Coriander

REVIEW
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.): A Potential

Source of High-Value Components for Functional
Foods and Nutraceuticals- A Review
Najla Gooda Sahib,
1
Farooq Anwar,
2
*
Anwarul-Hassan Gilani,
3,4
*
Azizah Abdul Hamid,
1
Nazamid Saari
1
and Khalid M. Alkharfy
4
1
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Sargodha-40100, Pakistan
3
Natural Products Research Unit, Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University Medical College, Karachi
74800, Pakistan
4
Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), a herbal plant, belonging to the family Apiceae, is valued for its culinary
and medicinal uses. All parts of this herb are in use as avoring agent and/or as traditional remedies for the
treatment of different disorders in the folk medicine systems of different civilizations. The plant is a potential
source of lipids (rich in petroselinic acid) and an essential oil (high in linalool) isolated from the seeds and the
aerial parts. Due to the presence of a multitude of bioactives, a wide array of pharmacological activities have
been ascribed to different parts of this herb, which include anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, anxiolytic,
anti-epileptic, anti-depressant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inammatory, anti-dyslipidemic, anti-hypertensive, neuro-
protective and diuretic. Interestingly, coriander also possessed lead-detoxifying potential. This review focuses
on the medicinal uses, detailed phytochemistry, and the biological activities of this valuable herb to explore its
potential uses as a functional food for the nutraceutical industry. Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Keywords: coriander; medicinal uses; functional food; essential oil; lipids; linalool; biological activities.
INTRODUCTION
Nature can be described as the oldest and most compre-
hensive pharmacy of all times, and phytomedicine has
been practiced for health benets in different systems
of traditional medicine, including Chinese, Greco-Arab
(Unani-Tibb) and Ayurveda (Gilani and Atta-ur-Rahman,
2005; Patwardhan et al., 2005; Tapsell et al., 2006;
Krishnaswamy, 2008). Currently, there is a revival of
interest in the use of phytomedicines particularly for
preventive measures. According to the latest report,
around 80%of the world population relies on some forms
of traditional medicines mainly the herbs (WHO, 2002).
The use of complementary and alternative medicine has
been widespread all over the world (Hasani-Ranjbar
et al., 2008).
One of the oldest herbs that has been used for over
3,000 years (Ebers papyrus of 1550 BC), for both culinary
and medicinal purposes is, Coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.), from the Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) family
(Ishikawa et al., 2003). Coriander is indigenous to the
Mediterranean region and is widely cultivated in Russia,
Central Europe, North Africa and Asia (Singh et al.,
2006; Sriti et al., 2009a, 2009b). The fruits of coriander,
also known as the seeds, are globular and aromatic with
a slight bittersweet, spicy taste (Ceska et al., 1988).
Coriander seed is an integral part of curry powder and
is used in minced meat dishes and stews. Young leaves
of the plant are used to make sauces and chutneys. The
green leaves are consumed as fresh herbs, in salads and
as garnishes due to its attractive green color and aroma
(Norman 1990; Kamat et al., 2003). Coriander oil is also
used in cosmetics, body care products and perfumes
(Opkyde, 1973). Different parts of coriander plant have
been reported for multiple health functions and biological
activities (Kubo et al., 2004; Saeed and Tariq, 2007;
Matasyoh et al., 2009; Begnami et al., 2010). Traditionally,
coriander has been used to treat gastrointestinal disorders
such as anorexia, dyspepsia, atulence, diarrhea, pain
and vomiting (Varier, 1994; Bruneton, 1995; Usmanghani
et al., 1997).
In view of the potential uses of medicinal plants as
functional food ingredients, it is fascinating to compile a
comprehensive review article covering the nutritional,
medicinal and bioactives prole of different parts of cori-
ander plant. To the best of our knowledge, there has been
no other comprehensive review available on the detailed
prole of functional constituents, multiple biological
activities and medicinal uses of coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) plant. This review covers the medicinal uses,
detailed photochemistry and pharmacological properties
of different parts of this valuable herb to explore its uses
for functional food and nutraceutical industry. Further-
more, we tried to critically analyze the rational for some
combinations of activities attributed to Coriander.
* Correspondence to: Farooq Anwar, Department of Chemistry, University
of Sargodha, Sargodha-40100, Pakistan; Anwarul-Hassan Gilani, Natural
Products Research Unit, Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,
Aga Khan University Medical College, Karachi 74800, Pakistan.
E-mail: fqanwar@yahoo.com; anwar.gilani@aku.edu
PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH
Phytother. Res. 27: 14391456 (2013)
Published online 19 December 2012 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ptr.4897
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 20 July 2012
Revised 24 October 2012
Accepted 06 November 2012
TAXONOMY, DISTRIBUTIONANDCULTIVATION
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) belongs to the
family of Apiceae and genus of Coriandrum L. There
are only two known genus of the plant: C. sativum L.
and its wild relative C. tordylium. The height of the plant
can range anywhere between 20 and 140 cm, depending
on the agro-climatic conditions. Leaves are oval, slightly
lobed and sections of the upper leaves are linear and
more divided. Only, young leaves, with ternate-pinnate
leaves, not yet divided into narrow linear segments,
are used to avor sauces and curries in Indian, Chinese
and Mexican cuisines. The stem is erect, thin, sympodial,
monochasial and branched with several side branches at
the basal node. Each branch ends with an inorescence.
The owers are small, shortly stalked umbels, pinkish
and whitish in color. The roots are spindle shaped. The
fruits are globular or ovate, consisting of two pericarps,
with a diameter up to 6 mm. The essential oil of the
seeds lies on the inside of the convex longitudinal vittae
and gives the plants its characteristic bug smell. The
name of the plant is in fact derived from the Greek
word, Korion which mean bug. The odor prole of dif-
ferent parts of the plant changes dramatically as a result
of maturity. Ripe fruits smell differently from the unripe
seeds and green leaves (Ceska et al., 1988; Diederichsen,
1996; Small, 1997).
Coriandrum sativum, a native of Italy, is presently
cultivated in Central and Eastern Europe, Mediterra-
nean regions (Morocco, Malta, Egypt), and Asia
(China, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh). It is an an-
nual herbaceous plant best grown between October
and February. Flowering occurs between June and July.
In early stage of growth, the plant requires a cool cli-
mate and a warm weather at later maturity stages.
Loamy to moderately heavy soils are best, with no or
minimal irrigation. Commercial coriander is produced
by Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, Guatemala,
Mexico and Argentina. India is one of the main produ-
cers of coriander seeds; with 5.25 10
5
hectares culti-
vated and annual yield of 3.10 10
5
tones (Peter,
2004). The market for coriander oil is mainly con-
trolled by Ukraine and India (British Pharmacopoeia,
2003). This plant has a high economic value since it is
widely used as avoring agents in food and cosmetics
(Opkyde, 1973).
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
Seeds
The fruits (seed and pericarp) are the most widely used
components of the coriander plant with the most
important constituents being the essential oil and the
fatty oil. The fatty oil (physical oil/xed oil) is around
25% of the seed while the essential oil content is usually
less than 1%. The yield of xed oil/fatty oil and essential
oil from different parts of coriander plant of different
origins is listed in Table 1. The fatty oil is light yellow
in color and has a characteristic smell. The oil is unique
in that it contains high amount of petroselinic acid
(C18: 1n-12). The location of unsaturation in this fatty
acid (FA) is at the 6,7-position, which is rare among
octadeconoic acid and can hence produce unique
derivatives that cannot be achieved with other seed oils
(Placek, 1963). The oil composition of coriander seeds
has been well studied. Table 2 summarizes the major
FA composition of coriander seed oil from different
origins (Reiter et al., 1998; Ramadan and Morsel, 2003;
Msaada et al., 2009; Sriti et al., 2009a, Sriti et al., 2010).
Relatively high levels of total glycolipids (GL) are found
in the seed oil, including acylatedsterylglucoside,
sterylglucoside and glucocerebroside. Petroselinic acid
is the major FA ranging from 65.7% to 76.6%, followed
by linoleic acid accounting for 13.016.7%. Other FA
include oleic and palmitic acid. Neutral lipid (NL)
composition is in the range of 93.0 to 95.65% of total
lipids (TL) and is mainly composed of triacylglecerols.
Major triacylglycerols (TAG) are tripetroselinin and/or
dipetroselinoyloleoyl glycerol. The remaining of NLs
are GL (4.14%), followed by phospholipids (PL)
(1.57%). The main markers of sterols (ST) are stigmas-
terol, b-sitosterol, 5-arenasterol, 24-stigmastadienol
and campsterol. Total STare estimated to be in the range
of 36.9351.86 mg/g. The predominant PL classes in-
clude phosphatidylcholine as the major component,
phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol and
phosphatidylserine. The major galactolipid is digalacto-
syldiacylglycerol. Coriander oil is a good source of tocols
(327.47 mg/g), with g-tocopherol being predominant
(26.40 mg/g), followed by d-tocopherol (13.536.5 mg/g)
and a-tocopherol (611.7 mg/g). The seed oil also contains
tocotrienol where g-tocotrienol is the main compound
(238.40 mg/g), followed by a-tocotrienol (24.9 mg/g) and
d-tocotrienol (12.57 mg/g). The only sugar detected in cori-
ander is glucose (Ramadan and Morsel, 2003; Horvath
et al., 2006; Sriti et al., 2009a; Sriti et al., 2009b; Sriti
et al., 2010).
Over the last decade, essential oils have gained
popularity as a source of bioactives, with many potential
health benets (Burt, 2004). Researchers across the world
have attempted to study the chemical composition of
essential oils from coriander seeds, using different
methodologies. The essential oil content is around 1%
and major component reported in the oil is linalool, in
the range of 3080% of total seed oil (Singh et al., 2006;
Bhuiyan et al., 2009; Sriti et al., 2009a; Zoubiri and
Baaliouamer, 2010).
However, the composition of the essential oil appears to
be dependent on biological and geographical variability.
Bhuiyan et al. (2009) carried a comprehensive analysis
on the chemical composition of seed essential oil of
coriander from Bangladesh using gas chromatography
mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Fifty-three compounds were
identied, with linalool being the major one (37.7%),
followed by geranyl acetate (17.6%) and g-terpinene
(14.4%). Other compounds present are b-pinene (1.82%),
m-cymene (1.27%), citronellal (1.96%), citronellol
(1.31%), citral (1.36%), geraniol (1.87%), citronellyl
acetate (1.36%), a-cedrene (3.87%), a-farnesence (1.22%)
and b-sesquiphell-andrene (1.56%). Anwar et al. (2011)
investigated the physico-chemical properties of coriander
seed essential oil from Pakistan. The oil analyzed by
GC-ame ionization detector (FID) and further
authenticated by GC-MS mainly contained linalool with
contribution of 69.60%, other important constituents
were identied to be geranyl acetate (4.99%), g-terpinene
(4.17%), a-pinene (1.63%), anethol (1.15%) and
1440 N. G. SAHIB ET AL.
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 27: 14391456 (2013)
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1441 CORIANDER AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD AND NUTRACEUTICAL
p-cymene (1.12%). The essential oil comprised of oxygen-
ated monoterpene hydrocarbons (80.83%) as the principle
component, followed by monoterpene hydrocarbons
(8.00%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (0.47%) and
oxygenated sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (0.35%).
Structures of some important components derived
from the oil are illustrated in Fig. 1. The essential oils
components from coriander seeds cultivated in different
areas vary including Algeria (17 compounds), India
(52 compounds), Pakistan (48 compounds) and Tunisia
(4148 compounds). Other parts have also been
reported to contain these compounds amongst others.
Table 3 describes the content and composition of essen-
tial oil from different parts of coriander. Apart from envir-
onmental and genetic factors, other parameters such as,
maturity and methods of extraction from seeds affect the
composition of the essential oil. Msaada et al. (2007) studied
the changes on essential oil composition of coriander fruits
during three stages of maturity. A general increase in oil
yield and accumulation of monoterpene alcohol was
observed. The main components of immature fruits
were geranyl acetate (46.27%), linalool (10.96%), nerol
(1.53%) and neral (1.42%) (Fig. 1). Fruits in the middle
stage contained mainly linalool (76.33%), cis-dihydocarone
(3.21%) and geranyl acetate (2.85%). Predominant
component of mature fruits include linalool (87.54%) and
cis-dihydocarone (2.36%).
The water-soluble constituents of coriander seeds
have been neglected as compared to its essential oil.
The rst attempt to study the water-soluble constituents
Table 2. Major fatty acid composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) seed oil of different origins
Origin Fatty acids g/100g Reference
Germany C 16:0 3.96 Ramadan and Morsel, 2002
C16: 1n-7 0.41
C18:0 2.91
C18:1n-12 65.7
C18:1n-9 7.85
C18: 2n-6 16.7
C18:3n-6 1.22
C20:0 0.25
C18:3n-3 0.20
C20:1n-9 0.30
C22:1n-9 0.16
C22:6n-3 0.34
Tunisia C14:0 0.08 Sriti et al., 2009a
C16:0 3.48
C16:1n-7 0.23
C18:0 0.77
C18:1n-12 76.37
C18:1n-9 5.45
C18:2n-6 13.05
C20:0 0.15
C18:3n-3 0.15
North Eastern Tunisia (Korba) C14:0 0.08 Sriti et al., 2010
C16:0 3.50
C16:1n-7 0.23
C18:0 0.78
C18:1n-12 76.65
C18:1n-9 5.47
C18:2n-6 13.05
C20:0 0.10
C18:3n-3 0.15
North Eastern Tunisia (Charfine) C16:0 0.1 Msaada et al., 2009
C18:0 0.8
C20:0 0.2
C16:1n-7 1.1
C18:1n-12 84.2
C18:1n-9 0.1
C20:1n-9 0.1
C18:2n-6 13.7
C18:3n-6 0.3
C18:3n-3 0.5
Austria/Germany C16:0 4.4 Reiter et al., 1998
C18:0 1.1
C18:1n-12 67.2
C18:2 18.5
of the seeds was carried out by Ishikawa and Colleagues
(2003). Four new monoterpenoid glycosides, two new
monoterpenoid glucoside sulfates and two new aromatic
glycosides were identied fromthe 33 compounds isolated
from the water soluble portion of the methanolic extract
of coriander seeds. Other two glycosides 2-C- methyl-
D- erythritol were isolated fromcoriander seeds (Kitajima
et al., 2003).
Aerial parts (leaves and stem)
The immature green leaves of C. sativum are widely
used as fresh herbs, garnishes, in chutneys and sauces.
Coriander leaves are not as well studied as the fruits.
Nevertheless, essential oil, avonoids, phenolic acids
and polyphenols are among the other compounds
detected in the leaves (Ceska et al., 1988; Matasyoh
et al., 2009; Nambiar et al., 2010). The methanolic and
aqueous extracts of coriander leaf and stem have been
assessed for total phenolic content (TPC), expressed
as caffeic acid equivalent (Wong and Kitts, 2006),
and results showed they contained 110, 63.2 and 89.3,
51.6 mg/100 g of TPC, respectively. The essential oil
from a Kenyan variety is reported to contain mostly
aldehydes (56.1%) and alcohols (46.3%). The major
components of the leaf essential oil are: 2E- decenal
(15.9%) (C), decanal (14.3%) (F), 2E-decen-1-ol (14.2%)
and n-decanol (13.6%). Other compounds include 2E-
tridecen-1-al, 2E-dodecenal, docdecanal, undecanol
and undecanal. Alkanes (1.46%) are the remaining
compounds (Matasyoh et al., 2009). The leaves essential
oil from Bangladesh is dominated by 2-decenoic acid
(30.8%) (D), E-11-tetradecenoic acid (13.4%), capric
acid (12.7%), undecyl alcohol (6.4%), tridecanoic acid
(5.5%) and undecanoic acid (7.1%) (Bhuiyan et al.,
2009).
The chemical composition of the leaves essential oil
of C. sativum from different origins is listed in Table 3.
Although the amounts vary, all the studies seem to
conrm that the major components of coriander leaf
essential oil are the alcohols and aldehydes. The
polyphenol composition of coriander leaves includes:
kaempherol, quercetin, 3- O-mesquercetin, 4- O-
mequercetin and acacetin. Vanillic acid, p-coumaric
acid, cis-ferulic acid and trans-Ferulic acid are the major
phenolic acids identied in coriander leaves (Nambiar
et al., 2010). In 1988, two photoactive furoisocoumarins,
coriandrin and dihydrocoriandrin were isolated from
coriander leaves (Ceska et al., 1988). Other isocoumarins
fromaerial parts have alsobeenidentied andcharacterized
by spectral techniques (Baba et al., 1991; Tanguchi et al.,
1996). Coriander leaves are mostly used for its distinctive
pungent smell. Eyres et al. (2005) identied character-
impact odorants in coriander leaves using GC-olfactometry
and 2-dimensional GC-time-of-ight mass spectrometry.
The most important odorants in C. sativum is Z-2-decenal,
a co-eluting cluster (E-2-dodecenal, E-2-dodecen-1-ol and
1-dodecanol), b-ionone, eugenol and E-2-decenal. The
predominant compound of coriander leaves, E-2- Decen-
1-ol contributed little to odor activity (0.39%).
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR
CHARACTERIZATION OF CORIANDER LIPIDS
AND ESSENTIAL OIL
Using some chromatographic techniques, essential oil
constituents can be fractionated and isolated to further
assess the biological activities both the in vivo and
in vitro leading to explore their potential therapeutic
applications. The characterization of the TL or xed oil
normally involves a few steps including TL extraction,
followed by lipid class separation by chromatography
which commonly involves thin layer chromatography
(TLC). FA composition is then determined by gasliquid
chromatography (GLC), equipped with FID for
identication.
Generally, TL extraction involved the xation of lipid
by boiling in water before the manual grinding in
chloroform: methanol: hexane (3:2:1), followed by
washing and decantation. Evaporation of solvent is
carried out under nitrogen stream. It is followed by lipid
class separation by TLC on silica plates. In some cases,
the TL is rst subjected to column chromatography
(CC) whereby, TL is further separated out in NL, GL
and PL. For CC, the eluting solvents for NL, GL and PL
are chloroform, acetone and methanol, respectively
(Ramadan et al., 2010). Separation of NL subclasses is
carried out on silica gel plates (thickness 0.25 mm)
activated at 120
0
C for 2 h before use (Sriti et al., 2009b;
Ramadan et al., 2010). Sriti et al. (2010) separated NL
using a mobile phase of petroleum ether-ethanol-acetic
acid (70:30:0.4, v:v:v) based on the method proposed
by Mangold (1964). Slight modications were introduced
in the method used by Ramadan et al. (2010), who used
n-hexane: diethyl ether: acetic acid (60:40:1, v:v:v) to
develop the plates. In the same study, PLs were separated
out using a mixture of chloroform-acetone-methanol-acetic
HO
Linalool
O
O
Geranyl acetate
O
(E)-2 decenal
O
Camphor
O OH
2-decenoic acid
O
Decanal
Alpha pinene
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F) (G)
Figure 1. Structures of selected phytochemicals from coriander:
Linalool (A), Geranyl acetate (B), E-2-decenal (C), 2-decenoic acid
(D), camphor (E), decanal (F) and alpha pinene (G).
Table 3. Chemical composition of essential oils of Coriandrum sativum (L.) leaves and fruits from different origins
Origin/Parts Major components % Reference
Algeria
F
Linalool 73.11 Zoubiri and Baaliouamer, 2010
r- Menthe-1,4-dien-7-ol 6.51
a-Pinene 3.41
Neryl acetate 3.22
Propanal, 2-methyl-3 phenyl
Camphor
r - Cymene
India
F
Linalool 75.30 Singh et al., 2006
Geranyl acetate 8.12
a-Pinene 4.09
Tunisia
F
(Northwestern region) Linalool 86.1 Sriti et al., 2009a
g-Terpinene 2.15
a-Pinene 1.65
Geraniol 1.63
Tunisia
F
(Northeastern region) Linalool 87.54 Msaada et al., 2007
Cis-Dihydrocarvone 2.36
Thymol 1.85
Canada
F
Linalool 25.9 Delaquis et al., 2002
(E)-2-decenal 20.2
a-Pinene 2.7
Nonane 2.5
Italy(1)
F
Linalool 64.5 Lo Cantore et al., 2004
Camphor 6.4
r-Cymene 6.3
Nerol 4.6
Italy (2)
F
Linalool 6579 Grosso et al., 2008
g-Terpinene 47
Camphor 3
Geranyl acetate 24
a-Pinene 13
Geraniol 13
Limonene 12
Iran
F
Linalool 77.9282.91 Elkani et al., 2007
g- Terpinene 0.427.28
r- Cymene 0.843.77
a- Thujene 3.987.87
Finland
F
Linalool 67.2 Kerrola and Kallio, 1993
Camphor 4.84.9
Geranyl acetate 3.43.6
Geraniol 22.4
D-limonene 1.92.6
Bangladesh
F
Linalool 37.70 Bhuiyan et al., 2009
Geranyl acetate 17.6
g- Terpinene 14.4
a- Cedrene 3.87
b- Pinene 1.82
m-Cymene 1.27
Citronellal 1.96
Citronellol 1.31
Geraniol 1.87
Kenya
L
2E- Decenal 15.9 Matasyoh et al., 2009
Decanal 14.3
2E- Dodecenal 6.23
Dodecanal 4.36
Undecanal 3.23
tridecanal 1.16
2E- Decen-1-ol 14.2
n-Decanol 13.6
Undecanol 3.37
Trans-2-Undecen-1-ol 2.12
n- Undecanol 2.38
(Continues)
Table 3. (Continued)
Origin/Parts Major components % Reference
Massachusetts, USA
L
Decanal 9.25 Potter, 1996
(E)-2-decenal 12.1
2-decen-1-ol 8.18
1-decanol 2.09
Undecanal 2.31
(E)-2-undecenal 5.32
dodecanal 4.96
(E)-2-dodecenal 15.6
(E)-2-tridecanal 2.53
Tetradecanal 1.69
(E)-2-tetradecenal 12.7
(E)-2-pentadecenal 4.77
Phytol 2.79
1-eicosanol 1.48
Bangladesh
L
2-Decenoic acid 30.82 Bhuiyan et al., 2009
2-Dedecanal 1.32
2-Undecenal 3.87
Cyclododecane 2.45
Decamethylene glycol 1.15
Decanal 1.39
Dodecanal 1.25
Dodecanoic acid 2.63
E-11-tetradecenoic acid 13.37
Capric acid 12.71
Nonanoic acid 1.17
E-Undecanoic acid 4.97
Tridecanoic acid 5.45
Undecanoic acid 2.13
Undecyl alcohol 6.42
Brazil
L
1-decenol 24.2 Begnami et al., 2010
2E-decenol 18.00
2Z-dodecenol 17.60
Decanal 4.8
Tridecanal 3.00
2-Dodecenal 2.90
Tetradecenol 12.00
Fiji
L
Nonane 1.53 Eyres et al., 2005
1-Decanol 19.64
E-2-Decen-1-ol 26.00
E-2-Undecen-1-ol 2.01
E-2-Dodecen-1-ol 4.60
Decanal 6.56
Dodecanal 2.99
Serbia
F
p-lymene 4.0 Samojlik et al., 2010
g- terpinene 1.2
linalool 74.6
camphor 5.9
borneol 1.2
trans-geraniol 2.8
trans-anethole 1.8
geranyl acetate 4.6
Pakistan
F
Linalool 69.60 Anwar et al., 2011
geranyl acetate 4.99
g- Terpinene 4.17
r- Cymene 1.12
a-Pinene 1.63
anethol 1.15
L: Leaves
F: Fruits/seeds
acid-water (50:20:10:10:5, v:v:v:vv) (Lepage, 1967). The
plates are then air dried and stained by rhodamine in
ethanol. Identication of bands is made by comparison of
their Retention Factor (R
F
) with referenced authentic
standards chromatogram under the same conditions.
TAG, FA (FA), mono-acylglycerols, diacylglycerols,
ST and ST esters are examples of different classes of lipids
that can be separated from NL (Ramadan et al., 2010).
Once the TAG has been separated from the NL, it can be
further characterized for its individual FA using GLC/FID.
The FA are rst converted to methyl esters before
being injected in the GLC/FID system. Standard and
sample are injected for identication of FA, and their
amounts are quantied based on peak areas of known
concentration of standards (Ramadan et al., 2010). The
FA are identied based on retention times as compared
to standards and quantied based on peak area (Sriti
et al., 2010). Analysis of GL, ST and PL in coriander
oil has also been investigated thoroughly (Ramadan
et al., 2003; Ramadan et al., 2010). PL, GL and ST
subclasses can be studied using normal phase high-
performance liquid chromatography (Ramadan et al.,
2010).
GC-MS has become a popular and versatile tool to
characterize essential oil components due to the high
sensitivity and selectivity of the method coupled with
relatively easy identication of compounds through
reference libraries. In the last decade, GC-MS has been
the choice method to characterize essential oil from
coriander (Singh et al., 2006; Bhuiyan et al., 2009;
Matasyoh et al., 2009; Sriti et al., 2009a). The essential
oil requires minimal preliminary preparation and can
be injected directly into the GC-MS system. The injector,
GC-MS interface, ion source and selective mass detector
must be maintained at suitable temperatures. In a study
by Singh et al. (2006), various temperatures (270, 280,
230 and 150
0
C) were used, while gradually adjusting
oven temperature: 60
0
C for 1 min, rising at 1.5
0
C/min
till 185
0
C and at 9
0
C/min till 275
0
C, held for 2 min.
The same temperature was more or less recommended
by Matasyoh et al. (2009), where the maximum
temperature reached 260
0
C and was held for 10 min.
Most studies used a fused silica capillary column, with
dimensions of 30 m 0.25 mm; 0.25 mm lm thickness
(Bhuiyan et al., 2009; Matasyoh et al., 2009) or HP-5MS
column with dimension of 30 mm 0.35 mm; 0.25 mm
lm thickness. Helium is mostly used as carrier gas
(Singh et al., 2006; Msaada et al., 2007; Begnami et al.,
2010). Identication of the essential oil components is
mostly made by comparing their retention times and
mass spectra with published data in the literature and
also comparison with the National Institute of Standards
and Technology library. Wiley & QuadLib GC-MS
and other GC-MS libraries are also used. Percentage
composition is computed from the GC-MS peak areas.
MEDICINAL USES
Different parts of coriander have been traditionally
used across the world. All parts of the plant including
the leaves, seeds and essential oil have been used
traditionally in the folk medicine systems of different
civilizations. The leaves have been used as antispas-
modic, dyspeptic and appetizer and to treat abdominal
discomforts. Leaves preparations are ingested and also
applied externally to treat coughs, chest pains, bladder
complaints and as an aphrodisiac (Bruneton, 1995). The
fruits of coriander have been used to treat inammation,
indigestion, cough, bronchitis, vomiting, dysentery,
diarrhea, gout, rheumatism, intermittent fevers and
giddiness among others (Varier, 1994). It has also been
reported to be a good carminative agent, has antispas-
modic and expectorant attributes and is used as an
ointment in arthritis and rheumatism (Ceska et al., 1988).
Other uses include antiedemic, antiseptic, emmenagogue
and nerve soothing (Duke et al., 2002).
In Ayurvedic medicine, the seeds are combined with
caraway and cardamom seeds or with caraway, fennel
and anise seeds in eastern medicine to treat digestive
complaints (Kapoor, 1990; Aggarwal and Kunnumakkara,
2009). In Pakistan, especially in the northern areas (Gilgit)
the plant has medicinal use to treat atulence, dysentry,
diarrhoea, cough, stomach complaints, jaundice and
vomiting (Khan and Khatoon, 2008). It is also used all over
the country as analgesic, refrigerant, diuretic and tonic
(Chaudry and Tariq, 2006). In traditional Chinese medi-
cine, coriander seeds are administered to treat indigestion,
anorexia, stomach ache, inuenza with no sweating, bad
breath and unpleasant odors from genital areas (Leung
and Foster, 1996), whereas, in Germany, coriander seeds
are usually taken as medicinal teas or components of car-
minatives and laxatives. The main use is to treat dyspeptic
complaints, loss of appetite, abdominal discomforts and
gastrointestinal upsets (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). The fruit
is listed in the European Pharmacopoeias and is used as a
digestive aid, against worms and to treat rheumatism. In
Iran, coriander has a long history of medicinal use for pre-
venting convulsions, anxiety, insomnia and loss of appetite.
In Saudi Arabia, a percentage of the population still uses
infusion of coriander seeds as an anti-diabetic agent (Al
Rowais, 2002), and the seed extract has been used to de-
crease fertility (Al Said et al., 1987). The essential oil from
coriander plant has also been traditionally used to stimulate
gastric juices and to treat ulcers and mouth infections in the
Asian region (Leung and Foster, 1996; Kapoor, 1990).
Table 4 presents an overview of the medicinal uses of dif-
ferent parts of C. sativum in some folk medicine across
the regions
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
Anti-microbial activity
The anti-microbial activity of coriander leaves and seeds
and their extracts and essential oils is one of the most
reported biological activities of the plant (Kubo et al.,
2004; Saeed and Tariq, 2007; Matasyoh et al., 2009;
Begnami et al., 2010). Essential oil and aqueous extract
of coriander leaves showed inhibitory activity against
many bacteria and yeast species. In particular, the
essential oil showed marked inhibitory effect against
Gram-positive bacteria (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus and
Bacillus spp) and Gram-negative (e.g. Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella
pneumonia and Proteus mirabilis). The seed essential
oil also showed antifungal activity against Candida
albicans. On the other hand, the leaf essential oil
was also found to inhibit a number of Candida species
T
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(C.albicans CBS 562, C. parapsilosis CBS 604, C.
dubliniensis CBS 7987 and C. krusei CBS 573) at a dose
in the range of 125 mg/mL500 mg/mL. Different
chemical fractions of the essential oil showed anti-
microbial activity comparable to standard antibiotics
with biological activity being attributed to the
concentration of alcohol-soluble bioactives (Lo Cantore
et al., 2004; Matasyoh et al., 2009; Begnami et al., 2010).
The antifungal and sprout suppressant activities of the
essential seed oil and oleoresin were studied (Singh
et al., 2006). From the inverted Petri plate assay,
coriander essential oil was found to be very active
against C. palliscens, F. oxysporum, F. moniliforme and
A. terreus, with more than 70% zone inhibition. The
oleoresin was less effective, with a zone inhibition of
50% against F. oxysporum, A. niger and A. terreus.
Results from the food poison technique showed 100%
inhibition of A. terreus, A. niger, F. graminearum and
F. oxysporum by the essential oil. Oleoresin showed
some antifungal activity as assessed by this method,
showing 100% inhibition for F. oxysporum only. The
essential oil of an Algerian variety was studied against
Sitophilus granarius, (S. granarius), a common stored
product beetle. After 5 days, coriander, at all doses
showed considerable toxicity against it, thus, showing
promise as a fumigant agent (Zoubiri and Baaliouamer,
2010).
Many researchers have endeavored to identify the
phytochemical(s) responsible for the anti-microbial
activity of coriander leave extract and essential oil.
The aqueous and methanolic leave and stem extracts
inhibited growth of Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli
by inducing cell damage. The methanolic extract was
found to be more potent against the tested microorganism
as compared to the aqueous equivalent. The stemextract,
which had higher contents of total phenolics, showed
stronger antibacterial activity as compared to the leaves
extract, suggesting a strong correlation between TPC
and bacteriostatic activity (Wong and Kitts, 2006). The
antibacterial effect of essential oil from coriander leaves
against Listeria monocytogenes was also attributed to
the presence of long chain alcohols and aldehydes as the
distilled fractions, containing a-pinene, camphene and
linalool, which were potent against an array of both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms
(Delaquis et al., 2002).
The antibacterial activity of volatile compounds from
coriander leaves, namely, decanal, (2E)-decenal, (2E)-
dodecenal, linalool, (2E)-undecenal, dodecanal, (2E)-
tridecenal, octanal, undecanal, nonanal and (2E)-hexenal
were tested against Salmonella choleraesuis, using broth
dilution method. Interestingly, all tested aldehydes showed
varying inhibitory effect on tested microorganisms, with
(2E)- dodecenal being the most effective, having minimum
bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 6.25 mg/mL, followed
by (2E)- undecenal with MBC of 12.5 mg/mL (Kubo et al.
(2004). This study also reported the unusual inhibitory
activity of (2E)-hexenal on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as
very few phytochemicals are known to have inhibitory
effect on Gram-negative bacteria. The efcacy of essential
oil to show bacteriostatic or bactericidal activity depends
on the ability of the components to disrupt the permeability
barrier of cell membrane structures andloss of chemiosmotic
control (Cox et al., 2000).
On the other hand, there are a couple of reports
showing the ineffectiveness of certain coriander extracts
against microbes. Chaudry and Tariq (2006) reported
that aqueous decoction of coriander seeds had no
antibacterial effect against oral isolates. Later, the same
group (Saeed and Tariq, 2007) reported that the
aqueous infusion and decoction of coriander leaves
does not inhibit Gram-negative urinary pathogens and
C. albicans. In summary, several reports indicated that
essential oil and extracts of different parts of coriander
have potential natural anti-microbial activities. The oil
or the individual components are active against both
Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, which is
suitable for food preservation. However, more studies
are required to investigate the stability of the essential
oil in food system and its ability to prevent microbial
growth and extend shelf life of food.
Anti-oxidant activity
The safety of synthetic anti-oxidants as food preserva-
tives has been questioned, due to some associated side
effects. The commonly used synthetic anti-oxidants such
as butylated hydroxyl anisole and butylated hydroxyl
toluene have been reported to induce DNA damage
(Sasaki et al., 2002). Thus, effort is being made to search
for natural anti-oxidant alternatives to address this issue
(Reische et al., 2002). Plants bioactives, most importantly,
polyphenolics and avonoids have attracted a great deal
of interest as potential therapeutic agents in the treatment
of cancer and other chronic diseases due to their anti-
oxidant and chelating activities. In an early study,
administration of coriander seeds in rats fed with a high
fat diet showed decrease in peroxides levels, free FA
and glutathione as well as increased activity of anti-
oxidant enzymes (Chithra and Leelamma, 1999).
In a more comprehensive study (Wangensteen et al.,
2004), the anti-oxidant potential of extracts of different
polarity from coriander leaves and seeds as well as
coriander oil has been reported. The anti-oxidant activity
was evaluated by three different bioassays including
diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method,
inhibition of 15-lipoxygenase (15-LO) and inhibition of
Fe
2+
peroxidation of porcine brain PL. An extract of
medium polarity (ethyl acetate) showed a strong anti-
oxidant activity when assessed by DPPH radical
scavenging (IC
50
147 3 mg/mL). Ethanolic extracts
inhibited 15-LO in a concentration-dependent manner,
with the leaves being more active than the seeds, while
lipophilic extracts and coriander oil were found inactive.
There was no activity observed in the PL peroxidation
method. This study concluded that the coriander leave
extracts showed stronger anti-oxidant activity as
compared to the seed extract. In another related study
(Wong and Kitts, 2006), aqueous and methanolic
extracts of coriander leave and stem were assessed for
their anti-oxidant activity using different assays. Both
aqueous and methanolic extracts of stem and leaves
showed a reducing activity with the leaf being more
active in scavenging free radicals. Coriander seed oil
quenched 35% and 32.4% of DPPH radicals and
galvinoxyl radicals, respectively. This radical scavenging
activity of coriander was higher than black cumin and
Niger crude seed oil. The radical scavenging activity of
coriander oil has been partly attributed to the high
composition of unsaponiables (21.8 g/kg), and PL
present in coriander seed oil (Ramadan et al., 2003).
Recently, a considerable interest has been shown
towards improving the nutritional and functional
properties of cooking oils through blending with some
non-conventional oils. Ramadan and Wahdan (2012)
explored the effect of blending coriander seed oil with
corn oil and assessed the functionality, stability and
radical scavenging activity of the oil blends produced. Corn
oil blended with coriander oil (at proportion 1020%)
showed enhanced oxidative stability and DPPH free
radical scavenging capacity as compared to corn oil. This
improvement in oxidation parameters and anti-oxidant
attributes of oil blend was supposed to be attributed to
positive changes in the FA and tocopherols proles as
well as presence of bioactive compounds such as ST
and tocols in coriander seed oil. Similarly, oxidative
stability of high linoleic sunower oil, when blended with
coriander seed oil, was also improved as result of
decrease in linoleic acid and increase in tocols levels of
the blend. The improvement effect was found to be dose
dependent (Ramadan, 2013).
The effect of polyphenolic extract of coriander seeds
was assessed on hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
)-induced
oxidative stress in human lymphocytes (Hashim et al.,
2005). Treatment with H
2
O
2
caused oxidative stress by
decreasing activities of anti-oxidant enzymes (i.e.
superoxide dismuthase SOD, catalase CAT, glutathione
peroxidase GOP, gluthatione reductase GR and
glutathione-S-transferase). General decrease in glutathione
content and increase in thiobarbituric acid-reactive
substances (TBARS) was observed. Treatment with
polyphenolic fractions of coriander seeds (50 mg/mL)
effectively protected human lymphocytes from H
2
O
2
-
induced oxidative stress and restored oxidative stress to
that of normal cells. There was an increase in the
activities of the anti-oxidant enzymes and glutathione
content, and TBARS content was decreased. The
protective effect was comparable to that of a pure
compound, quercetin, a known anti-oxidant (Hashim
et al., 2005). There is supporting evidence that coriander
possesses hepatoprotective activity against carbon
tetrachloride (CCL
4
) intoxication in vivo (Pandey et al.,
2011). There was a signicant decrease in liver weight
and other biomarker elements such as aspartate
aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline
phosphatase and bilirubin in rats fed with the extracts.
The protective effect could be attributed to the high
contents of phenolics, most specically iso-quercetin
and quercetin. Similarly, ethanolic extracts of fresh
leaves and stem of coriander from an Indian origin were
found to have a protective effect on CCL
4
-induced
hepatotoxicity in rats. Pretreatment with coriander
extracts (200 mg/kg) reduced the CCL
4
-induced
hepatoxicity, which may be due to the presence of
quercetin, caffeic acid and/or thymol active constituents
of different plants including coriander, which have been
shown to be hepatoprotective in our earlier studies
(Gilani et al., 1997; Janbaz et al., 2004, 2003). There was
a general increase in protective enzymes: SOD, CAT
and GOP. The anti-oxidant activity of the fresh leaf
extract (200 mg/kg) was also found to be comparable to
the standard drug, silymarin (Sreelatha et al., 2009).
Different models of anti-oxidative stress have been
used to study the anti-oxidant activity of coriander
extracts in vivo. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of
coriander were investigated for their anti-oxidant
properties in lead nitrate-induced hepatotoxicity in mice.
As expected, treatment with lead nitrate (40 mg/kg) caused
toxicity in liver with increased level of TBARS and
decrease in SODand CATactivity and glutathione content.
Administration of coriander extracts (250600 mg/kg)
attenuated the effect of lead nitrate as shown by an
increase in anti-oxidant content and activity. Histological
examination revealed that at high doses, coriander
extracts were able to restore the liver and kidney tissue
to their normal structures as compared to tissues damage
observed in the lead nitrate without extract supplemen-
tation. Although the study concluded that coriander
extracts do prevent or slow down oxidative damage
caused by lead, there is still a need to identify the specic
metabolite and mechanism of action involved (Kansar
et al., 2011).
The anti-oxidant activity of leaves and shoot extract
of coriander has been attributed to its high phenolic
content (2.734 mg/100 g catechin equivalent of dry
samples). The principal phenolic anti-oxidants identied
includes, caffeic acid, protocathenic acid and glycitin
(Melo, 2002; Melo et al., 2005). Coriander extracts, rich
in phenolics and carotenoids were fed to Wistar rats for
30 and 60 days. Initially, the aqueous extract was more
effective, but towards the end of the study, the ether
extract was found to be more effective in both liver
and plasma as assessed by measuring TBARS levels
(Melo et al., 2003). Free radicals and lipid peroxidation
have also been implicated in acute gastric lesions. The
aqueous suspension of coriander seeds showed a dose-
dependent protection against gastric ulcers induced by
various agents such as sodiumchloride, sodiumhydroxide,
ethanol and indomethacin as well as by pylorus ligation
accumulated gastric acid secretion. The protective effect
against ulcers was attributed to the free radical scavenging
capacity of anti-oxidants in the seeds and the hydrophobic
interactions of anti-oxidant compounds to formprotective
layers (Al-Moeh et al., 2006). In a contradictory study
published recently, essential oil from coriander seeds
showed pro-oxidant activity both in vitro and in vivo.
Although the essential oil was shown to have some DPPH
radical scavenging activity (IC
50
4.05 mL/mL), it enhanced
oxidation in lipid peroxidation with poor hepatoprotective
effect in CCL
4-
-induced hepatotoxicity. Pretreatment with
coriander oil resulted in decreased CAT activity and
glutathione content (Samojlik et al., 2010). This is partially
supported by Wangensteen et al. (2004), who reported
that coriander oil and lipophilic extracts failed to show
anti-oxidant properties in the in vivo study. In the light
of above reviewed evidences, it is clear that different
parts of coriander do show some anti-oxidant activity
in vitro, but there are contradictory reports concerning
its effect in the in vivo models. Therefore, more studies
are needed to elucidate the effect of coriander extract
on the oxidation status of the body, especially, under
in vivo conditions.
Anti-diabetic activity
Diabetes is one of the most prevalent diseases and
growing with rapid pace (Wild et al., 2004). The treatment
requires life-long use of chemical drugs, which produce
multiple side-effects; hence, scientists are compelled
to search for more effective and safer anti-diabetic
treatment. Some medicinal plants and natural products,
such as Momordica charantia L., Trigonella foecum
graecumL., Cuminumnigrum, terpenoids, avonoids and
phenolics have been proven to be effective anti-diabetic
agents, both experimentally and in clinical trials (Ahmed
et al., 2000; Jung et al., 2006). Coriander is also one of the
medicinal plants that have been traditionally used as anti-
diabetic agent (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977). In
countries like Saudi Arabia and Morocco, coriander seeds
are still used as a remedy for hyperglycemia (Al Rowais,
2002; Tahraoui et al., 2007). There are several studies,
supporting the anti-hyperglycemic activity of coriander
seeds (Swanston-Flatt et al., 1990; Chithra and Leelamma,
1999; Eidi et al., 2009; Gray and Flatt, 1999). The apparent
reduced hyperglycemia was observed in streptozotocin-
diabetic mice on a diet (62.5 g/kg) and drinking water
(2.5 g/L) supplemented with a decoction of the seeds. In
the in vitro, glucose metabolism and insulin secretion in
isolated murine abdominal muscle and clonal b-cell line
were also positively modulated. There was an increase in
glucose uptake, glucose oxidation and glycogenesis and a
dose-dependent effect on insulin secretion (Gray and
Flatt, 1999). A supplementation of 200 and 250 mg/kg of
ethanolic extract of seeds caused a decrease in serum
glucose concentration and increased activity of beta cells
as compared to a diabetic control (Eidi et al., 2009).
Recently, Aissaoui et al. (2011) validated the medicinal
use of coriander seeds in management of diabetes in
Morocco.
An aqueous extract of coriander seeds (20 mg/kg) was
fed to obese-hyperglycemic-hyperlipidemic rats at a
single dose in a sub-chronic study for 30 days. The
results showed that the coriander extract suppressed
hyperglycemia, with a normal blood glucose level
reached after 4 h of dosing, with no effect on lipids.
The sub-chronic supplementation of coriander extracts
for 30 days reduced plasma glucose and was able to
maintain normal glycemia as from day 21. Insulin,
insulin resistance and lipid parameters including total
cholesterol, low density lipoproteins (LDL)-cholesterol
and triglycerides were reduced. In both the single dose
experiment and sub-chronic study, the effect of
coriander extract was found to be comparable to that of
glibenclamide. The mechanism of the anti-hyperglycemic
action was partly investigated by Chithra and Leelamma
(1999). Pretreatment with coriander seed powder caused
changes in carbohydrate metabolism; increased concen-
tration and activity of hepatic glycogen and glycogen
synthase were observed. Therefore, decreased glycogen-
olysis and gluconeogenesis and enhanced activities of
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase along with other
glycolytic enzymes might all be an indication of the anti-
hyperglycemic activity of coriander seeds. This supports
the potential uses of coriander seeds for development of
anti-diabetic functional foods and nutraceuticals.
Anti-dyslipidemic activity
Increased plasma cholesterol, most specically LDL,
cholesterol has been generally accepted to have a
positive relationship with CHD (Seman et al., 1999).
The lipid lowering drugs such as, statins are considered
to be effective in controlling LDL but have little effect
in raising HDL and are not only expensive but are also
associated with multiple side-effects; thus there is a need
to explore natural alternatives. Interestingly, coriander
seeds showed lipid lowering effect when studied in rats
fed on high fat diet (Chithra and Leelamma, 1997). A
decrease in triglyceride levels and LDL and VLDL
cholesterol and increased HDL cholesterol was among
reported observations. Furthermore, administration of
coriander seed oil decreased the levels of TLs, total
cholesterol, TAG and LDL-cholesterol in rats fed on a
high cholesterol diet. Pure coriander seed oil seems to
be more effective in its anti-hypercholesterolemic effect
as opposed to a blend of oils containing coriander oil
(Ramadan et al., 2008).
The activity of key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis,
HMG-CoA reductase, was also decreased, with the effect
being attributed to a hepatic degradation of cholesterol
with increased concentration of hepatic and fecal bile
acids and neutral ST. Anti-cholesterolemic effect of
coriander was further conrmed by Dhanapakiam et al.
(2008), who reported that supplementation with
coriander caused a general decrease in cholesterol and
triglyceride levels in rats. The activity of HMG CoA
reductase was also decreased as a reduction in LDL and
VLDL cholesterol was observed. There was also an
increase in benecial HDL cholesterol and in the activity
of lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase. The increase in
concentration of hepatic and fecal bile acids and neutral
ST was again suggested to enhance hepatic clearance
of cholesterol. More recently, coriander was reported
to tansactivate the transcription factor, peroxisome
proliferator activated receptors a, which is thought to
improve overall lipid prole (Mueller et al., 2011).
Anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, anti-depressant
and cognitive effects
Coriander has long been used in Iranian traditional
medicine as anticonvulsant, anti-depressant and for its
nerve soothing, sedative and anxiolytic properties.
Anti-seizure potential of coriander seeds has been
assessed using pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and maximal
electroshock test. Both the aqueous and ethanolic
extracts of coriander seeds delayed onset of clonic
convulsion and showed anticonvulsant activity as assessed
by PTZ test. There was also a decrease in the duration
of tonic seizures as assessed by maximal electroshock
(Hosseinzadeh and Madanifard, 2000). A dose of 5 mg/kg
showed protective effect similar to that of phenobarbitural
(20 mg/kg). These ndings were conrmed by another
report, whereby; aqueous-alcoholic extract and essential
oil of coriander seeds provided a dose-dependent
protection against PTZ-induced tonic convulsions and
death. Aqueous extract appears to be more active than
essential oil in increasing the onset of time for myoclonic
and clonic convulsions (Ghoreyshi and Ghazal, 2008).
The same extracts (100600 mg/kg) were administered
to mice to assess for their sedative activity. Aqueous
extracts at concentration of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg
prolonged pentobarbital-induced sleeping time as
compared to control group. The essential oil showed
sedative effect only at 600 mg/kg, suggesting that the
sedative component might be present in higher amount
in the polar fractions (Ghoreyshi and Hamedani, 2006).
In view of the multiple side-effects associated with
benzodiazepines in managing anxiety, Emamghoreishi
et al. (2005) studied the anxiolytic activity of coriander
seeds extract (100 mg/kg) in mice, using the elevated plus-
maze model. Anxiolytic effect, comparable to diazepam
(0.3 mg/kg) as demonstrated by time spent in the open arms
and the percentage of open arm entries, was recorded.
Coriander extracts in this study (50500 mg/kg) also
showed potential sedative and muscle relaxant effect by
reducing spontaneous activity and neuromuscular
coordination in a dose-dependent manner. In a more
comprehensive study, Mahendra and Bisht (2011)
reported the anti-anxiety effect of coriander seed extract
using different experimental anxiety models in mice,
such as elevated plus-maze test, open eld test, light
and dark test and social interaction test. The aqueous-
alcoholic extracts of coriander seed (100 and 200 mg/kg)
exhibited anxiolytic effect comparable with that of a
standard drug, diazepam (0.5 mg/kg).
In addition, the aqueous extract of coriander seed was
studied for its effect on anxiety and pain (Pathan et al.,
2011). The models chosen for assessing anxiolytic and
analgesic effect were the elevated plus-maze and hot plate
model, respectively. At a concentration of 200 mg/kg, the
extract showed anxiolytic effect comparable to standard
drug, diazepam (0.3 mg/kg). It also exhibited analgesic
activity with median effective dose of 200 mg/kg.
In another study, only the green plant extract, not the
dried variety showed anti-despair activity in mice
(Kishore and Siddiqui, 2003). The aqueous extract and
xed oil fromcoriander seed also showed anti-depressant
activity as assessed by the forced swimming test and tail
suspension test. These indices of depression in these
models were measured by the Immobility Time, with a
shorter immobility time indicating a strong anti-depressant
activity. The aqueous and diethyl ether extracts of cori-
ander showed signicant anti-depressant like activity,
comparable to uoxetine and imipramine, commonly used
anti-depressant drugs in the clinical settings. The diethyl
ether extract of the seeds showed better bioactivity as
compared to their aqueous counterpart. Monoamine oxi-
dase-B enzyme (MAO-B) is an enzyme implicated in the
pathogenesis of depression. Coriander extract inhibited
MAO-B activity, which was suggested to be the principal
mechanism of anti-depressant-like activity (Kharade
et al., 2011).
In a more recent study, the reversal of memory
decits by supplementation with fresh coriander leaves
was reported (Mani et al., 2011). In the transfer latency
test using elevated plus-maze model, aged animals
(1215 months) on a normal diet showed memory decits
as compared to young animals (34 months). Memory
decit was shown to be successfully reversed in old
animals supplemented with the leaves for 45 days while
in young animals, treatment reversed the amnesia
induced by scopolamine and diazepam. The study also
revealed possible neuro-protective effect of the coriander
leaves, which also caused inhibition of ACEactivity in the
brain of both old and young animals and reduced serum
cholesterol level, thus acting dually in improving the
manifestations of Alzheimers disease.
Anti-mutagenic activity
The use of natural extracts as complementary anti-
cancer agents have become very popular, and, according
to some estimates, about 90% of cancer patients
worldwide rely on some form of complementary and
alternative medicine (Yates et al., 2005). Aromatic amines
are compounds that can be changed to mutagenic
compounds both in humans and plants. Coriander juice
was assessed for its anti-mutagenic activity by using the
Ames reversion mutagenicity assay (his
-
to his
+
) with
the Salmonella typhimurium strain as an indicator
organism. The aqueous crude coriander juice signicantly
decreased mutagenicity of metabolized aromatic amines,
and this effect seems to be positively correlated with
chlorophyll content in the juice. There was no observed
toxicity associated with coriander juice (Cortes-Eslara
et al., 2004). The effect of coriander extract on Neuro-21
cells was assessed. This murine neuroblastoma cell line
is a good model for tumor studies as it is established from
a spontaneous tumor. Cell viability was assessed by
resazurin (Almar Blue) indicator assay, and coriander
extract was shown to have weak anti-tumor effect, as
compared to other extracts tested, with an LC
50
value of
more than 5 mg/mL (Mazzio and Soliman, 2009).
Diuretic and anti-hypertensive activities
Despite the lack of evidence regarding the efcacy of
existing diuretics, they are still widely used to promote
renal salt and water excretion to treat acute renal failures
(Mehta et al., 2002). The use of coriander as a traditional
diuretic or to treat renal maladies has been reported in
many cultures (Grieve 1971; Eddouks et al., 2002). The
extract of coriander seeds was studied for its diuretic
effect in anesthetized rats, and the results showed a
dose-dependent increase in urine output, excretion of
electrolytes andglomerular ltration rate witha mechanism
similar to that of the standard drug, furosemide (Aissaoui
et al., 2008). The aqueous-methanolic extract of coriander
fruits was also found to exhibit diuretic effect in conscious
rats (Jabeen et al., 2009).
The aqueous-methanolic extract of coriander fruits was
found to possess anti-hypertensive effect in anesthetized
rats, along with vasodilator effect mediated through a
combination of endothelial-dependent (cholinergic) and
independent (Ca
++
channel blockade) pathways (Jabeen
et al., 2009).
Anti-inammatory effect
The commonly used non-steroidal anti-inammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) are known to cause gastrointestinal
tract irritation (Graham et al., 1988). The NSAIDS with
selective COX-2 inhibition are, however, considered to
be less ulcerogenic, but they have been reported to
cause fatal cardiac toxicity based on which, some have
been withdrawn from the market. Therefore, there is
an increasing need for safer anti-inammatory drugs.
Several reports have shown plant bioactives, such as
avonoids and dietary polyphenols, possess anti-in-
ammatory effect through various molecular targets
(Yoon and Baek, 2005; Garcia-Lafuente et al., 2009).
The use of coriander as anti-inammatory agent is
evident by a traditional formulation from Sri Lanka,
Maharasnadhi Quather (MRQ), containing coriander
seeds as one of its principal component. MRQ has been
reported to have analgesic and anti-inammatory proper-
ties both in animal models andhuman subjects. Administra-
tion of MRQ signicantly inhibited carrageenan-induced
rat paw edema. The formulation also increases pain tol-
erance in rats by 57% after 1 h of treatment as assessed
by the hot plate test. The analgesic effect was suggested
to be mediated via a supra-spiral effect. Supplementa-
tion of MRQ in patients suffering from rheumatoid
arthritis for 3 months improved pain, inammation and
mobility without any adverse effects on liver functions
and gastrointestinal activities (Thabrew et al., 2003). A
poly-herbal formulation, consisting of coriander as one
of the constituents, showed inhibitory effect against in-
ammatory bowel disease. The activity was comparable
to that of prednisolone (Japtap et al., 2004).
The topical anti-inammatory effect of coriander oil
was also reported where 40 human volunteers were
tested for the anti-inammatory effect of a lipolotion
supplemented with 0.5% and 1% of coriander oil.
Lipolotion effectively reduced the UV-induced erythema
but was less effective than hydrocortisone. Coriander oil
showed mild anti-inammatory effect with good skin
tolerance at both concentrations (Reuter et al., 2008).
Miscellaneous activities
Lead-detoxifying potential. The potential of coriander
against lead poisoning has been assessed in mice
exposed to lead contaminated drinking water and
then supplemented with different doses of coriander
(0.412 mg/kg) for 25 days. The results showed improve-
ment in terms of lead deposition. The administration of
the herb was found to decrease lead-induced kidney
injury and localized lead deposition in the femur. The
protective effect was similar to that offered by DMSA
(a chelating agent) used as positive control in the
experiment. The methanolic extract of coriander positively
modulated the activity of lead-induced inhibition of
specic enzyme (delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase),
which lead to the suggestion that the protective ability
of the extracts was due to some chelating activity of
bioactives in the plant. The identity of those bioactives
remained to be identied (Aga et al., 2001).
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
A few studies have been conducted to assess the safety
using either the oral supplementation, or the topical
application of coriander, mainly the essential oil. The
effect of aqueous extract of fresh coriander seeds was
assessed for toxicity on reproductive system. In Saudi
Arabia, the plant has been traditionally used as an
anti-fertility agent. Oral supplementation of 250 mg
and 500 mg/kg in rats resulted in a dose-dependent
decrease in implantation, most likely due to decreased
progesterone level. However, no complete infertility
was observed. There was no change in weight of fetuses
and no deformities (Al Said et al., 1987). With regard to
male endocrine and reproductive functions, there was
no signicant histo-pathological difference in the tissues
of male rabbits fed on coriander (250 mg/kg for 7 days)
as compared to the control group. The testosterone
secreting cells were still active, with no signicant
difference in testosterone production. The serum
chemistry prole of both treated and untreated rabbits
was similar. The level of cholesterol in the treated group
remained unchanged (Al- Suhaimi, 2009). There are
conicting reports on the mutagenicity of coriander.
As reported by Heibatullah et al. (2008), coriander drop
and ethanolic extract of seeds failed to show any
mutagenicity in rat embryo broblasts as studied with
the Comet assay. Coriander juice on the other hand was
proven to be anti-mutagenic in action (Cortes-Eslara
et al., 2004). The principal component of coriander
essential oil, linalool, was generally found to be anti-
mutagenic at 25 mg/mL, and it did not induce any
chromosomal alterations in the Chinese hamster
broblast assay (Ishidate et al., 1984) and no unscheduled
DNA synthesis in rat hepatocytes (Heck et al., 1989).
However, the mutagenicity of coriander has been
reported by Mahmoud et al. (1992). Extract of coriander
fruit showed mutagenic activity in the Ames assay
consisting of Salmonella typhimurium strains (TA98
and TA100).
In a review by Letizia et al. (2003), the effect of
coriander oil at different doses (160, 400 and 1000 mg/kg)
was tested on male and female rats for 28 days. The
associated toxicities appeared to be dose and gender
dependent. In both male and female rats, mid and high
doses of coriander oil caused an increase in absolute
and relative weights of liver and kidney. There was also
an increase in the total protein and albumin in mid/high
dose in males and high dose in females. There was an
increase in calcium levels in males fed 1000 mg/kg
coriander oil. High incidence of degenerative lesions in
renal cortex of high dose males were observed while
for females, there was more peritoneal hepatocellular
cytoplasmic vacuolization in the liver. The reproductive
organs in both groups were unaffected. This study
concluded that the non-observed effect level (NOEL)
for male was 160 mg/kg, and for females, the NOEL
should be less than 160 mg/kg.
The aqueous extract of coriander leaves at high
concentrations (8mg/mL) was associated with mutagenicity
in two strains of Salmonella typhimurium (TA97/TA102),
as assessed by Ames test. At the same concentration, there
was a decrease in the survival of human cell lines (WRL-68
and 293Q) due to induced apoptosis and necrosis
and altered cell cycle. Coriander leaves extract dose
dependently increased G1 phase in hepatic cells and
reduced G2 +M phase in both cell lines. Exposure to the
extracts (8mg/mL) resulted in malformations in chicken
embryos with adverse effects more pronounced on axial
skeletal, heart and eyes. The authors recommended the
consumption of coriander leaf extracts to be generally
safe (Reyes et al., 2010).
As for toxicity associated with the topical application
of the coriander oil and its components, there seem to
be sufcient evidence suggesting that the essential oil
does not cause irritation to the skin. Application of
coriander essential oil and linalool in 48 h closed patch
test did not produce irritation in human subjects
(Kligman 1970; 1971). There was no irritation associated
with application of 20%linalool in both healthy volunteers
and patients suffering from skin problems (Fuji et al.,
1972).
After a comprehensive review on the safety assess-
ment of coriander essential oil, Burdock and Carabin
(2009) concluded that, based on the history of consump-
tion of coriander oil without any reported side effect,
the medicinal use of the essential oil at usual dosage is
safe for human consumption as a food ingredient and
in cosmetics.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Coriander has been traditionally used across various
civilizations both as culinary ingredient and for a wide
range of medicinal uses. Different parts of the plant,
especially seeds, contain lipids rich in petroselinic acid
and essential oil rich in linalool and are widely used across
Asia and Middle East as a food supplement. Due to
their various reported biological activities such as anti-
microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-mutagenic, anxiolytic, sedatives,
anti-depressant, neuro-protective, anti-diabetic, diuretic,
anti-hypertensive, lead-detoxifying and gut modulatory
effects, the plant has also become popular in non-
producing countries. Safety assessment studies also
revealed that the plant is safe for consumption. Coriander
is a source of valuable bioactives that can be used to
promote human health, but the essential oil and xed oil
of this plant have not been fully exploited. There is a need
for more research and clinical studies to assess the effect of
different parts of the plant to validate their functionality.
From a commercial perspective, the anti-oxidant and
anti-microbial properties of this plant should be studied
further in details, for their application in food system as
natural preservatives.
Herbs in their crude form contain a large number of
chemical constituents and exhibit multiple biological
activities often with effect enhancing and/or side-effects
neutralizing potential (Gilani and Atta-ur-Rahman,
2005). It is not uncommon that patients at their advanced
age often carry multiple chronic diseases, such as hyper-
tension, dyslipidemia and diabetes, and the treatment
requires life-long use of multiple drugs, which are not only
expensive but also exhibit multiple side-effects. Interest-
ingly, coriander has been shown to be effective in all such
disorders and is considered to be safe being of edible
nature. It was found that the blood pressure lowering
effect of coriander is mediated through Ca
++
antagonist
effect (Jabeen et al., 2009) and the presence of diuretic ac-
tivity (Aissaoui et al., 2008; Jabeen et al., 2009) is of added
value for its medicinal use in hypertension, as the diuretics
are considered useful in hypertension. Chronic anxiety
can lead to stress, which is well known to be the causative
factor for multiple chronic diseases including hyperten-
sion and diabetes. Interestingly, coriander possesses
anxiolytic and nerve soothing properties (Pathan et al.,
2011) which may be of added value.
Its reported anti-dyslipidemic activity if proved in a
clinical setting would be a useful addition to other
therapeutics options when knowing currently available
drugs, such as statins have limited success in dyslipide-
mia associated with low level of HDL (prevalent in
South Asian population). Finally, more effort should
be focused to standardize and validate the medicinal
use of coriander as a potential source of valuable bioac-
tives for functional foods and nutraceuticals.
Coriander has been of wide medicinal use in different
gut disorders, such as dyspepsia, indigestion diarrhea,
atulence, dysentry, and as appetizer and carminative.
However, plant has not been widely studied to validate
its use in gut disorders except a preliminary study, in
which the aqueous-methanol extract of coriander fruits
was shown to possess a gut stimulatory activity mediated
through acetylcholine-like mechanism and antispasmodic
activity mediated through Ca
++
antagonist activity
(Jabeen et al., 2009). Further studies for its medicinal
use as carminative, prokinetic and antiulcer activities
need to be carried out. The herb has also been used
medicinally in airways disorders such as, cough and
bronchitis, but no report is available to provide evidence
for its effectiveness in airways disorders.
Conict of Interest
The authors have declared that there is no conict of interest.
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