rotor angle is a function of balance between the
mechanical power and the electrical power. Any change in the system that breaks this balance will cause
the rotor angle to undergo a transient and reach a new position in an oscillatory manner. This oscillation
is usually called the rotor angle swing.
Stability Limits
There are two types of stability limit for a power system, namely steady-state stability limit and transient
stability limit.
Steady-State Stability Limit
The steady-state stability is defined as the stability of a system under conditions of gradual or small
changes in the system. This stability can be either found by the load flow calculation for a steady-state
operation, or determined by a transient stability study if there are system changes or disturbances
involved. The system is said to be steady-state stable if, following any small and/or gradual disturbances,
all synchronous machines reach their steady-state operating condition identical or close to the pre-
disturbance operating conditions. The steady-state stability limit for any synchronous machine is when its
rotor angle is less than 90 degrees.
Transient Stability Limit
Transient or dynamic stability is defined as the stability of a system during and after sudden changes or
disturbances in the system, such as short-circuits, loss of generators, sudden changes in load, line tripping,
or any other similar impact. The system is said to be transient stable if following a severe disturbance, all
synchronous machines reach their steady-state operating condition without prolonged loss of synchronism
or going out of step with other machines.
Causes of Instability Problems
The major causes to industrial power system instability problems include, but are not limited to:
Short-circuits
Loss of a tie connection to a utility system
Loss of a portion of in-plant co-generation (generator rejection)
Starting a motor that is large relative to the system generating capacity
Switching operations of lines, capacitors, etc.
Impact loading (motors and static loads)
A sudden large step change of load or generation
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-34 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Consequences of Instability Problems
The consequences of power system instability problems usually are very severe and can range from
permanent damage on equipment and shutting down processes, all the way to causing a whole area power
outage. Some typical consequences are listed below:
Area-wide blackout
Interruption of loads
Low-voltage conditions
Damage to equipment
Relay and protective device malfunctions
Power System Transient Stability Enhancement
Depending on the causes of instability problems in a particular system, a number of enhancements can be
made to improve the system stability. Typical enhancements include:
Improve configuration and system design.
Increase synchronizing power
Design and selection of rotating equipment use induction motors, increase moment of inertia,
reduce transient reactance, improve voltage regulator and exciter characteristics
Application of Power System Stabilizers (PSS)
Add system protection fast fault clearance, system separation, etc.
Add load shedding scheme
However, note that each of the above remedies requires careful consideration and we recommend that you
re-run all system studies again, because changes brought by those remedies very likely will impact system
load flow, short-circuit, and motor starting results.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-35 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Simulation of Time Events and Actions
Transient Stability study is essentially an action driven time-domain simulation. Actions should be
specified at different time instants (events). There are two ways to specify events and actions. One way
is to use the Event Editor and Action Editor in the Transient Stability Study Case Editor. Another way is
to use relay-controlled dynamic actions.
When using actions specified in the Transient Stability Study Case Editor, Action List, the exact time
instant for the action to take place needs to be given. Type of actions in this category includes all the pre-
scheduled operations such as generator start-up and shutdown, generator control mode change, load
addition and rejection, motor acceleration, MOV start and others. When to simulate the system response
for existing events, such as a recorded fault in the system, user also can use this type of action, because
the recorded fault occurring time and duration are known. To specify this type of action, user first creates
a new event and the event occurring time in the Event Editor of the Transient Stability Study Case Editor,
Event page, as shown below.
Secondly, user can use the Action Editor in the same page to add as many actions as desired for this
event.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-36 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Relay Operation
In power systems, many actions occur without any pre-acknowledgment, instead, they are controlled by
sensors and relays. For instance, a current relay will trip off circuit breakers once the measured current by
relay exceeds a pre-set value. In another case, a voltage relay can be used to open or close circuit
breakers based on its monitored voltage and comparison with an upper and lower settings. These types of
action do not have a definite time of happening and are solely depending on the system dynamic
responses and relay settings. They, therefore, have to be implemented using the second method, i.e., relay
controlled actions. To use relay-controlled actions, user needs to add a relay and connect it to the one-line
diagram via a PT or CT, depending on type of the relay. Next in relay editor, user specifies relay-
controlled circuit breaker ID, control settings, time delay, and other data related to relay operations.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-37 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
During the transient stability simulation in time-domain, if a relay setting is met, then its controlled circuit
breaker will take an automatic action. This method avoids requesting to give a pre-defined action time
and is a true resemblance to real power system operating conditions.
The following two pictures give an example of how to use relay-controlled actions. In the first picture,
assuming CB2 and/or CB11 are tripped off due to a fault in transformer T2, thus substation Sub2A-N
loses power. To make a bus transfer for Sub2A-N to the adjacent bus Sub2B, user can place a voltage
relay (27) on bus Sub2A-N to monitor the bus voltage magnitude and close a normally opened tie circuit
breaker Tie CB when it is necessary.
To do so, user can set the voltage relay to pick up under-voltage at 65% and close Tie CB after 0.1 relay
delaying time and what ever the closing cycle by Tie CB itself. Settings for the voltage relay is shown in
the second figure down below.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-38 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Other relays like Reverse Power Relay, Directional Overcurrent Relay and Motor Relay follow a certain
connection logic in the program for correct operation.
Operation of Reverse Power Relay (Device 32)
Device 32 uses a predefined reference direction for sensing the current flow in the one-line diagram.
Relay Connection Normal Flow
32-1 Generator From the Generator to the Bus
32-2 Branch From Bus to the Branch
32-3 Branch From Bus to the Branch
32-4 Load From Bus to the Load
32-5 & 32-6 Tie-CB From Polarity (Dot) to other end
The diagram below shows the reference current direction for relays connected to sources, branches, loads
and tie circuit breakers.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-39 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Consider the following setting for Relay 32-1
0.0
Operate Operate
Normal Flow
MW or Mvar
% Pickup %Pickup
Under Power Over Power
-10% 100%
(-1MW) (10MW)
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-40 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Hence the relay will not operate between the region of 10MW and -1 MW. It will operate outside this
region.
Operation of Directional Relay (Device 67)
Device 67 like Device 32 uses a predefined reference direction for sensing the current flow in the one-line
diagram along with the polarity of the CT (dot). Consider a UR element with Device 67 enabled.
Irrespective of where the Device 67 is connected, it will follow the polarity of the CT. The reference
direction is always from the CT polarity (dot) to the other end for forward and into the CT polarity (dot)
for reverse direction.
Hence if the relay were set in the forward direction, its operation region would be as shown below based
on the instantaneous setting
0.0
Instantaneous
Setting
Operation of Multifunction Relays (Device 49/50/51)
For transient stability trip signals are send based on Any, Phase and 49/50 elements only. Multifunction
relays such as UR use the following logic for sensing tripping current. Note that multifunction relays only
trip based on instantaneous settings. Overcurrent settings are ignored by transient stability. OCR(x)
denotes Overcurrent Level being used. For example OCR(1) means OCR with OC1 setting.
Relay Element Level/Zone Trip (if instantaneous selected)
Any Any Trip OCR(1) & OLR
Phase Any Trip OCR(1)
Any or Phase OCR(1) Trip OCR(1)
49/50 Any Trip OLR
49/50 OCR(1) None
ForwardDirect
ion
Operate
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-41 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Calculation Methods
Any, Phase or 49/50 OCR(2) None
No Library Selected
Any or Phase Any or OCR(x) Trip OCR(1)
49/50 Any or OCR(x) Trip OLR
If library data is not selected then OC levels are not considered. Trip signal is sent based on only Phase or
49/50 settings.
If library data has been selected then ETAP considers only two Level/Zone - Any or OC1
If library data has been selected and the relay is not active, the trip signal is not sent. For example, if
output is 49/50, Level = (Any) and 49/50 is not active then no trip signal is sent.
If output is Any, Level = (Any orOC1) and Instantaneous (Phase and 49/50) is not active then no trip
signal is sent.
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-42 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Required Data
22.5 Required Data
To run a transient stability study, you need to provide all the data required for load flow calculation. In
addition to that, you need to provide machine dynamic model data, load model data, and any control
units, such as exciter and governor data. Required data for transient stability calculations include:
Bus Data
Bus ID
Nominal kV
Load Diversity Factor (when Loading option is set to Maximum or Minimum diversity factor)
Branch Data
2-Winding and 3-Winding Transformers
Transform ID
Bus Connections
Rated kV and MVA
Impedance and tolerance
X/R ratio
Tap and LTC settings
Phase Shift as in Standard Positive or Negative Sequence connections, or Special configurations
Cable/Transmission Line
Cable or Transmission Line ID
Bus Connections
Type, size, rated kV, # of conductors per phase, and length
Use library data or enter cable's resistance, reactance, and susceptance values
Impedance
Impedance ID
Bus Connections
Resistance, reactance, and susceptance values
Current-Limiting Reactor
Current-Limiting Reactor ID
Bus Connections
X/R ratio, impedance, and tolerance
Protective Device Data
Protective Device ID
Bus and Branch Connections
Status
CT/PT Data
CT/PT ID
Bus or Branch or Source or Load Connections
Rating (Ratio)
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-43 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Required Data
Relay Data
Relay ID
CT/PT Connections
Device, CB ID, Action, Delay, Setting, Unit
Power Grid Data
Power Grid ID
Bus Connections
Operating mode (Swing, Voltage Control, or Mvar Control)
Nominal kV
%V and Angle for Swing mode
%V, MW loading, and Mvar limits (Qmax & Qmin) for Voltage Control mode
MW and Mvar loading for Mvar Control mode
3-Phase MVAsc and X/R values
Synchronous Generator Data
Synchronous generator ID
Bus Connections
Operating mode (Swing, Voltage Control or Mvar Control)
Rated kV
%V and Vangle for Swing mode of operation
%V, MW loading, and Mvar limits (Qmax & Qmin) for Voltage Control mode of operation
MW and Mvar loading for Mvar Control mode of operation
Rated MVA
Model type (None, Equivalent, Transient, or Subtransient)
Machine type (Round-Rotor or Salient-Pole)
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo for Equivalent model
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo, Tqo for Transient model Round-Rotor machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo, Tdo, Tqo, Tqo for Subtransient model Round-Rotor
machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq (= Xq), Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo for Transient model Salient-Pole machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq (= Xq), Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo, Tdo, Tqo for Subtransient model Salient-Pole
machine type
S100, S120, H, and Damping
Sbreak for Generator Start-up Study
Exciter Type and all associated parameters or fixed excitation
Governor Type and all associated parameters or no governor action
Power System Stabilizer (PSS) Type and all associated parameters or no PSS control
Operation Technology, Inc. 22-44 ETAP 5.0 User Guide
Transient Stability Analysis Required Data
Synchronous Motor Data
Synchronous motor ID
Bus Connections
Quantity
Rated kW/hp and kV
Power factors and efficiencies at 100%, 75%, and 50% loadings
Loading Category ID and % Loading
Equipment cable data
Model type (None, Equivalent, Transient or Subtransient)
Machine type (Round-Rotor or Salient-Pole)
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo for Equivalent model
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo for Transient model Round-Rotor machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq, Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo, Tdo, Tqo, Tqo for Subtransient model Round-Rotor
machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq (= Xq), Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo for Transient model Salient-Pole machine type
Xd, Xd, Xd, Xq, Xq
(= Xq), Xq, Xl, X/R, Tdo, Tdo, Tqo for Subtransient model Salient-Pole
machine type
S100, S120, H and Damping
Exciter Type and all associated parameters or fixed excitation
H
Load model
Induction Machine Data
Induction machine ID
Bus Connections
Application type (motor or generator)
Quantity
Rated kW/hp and kV
Power factors and efficiencies at 100%, 75%, and 50% loadings
Loading Category ID and % Loading
Equipment cable data
Model type (None, Single1, Single2, DBL1, or DBL2)
Xlr, Xoc, X/R, and Tdo