G U I D E T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 3 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Special Thanks and Acknowledgements This technical reference guide was a substantial undertaking and could not have been completed without the support of many exceptional people. The information that is included in this handbook has been derived from several sources, and it is only with the valuable input of these many specialized individuals, that the information presented here is as valid and accurate as it resulted in being. We sincerely thank all those who have provided content over the years, and to those who continue to provide new information on emerging technologies. Above all else, thank-you, the readers and loyal patrons of Orion Electronics for making us strive to serve you beter everyday. None of this would have been possible if not for your ongoing support of our products and services. We always welcome your feedback and look forward to improving this manual to serve you beter in future years! T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 4 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO GPS Chapter 1 - Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) ............................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Law Enforcement Uses of GPS ................................................................................................................... 9 1.3 GPS - One More Tool in the Belt ..............................................................................................................10 1.4 Starting a New Case Using GPS ...............................................................................................................11 1.5 Assisted GPS (AGPS) ....................................................................................................................................13 1.6 Enhanced GPS ...............................................................................................................................................15 1.7 Differential GPS .............................................................................................................................................16 1.8 Errors in GPS ...................................................................................................................................................17 Improving GPS Accuracy ...........................................................................................................................18 1.9 GPS Has Its Day in Court ............................................................................................................................20 CHAPTER 2 GPS TRACKING FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT Chapter 2 - Introduction ........................................................................................................................................22 2.1 Data Logging / Memory Tracking ...........................................................................................................23 2.2 Near Real Time Tracking .............................................................................................................................24 2.3 Real Time / Live Tracking ............................................................................................................................25 2.4 Multi / Team Tracking .................................................................................................................................. 26 CHAPTER 3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS Chapter 3 - Introduction ........................................................................................................................................30 3.1 Wireless RF Spread Spectrum Unlicensed Radio ..................................................................................................31 Radio Frequency Direction Finding - (RF) Tracking ..........................................................................32 Long Range RF (Loran) ................................................................................................................35 Short Range RF (Zigbee & Bluetooth) ...................................................................................37 Paging Overview ..........................................................................................................................................40 Cellular Intercept Receiver Tracking ......................................................................................................42 3.2 Introduction to Digital Communication ..............................................................................................43 3.3 Wireless Data Networks .............................................................................................................................44 Circuit Switched Communication ..........................................................................................................45 Packet Switched Communication ..........................................................................................................46 Analog Cellular - AMPS...............................................................................................................................47 Digital Cellular CDMA ................................................................................................................................................48 GPRS ..................................................................................................................................................49 CDMA 2000 .....................................................................................................................................50 W-CDMA ..........................................................................................................................................51 GSM ............................................................................................................................................52 TDMA/ D-AMPS .............................................................................................................................53 Digital Data over AMPS CDPD .................................................................................................................................................54 Low Speed Packet Radio DataTAC ............................................................................................................................................55 Mobitex ............................................................................................................................................56 High Speed Packet Radio iDEN ...................................................................................................................................................58 Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite ..........................................................................................................59 3.4 Wireless Communications Summary ....................................................................................................61 3.5 Coverage Maps Examples .........................................................................................................................62 3.6 International Standards and Roaming .................................................................................................63 T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 5 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 4 GPS ACCESSORIES Chapter 4 - Introduction ........................................................................................................................................66 4.1 Antenna Overview .......................................................................................................................................67 GPS Antennas ................................................................................................................................................69 4.2 Camera Surveillance Overview ...............................................................................................................70 4.3 Microphone Overview ................................................................................................................................71 4.4 Batteries ...........................................................................................................................................................72 CHAPTER 5 INSTALLATION TIPS & TOOLS Chapter 5 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................78 5.1 Installation Preparation ..............................................................................................................................79 5.2 Covert GPS Tracking Installation .............................................................................................................80 5.3 GPS Installation Equipment Checklist ..................................................................................................81 5.4 Legal Aspects of Covert GPS Tracking ..................................................................................................83 5.5 GPS Covert Tracking Unit Installation Tips ..........................................................................................84 5.6 Security Systems ...........................................................................................................................................85 5.7 Example of GPS Digital Switching Setup .............................................................................................86 5.8 Homemade GPS Battery Calculator .......................................................................................................87 5.9 Modem Overview & AT Command Sets ...............................................................................................89 CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO ORION EQUIPMENT Chapter 6 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................92 6.1 Product Requirements Flowchart ..........................................................................................................93 6.2 Orion Product Features Matrix ................................................................................................................94 CHAPTER 7 WARNINGS & SAFETY CONCERNS Chapter 7 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................98 7.1 Battery Disposal ............................................................................................................................................99 7.2 Radio Frequency Communications and Your Health .......................................................................99 7.3 How to Solder Safely ................................................................................................................................ 100 7.4 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) ................................................................................................................ 101 APPENDICES A Basic Electronics and Denitions ......................................................................................................... 104 B Basic Electronic Formulas ....................................................................................................................... 108 C Basic Battery Reference ........................................................................................................................... 109 D Basic Antenna Reference ........................................................................................................................ 110 E Metric Prexes ............................................................................................................................................. 111 F At Command Reference Chart .............................................................................................................. 112 G Installation Tool Sources ......................................................................................................................... 113 H Cellular Network Providers (US & CDN) ............................................................................................. 114 I Cellular Network System / Band Frequency Chart ......................................................................... 115 GLOSSARY Glossary of Acronyms and Terms ..................................................................................................................... 118 REFERENCE INFORMATION References and Useful Websites ....................................................................................................................... 134 ORION ELECTRONICS LTD CONTACT INFORMATION Address, Website, Contact Names .................................................................................................................... 142 T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 6 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 1 I nt r oduct i on t o GPS T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 7 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION This chapter will discuss a wealth of information covering GPS technologies and how they can be applied to serve the Law Enforcement community. Each section will review the details of some of the more common forms of GPS, and how these particular systems works. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 8 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D An Introduction to GPS Each satellite is equipped with an accurate clock, allowing it to broadcast signals coupled with its location and a precise time message. The signals from the satellites travel through the atmosphere at the speed of light, so the time that it takes for the message to reach the receiver can be used, together with the speed of light, to determine the distance that the satellite is from the receiver. To measure precise latitude, longitude, and altitude, the receiver measures the time it took for the signals from four separate satellites to get to it.
For a GPS receiver to nd your location, it has to determine two things: The location of at least three, preferably four, satellites above you. (With only 3 satellites, the receiver will be able to give you your location, but not your altitude.) The distance between you and each of those satellites triangulation. How Accurate Is It? Using a commercially available GPS receiver, the system can tell you your location anywhere on or above the Earth to within approximately 300 feet. Even greater accuracy, usually within less than three feet, can be obtained with corrections calculated by a GPS 1.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) What is GPS? The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system that is able to show you your exact position on the Earth at anytime, and in any weather. It is funded and controlled by the United States Department of Defense (DOD). GPS satellites, 24 in all, orbit at 11,000 nautical miles above the Earth. Five ground stations distributed worldwide, continuously monitor these satellites. The satellites transmit signals that can be detected by anyone with a GPS receiver. Using the receiver, you can determine your location with great precision (Figure 1). Figure 1 3 GPS segments: the space segment, the user segment and the control segment receiver at a known xed location. This is what is known as Differential GPS, and will be discussed in greater detail, later in this chapter. Remember that all reports on accuracy depend on a variety of factors. If you are doing a covert installation, you are rarely going to get ideal reception of the GPS signals. This will decrease your accuracy. Be wary of people telling you that they get accuracy of 3 feet with their commercial grade receivers. Three hundred feet might sound like a lot but if you installed the system on a car, nding that car in a 300 foot circle should be pretty easy. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 9 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D The application of GPS generally falls into one of the following ve real-world categories: Location - determining a basic position Navigation - getting from one location to another Tracking - monitoring the movement of objects and people Mapping - creating maps of the world Timing - bringing precise timing to the world The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the United States Department of Defense and can be used by anyone, free of charge. Russia operates an independent system called GLONASS (global navigation system), although with only 12 active satellites as of 2004 the system is of limited usefulness. The GPS system is divided into three segments: space, control, and user. Space The space segment is comprised of the GPS satellite constellation. Control The control segment is comprised of ground stations around the world that are responsible for monitoring the ight paths of the GPS satellites, synchronizing the satellites onboard atomic clocks, and uploading almanac data for transmission by the satellites. User The user segment is comprised of GPS receivers used for both military and civilian applications. A GPS receiver (GPSR) decodes time signal transmissions from multiple satellites and calculates its position through trilateration. Each satellite circles the Earth twice every day at an altitude of 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles). The satellites carry atomic clocks and constantly broadcast the precise time according to their own clock, along with administrative information including the orbital elements of their own motion, as determined by a set of ground-based observatories. 1. The basis of GPS is triangulation from satellites. 2. To triangulate, a GPS receiver measures distance using the travel time of radio signals. 3. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing which it achieves with some tricks. 4. Along with distance, you need to know exactly where the satellites are in space. High orbits and careful monitoring are the secret. 5. Finally you must correct for any delays the signal experiences as it travels through the atmosphere. By very, very accurately measuring our distance from three satellites we can triangulate our position anywhere on earth. By ranging from three satellites we can narrow our position to just two points in space. To conrm the true GPS location, we can make a fourth measurement. But usually one of the two points is a ridiculous answer (either too far from Earth or moving at an impossible velocity) and can be rejected without a measurement. Getting Perfect Timing Accurate timing is the key to measuring distance to satellites. Satellites are accurate because they have atomic clocks on board. If measuring the travel time of a radio signal is the key to GPS, then our stop watches had better be darn good, because if their timing is off by just a thousandth of a second, at the speed of light, that translates into almost 200 miles of error! Receiver clocks dont have to be too accurate because an extra satellite range measurement can remove errors. The Pseudo Random Code (PRC) is a fundamental part of GPS. Physically its just a very complicated digital code, or in other words, a complicated sequence of on and off pulses. The signal is so complicated that it almost looks like random electrical noise. Hence the name Pseudo-Random. Since each satellite has its own unique Pseudo-Random Code, this complexity also guarantees that the receiver wont accidentally pick up another satellites signal. So all the satellites can use the same frequency without jamming each other. And it makes it more difcult for a hostile force to jam the system. In fact, the Pseudo Random Code gives the DoD a way to control access to the system. Getting to Know GPS How GPS Works in 5 Logical Steps T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 10 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Now that we have seen how GPS technology works, and what methods we can use it in, lets examine a few of the GPS specic features that pertain to law enforcement ofcials, in particular. Auto Call Out Almost all real-time, as well as some near-real time units can perform these functions. Auto call outs are used to monitor a targets activity without 24 hour live monitoring. Most units will notify users of motion, boundary, input, as well as low battery voltage variations. Different manufacturers offer different call out options so check with them for specic details. Motion This specication noties the user as soon as the vehicle begins to move, or stops moving. Boundary The unit can be programmed to page the user on entry or exit of a geographical area, as determined by the user. A notication will be sent if the target should enter or exit this pre-determined boundary. Input This setting is an internal switch that will notify the user of a sensor being tripped. For example, if a switch has been put in place to monitor the activity of a targets car trunk, a notication will be sent each and every time that trunk is opened. Low Battery This convenient feature allows the user to set their own battery threshold. Based on this pre- determined level of battery life, the device will page and notify the user once this level has been reached. This is a great tool to warn investigators in advance when the battery is getting low and will soon need replacing. Ofce Tracking This tracking method permits observing real or near real time events from the safety of the ofce via a modem and land line telephone. Because of the ability to download remotely in real or near real time tracking, ofce tracking can be applied in either of these cases, thus freeing up the time of the ofcer. Mobile Tracking Taking a laptop (with the appropriate installed software), a cellular phone (either analog or digital), and obtaining a wireless modem, the user can track in real time from their own vehicle at a safe distance. Self-tracking is also a common feature used in mobile tracking whereby the user can view the exact location of themselves, as well as the target, on a street level map. This allows the agent to determine their proximity to the target at all times, and allows them to follow without being noticed. This feature, only possible in real time units, is ideal for use with cases where the suspect is considered dangerous or may need to be intercepted and apprehended at any point. With mobile tracking, the user can pursue the target through dense trafc, poor weather conditions, and unfamiliar surroundings, while still being able to visually observe the target once it reaches its destination. Figure 2 GPS satellite orbiting the earth 1.2 LAW ENFORCEMENT USES OF GPS T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 11 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D The goal of most any investigation is to try to get information about a crime that has happened, an ongoing crime, or a crime that is about to happen. Investigators use a variety of tools to get this information; informants, under-cover agents, electronic surveillance devices and plain old legwork. GPS technology is just one more tool in the arsenal of the modern day technical investigator. The most important part of a GPS system is its ability to get precise positional information. Combine this with an ability to store this information in memory for later retrieval, or transmit it in real time, and you have a really useful tool. It can be used for deducing a persons whereabouts at a given time, or for tying someone to a location. Figure 4 Track across the country or even across the world! Example: If you have a drug runners car tagged with a GPS system and you see them visit a certain house on a regular basis, you can start a visual surveillance to nd out whats in that house. Hopefully its that big cocaine importer youve been tasked with nding. The two best things about a GPS tracking system are its scope and its precision. Look at the maps below. In Figure 21, you have a street level track through Kansas City - perfect for identifying where the person went and when. On Figure 22, you have a track stretching from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada to Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Figure 3 Urban tracking on street level maps 1.3 GPS - ONE MORE TOOL IN THE BELT Figure 5 GPS Track Data with Satellite Imagery T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 12 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 1. Make sure that the units memory has been properly downloaded and stored from any previous cases, so that it may be cleared in preparation for a new case.
2. Make sure that the unit has been supplied with a fresh set of batteries, as even new batteries, kept in storage will deteriorate over time. 3. Power up the unit and allow it to acquire a current GPS almanac, before installing it for a new case. If the device has not been used for a period of time or the location of the device has changed greatly between the last time it was taking xes and now, then the device may need to re-acquire its GPS almanac. The denition of the GPS almanac is as follows: Information transmitted by each satellite on the orbits and state (health) of every satellite in the GPS constellation. Almanac data allows the GPS receiver to rapidly acquire satellites shortly after it is turned on. Be advised that this process may take up to 20 minutes, making it vital that this step is performed before installing the unit on a target. Once a unit is installed, its gone and missing this step could easily make or break the case. 4. Perform a brief examination of the unit to ensure it is functioning properly. This should include checking the units settings using any applicable test boxes. This guarantees that the unit is able to accept incoming calls (where applicable), and is taking xes correctly. 1.4 STARTING A NEW CASE USING GPS Acquisition / Almanac Some very important steps should be taken into account before considering any stored GPS tracking device for a new case. Please be aware that before installing any GPS unit that has been stored for any number of weeks, users should: T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 13 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the international standard time reference, based on the time of day in London, England. As you know, the time on the East Coast is different from that on the West, and as you cross from one Time Zone to the next you change your watch. GPS satellites report current time in Greenwich Mean Time (a.k.a, Universal Time or zulu time). Satellites and Tracking Systems use GMT, because it is the same all over the world. You can input a local offset (or difference) from GMT so that the unit will display your local time. Your local Figure 6 Global Time Zone Map time is behind or ahead of GMT depending on where you are in relation to Greenwich, England. Although all GPS data is collected and stored in GMT (or Greenwich Mean Time), data downloaded is often associated with a GMT offset so that it can be viewed in local time. Be sure to set a correct GMT offset, if required, to view your downloaded data in your local time. It will also be worthwhile to note the daylight savings time, where applicable, for the same reason. A global Time Zone Map is provided below to assist you in determining the appropriate value for local offset in your area. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 14 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 1.5 AGPS - ASSISTED GPS Assisted Global Positioning System Assisted GPS is becoming a commonplace term. Simply put, assisted GPS (AGPS) describes a system where outside sources, such as an assistance server and reference network, help a GPS receiver (as found in more and more of todays cellular phones) map out the position of the GPS receiver. Although GPS provides excellent position accuracy, position xes require lines of sight to the satellites. In urban areas, when the user is located in urban canyons, under heavy tree cover, or even indoors, Assisted GPS is a technology that can be used to triangulate the position. It is becoming more popular and is commonly associated with Location Based Services. There are at least three components to assisted GPS. The rst is determining an approximate location of the receiver using some mechanism other than the GPS system. An example of this might be a database which uses the cell tower id to look up the geographical co-ordinates of the cell tower (assuming the GPS receiver is in this case part of a cell phone). The second is using that approximate location to determine where the receiver should be looking for GPS satellites. This requires a combination of observation and sophisticated calculations on the part of the network. The third component is using network resources to move the work of calculation from the GPS receiver, into the network, allowing the receiver to be simpler, cheaper, and less power-hungry. An assistance server communicates with the GPS receiver via a wireless link. With assistance from the network, the receiver can operate more quickly and efciently than it would unassisted, because a set of tasks that it would normally handle is shared with the assistance server. The resulting AGPS system, consisting of the integrated GPS receiver and network components, boosts performance beyond that of the same receiver in a stand-alone mode. Cellular telephones with embedded GPS engines will be a reality for many in the near future. The development of these phones is being fuelled, in part, by the U.S. Federal Communications Commissions E-911 mandate requiring the position of a cell phone to be available to emergency call dispatchers. There are three basic types of data that the assistance server provides to the GPS receiver: precise GPS satellite orbit and clock information; initial position and time estimate; and for AGPS-only receivers, satellite selection, range, and range-rate information. The assistance server is also able to compute position solutions, leaving the GPS receiver with the sole job of collecting range measurements. Figure 7 Assisted GPS Localization Based Systems LBS are Localization Based Systems. One can nd several types: Cell ID The precision of this method is 200 meters in urban areas, 2 km in suburban areas and 3-4 km in rural zones. Enhanced Cell ID With this method one can get a precision similar to Cell ID, but for rural areas, with circular sectors of 550 meters. TOA Time Of Arrival AOA Angle Of Arrival E-OTD This is similar to TOA, but the position is estimated by the mobile phone, not by the base station. The precision of this method depends on the number of available LMUs in the networks, varying from 50 to 200m. Assisted-GPS requires a worldwide tracking network for obtaining the navigation messages of all satellites and data processing hubs, along with a server which feeds data to a Serving Mobile Location Center (SMLC) or Mobile Position Center (MPC) operated by a network service provider. Data is sent to individual cell phones using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Short Messaging Service (SMS). AGPS architectures increase the capability of a stand-alone receiver to conserve battery power, acquire and track more satellites, thereby improving observation geometry, and increase sensitivity over a conventional GPS architecture. These enhanced capabilities come from knowledge of the satellite position and velocity, the initial receiver position, and time supplied by the assistance server. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 15 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Assisted GPS & Time-to-First-Fix Time-to-rst-x (TTFF) is reduced as a result of the fewer frequency bins which must be searched to acquire the signal. TTFF is further reduced because the receiver no longer has the task of decoding the navigation data bits, a task that takes tens of seconds. Instead, the assistance server provides the satellite orbit and clock parameter values to the receiver. Shorter TTFF results in reduced power consumption because the system does not have to wait for the GPS receiver to decode the navigation data for each visible satellite. See Figure 8 for a visual comparison between TTFF for assisted and unassisted GPS. Increased receiver sensitivity is directly related to the TTFF and the number of frequency bins which must be searched to nd a satellite signal. Because the receiver has fewer frequency bins to search in an AGPS architecture, it can dwell in each bin for longer periods of time. This additional dwell time increases the sensitivity of the receiver, so that it can use signal strengths below the conventional thresholds to make range measurements. In addition, when the higher sensitivity is required, the navigation data bits would be difcult if not impossible to decode. Therefore, this technique allows the use of satellite data which would have otherwise been unavailable. Although discussions of TTFF and navigation data bits are compelling to engineers, the real reason for implementing AGPS is customer satisfaction when using location or E-911 services. With AGPS, the position can be computed more quickly, on the order of a few seconds. If the position solution took minutes, as is common with warm starts in conventional GPS receivers, the consumer might become frustrated while waiting and wonder whether there was anything wrong with the phone. The typical cell phone consumer has grown accustomed to applications which work in a few seconds. Location services should behave the same way to gain customer acceptance beyond those already familiar with, and accustomed to, the performance of GPS receivers. AGPS assistance data will be transmitted by cellular network operators using CDMA packet data (1X) or GPRS. Assistance is possible since the cellular operator can determine, roughly, where the mobile phone is by using techniques such as cell site identication, or triangulation of cellular voice or data signals. Figure 8 Assisted GPS vs Unassisted GPS T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 16 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D The words Code-Phase and Carrier-Phase may sound like electronic mumbo-jumbo but, in fact, they just refer to the particular signal that we use for timing measurements. Using the GPS carrier frequency can signicantly improve the accuracy of GPS. Remember that a GPS receiver determines the travel time of a signal from a satellite by comparing the pseudo random code its generating, with an identical code in the signal from the satellite. The receiver slides its code later and later in time until it syncs up with the satellites code. The amount it has to slide the code is equal to the signals travel time. Thats the problem with code-phase GPS. Its comparing pseudo random codes that have a cycle width of almost a microsecond. And at the speed of light a microsecond is almost 300 meters of error! So the trick with carrier-phase GPS is to use code- phase techniques to get close. Resolving this carrier phase ambiguity for just a few cycles is a much more tractable problem and as the computers inside the receivers get smarter and smarter its becoming possible to make this kind of measurement without all the ritual that surveyors go through. Enhanced GPS (or Super Sensitive GPS) are terms used to describe a new generation of GPS receivers. These receivers are much more sensitive than older types, and are often able to determine their position in very tough areas. The E-GPS seeks to capture the best-quality signals from either satellites or cellular base stations, whichever has a preferred position x at that precise time. Enhanced GPS receivers dont need to use information from any external source, however, enhanced GPS receivers can be more reliable with the help of assistance data. What does this mean? When considering a GPS system, the use of Assisted GPS or Enhanced GPS is a plus. Any tool that can allow you to get positional information in areas where traditional GPS cant perform is a good thing. 1.6 E-GPS ENHANCED GPS The Evolution of GPS Enhanced GPS Figure 9 Diagram of DBS E-GPS, also known as DE-GPS Using a conventional GPS receiver in dense urban areas, a large portion of the sky is frequently obstructed by buildings, making it impossible to see a sufcient number of GPS satellites. The DE-GPS technique allows a GPS receiver to use the signal from a DBS satellite when it is in a bad spot. To do so, the DE-GPS receiver must obtain assistance information from a remote server. This assistance information enables the DE-GPS receiver to calculate the range information from the non-GPS satellites for the location x. Sensitivity Comparison Chart for Various Enhanced GPS Receivers u-Blox LEA-LA u-Blox TIM-LH Fastrax iTrax03 Tracking Sensitivity -149dBm -158dBm -152dBm Acquisition -140dBm -142dBm T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 17 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Differential GPS Systems Differential GPS (DGPS) is the blanket term for a number of different systems that have evolved to overcome the inaccuracies caused by SA and the physics involved in sending radio signals through the earths atmosphere. Differential GPS, a way to correct the various inaccuracies in the GPS system thereby pushing its accuracy even farther. Differential GPS or DGPS can yield measurements good to a couple of meters in moving applications and even better in stationary situations. Thats the idea behind Differential GPS. We have one receiver measure the timing errors and then provide correction information to the other receivers that are roving around. Instead of using timing signals to calculate its position, it uses its known position to calculate timing. It gures out what the travel time of the GPS signals should be, and compares it with what they actually are. The difference is an error correction factor. These systems are separated into two classications: Real-Time Differential and Post Processed Differential. Real-Time Diferential is correction where signals are received from the differential provider, and used by the receiver at the same time as signals from the GPS satellite are received to calculate a much more precise position instantaneously. Post Processing is Differential correction that takes place after the fact: the GPS data collected in the eld is saved, and the Differential correction is added at a later date. The roving receivers get the complete list of errors and apply the corrections for the particular satellites theyre using. Many new GPS receivers are being designed to accept corrections, and some are even equipped with built-in radio receivers. Theres another permutation of DGPS, called Inverted DGPS that can save money in certain tracking applications. With an inverted DGPS system, vehicles would be equipped with standard GPS receivers and a transmitter and would transmit their standard GPS positions back to the tracking ofce. Then at the tracking ofce, the corrections would be applied to the received positions. Wide Area Augmentation System, or WAAS is basically a continental DGPS system. The FAA set up a monitoring system with an incredibly fast response time. In fact, they gured they could park a geosynchronous satellite somewhere over the U.S. that would instantly alert aircraft when there was a problem. Then they reasoned that they could transmit this information right on a GPS channel so aircraft could receive it on their GPS receivers and would prevent the need for any additional radios. The ramications of this go well beyond aviation, because the system guarantees that DGPS corrections will be raining out of the sky for everyone to use. To complete the system, the FAA is planning on eventually establishing Local Area Augmentation Systems near runways. These would work like WAAS, but on a smaller scale. 1.7 DIFFERENTIAL GPS T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 18 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 1.8 ERRORS IN GPS The US Air Force has injected each GPS satellite into a very precise orbit, according to the GPS master plan. The basic orbits are quite exact but just to make things perfect the GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the Department of Defense. They use very precise radar to check each satellites exact altitude, position and speed. The errors theyre checking for are called ephemeris errors because they affect the satellites orbit or ephemeris. These errors are caused by gravitational pulls from the moon and sun and by the pressure of solar radiation on the satellites. The errors are usually very slight but if you want great accuracy they must be taken into account. There are a couple of ways to minimize this kind of error. For one thing we can predict what a typical delay might be on a typical day. This is called modeling and it helps but, of course, atmospheric conditions are rarely exactly typical. Another way to get a handle on these atmosphere-induced errors is to compare the relative speeds of two different signals. This dual frequency measurement is very sophisticated and is only possible with advanced receivers. Trouble for the GPS signal doesnt end when it gets down to the ground. The signal may bounce off various local obstructions before it gets to our receiver. This is called multipath error and is similar to the ghosting you might see on a TV. Good receivers use sophisticated signal rejection techniques to minimize this problem. Sources of GPS Errors Satellite clock drift (1.5 m) (1usec = 300m) Orbit estimation errors (2.5 m) Atmospheric and relativistic effects (5.5 m) Receiver noise (0.3 m) Multipath interference (0.6 m) Intentional randomization to reduce civilian grade accuracy (30m) Ephemeris data errors: 1 meter Tropospheric delays: 1 meter. Unmodeled ionosphere delays: 10 meters. Blunders can result in errors of hundred of kilometers. For standard GPS (without Differential correction), the expected accuracy of a handheld GPS receiver is +/- 15 meters. Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP) is caused by satellite geometry. If the GPS receiver is using satellites in the same area of the sky as opposed to being distributed across the horizon, the location of the receiver becomes increasingly uncertain. Good geometric position of the satellites is ideal. GPS errors are a combination of noise, bias, blunders. Noise errors are the combined effect of Pseudo Random Number (PRN) code noise (around 1 meter) and noise within the receiver noise (around 1 meter). Bias errors result from Selective Availability and other factors. SA is the intentional degradation of the SPS signals by a time varying bias. For more information on Selective Availability, please refer to the next page. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 19 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Diferential GPS: A way of collecting Global Positioning Systems data with increased accuracy. Using this technique, data from a receiver at a known location is used to correct the data from a receiver at an unknown location. Using a network of xed ground based reference stations. These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudo ranges and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges, and receiver stations may similarly correct their pseudorange estimates. Differential GPS can eliminate almost all error. Clocks: Both GPS satellites and receivers are prone to timing errors. These errors can be calculated and eliminated once the receiver is tracking four satellites. Ionosphere: The Ionosphere is one of the leading causes of GPS error. The speed of light varies due to atmospheric conditions. By comparing the phase difference between the L1 and L2 signals, the error caused by the ionosphere can be calculated and eliminated. Special dual frequency receivers are required to make use of both L1 and L2. Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS): This uses a series of ground reference stations to calculate GPS correction messages, which are uploaded to a series of additional satellites in geosynchronous orbit for transmission to GPS receivers. The correction message includes information on ionospheric delays, individual satellite clock drift, and so on. The current WAAS system only works for North America, and due to the satellite location the system, is most suited for use in the eastern and western coastal regions. GPS receivers may also use WAAS satellites for navigation, similarly to the other GPS satellites. Local-Area Augmentation System (LAAS): This is similar to WAAS, in that similar correction data are used. But in this case, the correction data are transmitted from a local source, typically at an airport or another location where accurate positioning is needed. These correction data are typically useful for only about a thirty to fty kilometer radius around the transmitter. Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE): is an attempt to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite clock and ephemeris (orbital) data to specially- equipped receivers. Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP): is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning sytem. In this approach, accurate determinination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 centimeters. This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests - possibly with processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning, RTK). Selective Availability: In the past, the civilian signal was degraded, and a more accurate Precise Positioning Service was available only to the United States military, its allies and other, mostly government users. On May 1, 2000, however, then US President Bill Clinton announced that this Selective Availability would be turned off, and so now all users enjoy nearly the same level of access, allowing a precision of position determination of less than 20 meters. For military purposes Selective Deniability may still be used to, in effect, render civilian GPS units useless in a particular geographic area, while still allowing military units to have full functionality. Multipath: The antenna receives not only direct GPS signals, but also multipath signals: reections of the radio signals off the ground and/or surrounding structures (buildings, canyon walls, etc). Allow your GPS receiver to see the sky for optimal performance. Improving GPS Accuracy 100 meters Accuracy of the original GPS system, which was subject to accuracy degradation under the government-imposed Selective Availability (SA) program. 15 meters Typical GPS position accuracy without SA. 3-5 meters Typical differential GPS (DGPS) position accuracy. < 3 meters Typical WAAS position accuracy. Table 1 Comparison of GPS Correction Methods T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 20 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D What is WAAS? The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a form of differential GPS (DGPS) giving enhanced position accuracy. Systems such as WAAS are known as satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS). This system of satellites and ground stations provide GPS signal corrections, resulting in up to ve times better position accuracy. WAAS corrects for GPS signal errors caused by ionospheric disturbances, timing, and satellite orbit errors, and it provides vital integrity information regarding the health of each GPS satellite. A WAAS- capable receiver can give you a position accuracy of better than three meters, 95% of the time. Users do not have to purchase additional receiving equipment or pay service fees to utilize WAAS. As long as you own a WAAS-enabled GPS receiver, and use it within the reach of this system, you can reap the benets of this system. How it Works WAAS consists of approximately 25 ground reference stations positioned across the United States that monitor GPS satellite data. Two master stations, located on either coast, collect data from the reference stations and create a GPS correction message. This correction accounts for GPS satellite orbit and clock drift plus signal delays caused by the atmosphere and ionosphere. The corrected differential message is then broadcast through two satellites with a xed position over the equator (in geostationary orbit). The goal of WAAS was to obtain at least a 7-meter horizontal and vertical accuracy, but has been conrmed at 1 - 2 meters horizontal and 2 -3 meters vertical throughout the majority of the continental U.S. and portions of Alaska. The Origins of WAAS The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Transportation (DOT) developed the WAAS program to be a GPS-based navigation and landing system that provides precision guidance to aircraft at thousands of airports and airstrips where there is currently no precision landing capability. Currently, GPS alone does not meet the FAAs navigation requirements for accuracy, integrity, and availability. WAAS was designed to improve the accuracy and ensure the integrity of information coming from GPS satellites. Who benets from WAAS? Anyone with a WAAS-Enabled GPS receiver may receive the enhanced positional information provided by WAAS. Currently, WAAS satellite coverage is only available in North America. In some instances however, WAAS signals may be obscurred even if GPS reception is possible. In that case, the GPS signals will not be corrected. WAAS signal reception is ideal for open land and marine applications. WAAS provides extended coverage both inland and offshore compared to the land- based DGPS (differential GPS) system. Other governments are developing similar satellite- based differential systems. Japan developed the Multi- Functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), while Europe has the Euro Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). Eventually, GPS users around the world will have access to precise position data using these and other compatible systems. A Closer Look at The Wide Area Augmentation System Figure 10 Diagram of Wide Area Augmentation System T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 21 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D The days when GPS technology was new and unheard of are long gone. Today, most car manufacturers offer a GPS navigation system in one or more models, and commercial GPS devices are readily available. This increase in public awareness has also resulted in GPS based technology being introduced into courts of law across North America. Introducing GPS technology can be a difcult process as defense lawyers raise questions about the legality of installation, credibility of information, and what exactly GPS data tells the courts. Described below are a few hints taken from Orions experience with testifying in various court cases on the use of GPS based surveillance systems. What does it tell us? Although modern covert GPS systems are much more accurate than they used to be, there still can be some apparent errors such as spikes between xes or tracks that are not quite on the road, etc. The error inherent in GPS location systems, combined with the often less then ideal location of the GPS antennas may introduce small errors into the GPS record. If asked about the accuracy of the GPS records, emphasize the general accuracy, but state the possibility of error and discuss the fact that it is not one record in particular that is important, but rather the story that the GPS data tells, as a whole. Static during a TV movie doesnt change the plot. For example: repeated visits back to a murder site, or regular visits to a known drug suppliers house could be indications of wrongdoing, especially when combined with your other evidence. If some of your GPS data is backed up by visual surveillance, use that to give credibility to the rest. If you have the ability to get satellite overview images of the area, use them in court. They are much more impressive to Jury members, who may not be as convinced by traditional maps. Motion Sensor: Make sure that they know that the motion on the print out comes from a separate motion detector, and therefore it might say motion when the vehicle is stationary. Same thing for speed because it is calculated it might say 1mph or so, even when the vehicle is stationary. This is normal, and not evidence of problems in the technology. Legality of installation: Hopefully before you ever get to court, you will have closely examined the laws regarding the installation of surveillance equipment to your target. The laws regarding installation of parasitic and non-parasitic devices can vary widely from region to region. The best approach is to check with your local legal experts and ensure you follow all the rules and regulations. You dont want to be in a situation where your entire case gets thrown out because you failed to procure the appropriate warrants. Conclusion: GPS is a popular, and if used correctly, an incredibly useful tool for most any investigation. While most of us prefer not to have GPS data discussed in a court of law, the chances are it may happen. If it does happen, dont forget the three items discussed earlier: 1. GPS data is a generally accurate description of the general movements of the target 2. Errors do occur but do not invalidate all the recorded information, and nally 3. Make sure all your installations comply with your local laws. 1.9 GPS HAS ITS DAY IN COURT T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 22 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 2 Law Enf or cement Tr acki ng & Technol ogy Usage T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 23 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 2 - INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the various methods in which GPS can be used to benet law Enforcement. Now that we know what GPS is and how it works, we will further explore the applications of this technology for Law Enforcement agencies. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 24 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D The information downloaded will typically include a history of the targets location, time, date and speed. Units from different manufacturers might also have additional information stored so be sure to ask them if you are looking for specic data functions for your tracking device. One of the most exciting innovations of the past several years has been the miniaturization of short-range communication modules. This has allowed the creation of Data Loggers with a short-range communication system to retrieve data remotely. This process is most often referred to as a Walk - by Download because you can walk by the target and get your data without needing to retrieve the unit - meaning less chance of blowing the case by being spotted. Memory tracking, with or without a short range download, is a great tool for all kinds of investigations including arson, break and enter, parole and restraining order violations, background surveillance and other low prole cases. GPS tracking hit the law enforcement scene about 8 years ago. GPS devices at that time were clunky, short on features, and usually required 2 computers to use. Now there are almost as many uses and varieties as you can imagine. This section will outline a few of the more common types of GPS tracking. Keep in mind that technology is always progressing and new techniques are always appearing. Data logging, or memory tracking, is the foundation of GPS tracking systems. The name says it all. A GPS unit is placed on a target and proceeds to store positional information in memory. When the investigator wants to get the stored information, they simply remove the tracking device, and download the information for analysis. Figure 11 Install, retrieve, download and analyze Strengths Usually have good battery life Historical positions of targets movements stored in memory Easy installation Cost effective usually cheapest form of GPS tracking Low maintenance No additional cost after purchase Weaknesses Need to access the target twice once to install and once more to remove If you lose the target vehicle, you lose your data and your tracking unit No way to access information before removing the unit Retrieve unit manually Figure 12 Short range communication allows remote access to your data 2.1 DATA LOGGING / MEMORY TRACKING T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 25 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D This type of tracking was born from a desire to have the remote communication and memory storage advantages of the real time tracker, and the long battery life of the data logger. Near real time tracking units operate as data loggers most of the time. They have the added advantage of having a communication system that allows them to make calls in certain situations. For example, you could program the unit to call you every time it stops moving and download all the records it took since it last contacted you. That way, the investigator can look at his / her computer and easily see where the suspect has stopped and when. Strengths Serves as a reliable data logger Allows the investigator to receive live updates when pre-determined switches are triggered Frees up investigators time to simultaneously work on other cases, thus saving money Lower battery consumption than pure real time tracking units Weaknesses May not always be able to communicate with unit for live updates if not currently within an applicable communication network May not always be able to call in the unit to get immediate live updates - unit may only be programmed to call in once every day or only when specic events have occurred 2.2 NEAR REAL TIME TRACKING Figure 13 An example of how near real time tracking can be set up Receive a call or page from the unit The investigator downloads and processes the data An ofcer is dispatched, if required T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 26 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Step 1 Dial Target Step 2 Phone System Contacts Nearest Cell Tower Step 3 Tower Contacts Remote Unit Step 4 Remote Unit Talks to the Computer Strengths Real time information on your target Historical positions of targets movements stored in memory Can provide tracking anywhere in the world, depending on communication Improved safety for surveillance ofcers Decreased risk of blown surveillances Frees up ofcers time to work on other cases Weaknesses Usually harder to install than Data Loggers Battery life in most units is relatively short More expensive systems Reliance on communication infrastructure; no cell signal, no tracking! Added expense of communication bills Live, or Real Time tracking, is one of the most popular uses of GPS equipment there is. By making use of an on-board communication system, the investigator is able to watch a targets movements as they occur. While not a replacement of actual visual surveillance, real time tracking can certainly supplement your physical surveillance efforts. In addition to providing you with constant updates, the majority of systems on the market also continually store the information in memory. This means you can watch events in real time and rest assured all the data is being stored for later analysis. Real time systems have also been the back upon which new features have ridden. Some examples include audio, video and switching capabilities. Imagine sitting in your ofce watching your suspect drive on street level maps, listening to what the occupants are saying, while also taking pictures of those same occupants. Many real time units use cell phones as the link to provide the best coverage across North America, allowing the investigator the freedom to sit back anywhere in the world, and track the remote unit live while it drives around North America. Think of using a real time tracking system anytime you need to have real time information on your suspect. 2.3 REAL TIME / LIVE TRACKING Figure 14 Sample set up for live GPS tracking T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 27 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D With new digital cellular systems also comes a new method of transmitting data, commonly called IP (Internet Protocol) based communication. This new mode transmits data via the Internet. The transmitted data is broken up into little packages of information, and then reassembled on the receiving end. The result is a communication method that is opening new doors for those involved in covert tracking! GPS technology has reached a stage where most people are very comfortable with the concept of covert remote tracking. Law enforcement agencies are now starting to push the limits, looking for ways to harness this tremendous technology in bigger and better ways. IP-based GPS units do not need permanent cellular connections. With just your tracking software and access to the internet, you can now view your targets movements from the safety of your ofce, from your surveillance vehicle, or even from your home! Cellular communication has undergone a dramatic change over the last few years. From the days when analog was the only choice, new and more advanced technologies dot the market. Whether its GSM or CDMA, Investigators in North America have tremendous choices at their ngertips. 2.4 MULTI / TEAM TRACKING Why IP Based Technology? Figure 15 Retrieve data from multiple vehicles through IP based tracking. From One to Many The majority of investigations today have multiple parties interested in the data from a covertly installed GPS device. Traditional communication methods have restricted connection to a unit to one user. Using the Marathon Server, multiple users can be connected to the same unit simultaneously. Imagine sitting at your desk tracking the unit and calling your team members to connect at the same time to watch important events, and logging in via their map enabled handheld devices to receive real time position updates. The most important aspect of any case is the information collected. And now with IP based tracking, information from one can be distributed to many. From Many to One With a renewed focus on public safety and large scale investigations, the need to track multiple targets, and multiple types of targets simultaneously has never been greater. It is in these types of investigations that IP based systems really shine. As discussed, IP based systems operate using the internet for communication. This means that the GPS units dont need permanent cellular connections. The number of IP based connections is a function of the software, and your internet connection capacity. Some systems are even capable of handling hundreds of simultaneous connections. This translates into a ready made system able to track multiple units simultaneously on 1 computer screen. Perfect for command and control or situational awareness operations centers. Make sure your information from many, gets to one. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 28 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D As the use of GPS based technology spreads, were nding new ways to apply it for the benet of our friends in law enforcement. Using a combination of multi- tracking capable software (such as Orions SkyTrack Software), and IP-capable tracking units, users now have the ability to track multiple units at the same time, on one computer screen. With a renewed focus on public safety, and large scale investigations, the need to team track or track multiple targets simultaneously has never been greater. It is in these types of investigations that IP based systems really shine. The perfect solution to keep command and control centers updated on everyones location! The benets of total team tracking solutions can be applied to a wide array of law enforcement applications. Most surveillance operations involve tracking a subject with a combination of technical and physical assets. For example, a suspects vehicle will have a covert GPS system installed, and a team of surveillance agents following along to observe the activities of that subject. These operations can be dangerous for the surveillance agents and for the case itself. If just one of the surveillance agents is burned, the entire case could be blown! By installing a covert GPS system in the target vehicle, and a non-covert GPS system in each of the surveillance team vehicles, operators can now watch the movements of everyone involved, in real time. With this system in place surveillance teams can allow the traditional surveillance box to grow a little bigger, reducing the likelihood of being detected by the target. Remote operators can track the movements of all participants and warn investigators if the target displays counter surveillance techniques. Team Tracking operators can help the team recover lost targets, and tell agents when to move in if the target stops. When tracking in areas that are not familiar to the surveillance team, operators can provide directions to get agents in or out of critical position. They can also provide other information about the surrounding areas. Many of these benets can also be delivered to personnel protection teams using Team Tracking technology. The use of IP based communication means that information derived from GPS units can be distributed to many different users, and information from multiple units can be funneled to one user. While GPS equipment will never solve all the problems encountered in an investigation, the use of IP based systems can increase the safety and effectiveness of surveillance and special operations teams. Excellent Coverage: Continuing to grow in its popularity, the reach of this new technology has spanned the far corners of North America. IP based technology ranges from GPRS on the GSM network, to 1XRTT on the CDMA network, and is expected to become the most popular technology among cellular networks to date. Multi-tracking: When using a combination of Multi- Tracking enabled software, and IP-capable tracking units, users now have the ability to track multiple units at the same time, on one computer screen. With a renewed focus on public safety, and large scale investigations, the need to team track or track multiple targets simultaneously has never been greater. It is in these types of investigations that IP based systems really shine. The perfect solution to keep command and control centers updated on everyones location! Enhanced Data Security: All Orion IP-based Guardians have incorporated a new enhanced security option that will allow up to 5 users to log into the tracking software to view the targets movements, but only the assigned administrator will have the ability to alter any of the units settings. This gives multiple agents the freedom to log on and retrieve information on their targets whereabouts, without compromising any of the units previously programmed settings or data. More Economic: IP based tracking solutions can offer users a much more cost effective airtime package. Based only on data sent, users can pay only for the services they need, and are no longer being forced into buying large bundle packages. How can Multi / Team Tracking Benet Law Enforcement? T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 29 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Dynamic IP A dynamic IP address changes, at the point of login, each time you connect to your Internet Service Provider (ISP). This allows ISPs to keep a pool of addresses available to subscribers. If you disconnect from the ISP, your address is returned to the pool, becoming available to the next computer that connects. Static IP Each computer on the Internet has an address, an example of such is 194.69.121.3 The IP address distinguishes between each and every computer on the Internet. This IP address usually changes every time you make an Internet connection, so if you come ofine and then connect a little later your IP address will have changed. A static IP address is xed, much like a telephone number. If your ISP gives you a static address, you will always use the same address. Servers usually have static addresses, so they can always be found at the same location. You would need a Static IP Address if you wish to turn your computer into some sort of server. If you have decided to store downloadable documents or software on your server, a Static IP is the solution. Comparing Dynamic and Static IP
Excellent Coverage
Fast Connection Times
Allows Multiple Agents to Track Multiple Targets
Increased Officer Safety
Affordable Airtime Packages
Enhanced Data Security
T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 30 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 3 Wi r el ess Communi cat i ons T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 31 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 3 - INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses some of the more popular wireless communications that GPS can be used in conjunction with. It will review a variety of the most commonly used wireless data technologies, what the fundamentals are for each, and highlight some of their advantages and disadvantages, in relevance for the Law Enforcement Community. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 32 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 3.1 WIRELESS RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) Spread Spectrum - Unlicensed Radio Another popular solution to the licensing problem is the ISM (Industrial, Scientic, & Medical) bands. As long as radios meet the FCC requirements for the use of these bands, they are open to anyone. Ordinary radios are limited to 100 mW of radiated power in these bands. However, Spread Spectrum radios are allowed a maximum of 1 Watt, because the radiated energy is spread across a larger spectrum, and is lower at any one frequency. In addition to all the other good reasons for using spread spectrum radios, the rules that allow them to transmit at ten times the power means that they are a natural choice in the unlicensed bands. The term Spread Spectrum (SS) describes a communications technique, typically using the frequency band of 902 to 928 MHz, whereby a radio frequency signal is modulated (spread) a second time so as to generate an expanded bandwidth wideband signal. Sophisticated hopping sequences and forward error correction reduces interference from unwanted sources. These radio enhancements provide very low bit-error rates and greater range of use. Spread Spectrum is usually used for data transmission. The two most popular types of Spread Spectrum modes are Frequency Hopping and Direct Sequence. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Frequency Hopping SS involves the application of a pseudorandom code, which causes the transmitter to periodically hop or jump to a new frequency, transmit information on the frequency for a dened period of time, then hop to the next frequency and repeat the process. In order for the receiver to recover the transmitted information, it must hop to the same frequencies as the transmitter. Thus, the pseudorandom code and some synchronization information must be known at the receivers end of the link. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum usually uses narrow-band transmit and receive techniques, thus providing long distance communications with excellent noise immunity and interference rejection capabilities. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Direct Sequence SS also involves the application of pseudorandom codes known to both ends of the link, but the codes are used to cause a xed frequency transmitter to spread its power more or less evenly across a wide band of RF spectrum. Pseudorandom codes are selected to give the spread signal a noise-like character, which when detected by a conventional receiving device, looks very much like random noise. The receiver must be wide enough to recover all of this bandwidth in order to recover the transmitted signal, and then, using the same pseudorandom code as the transmitter, de- spread the signal to its original data component. Direct Sequence systems also have good immunity to noise and interference when used with highly directional parabolic antennas in relatively short-range applications. In the past, customers needing wireless communication systems would be required to obtain an FCC license. In some localities, licenses are becoming di cult, or even impossible to obtain. A popular solution to the licensing problem is provided by the emergence of Spread Spectrum (SS) technology. This new digital technology provides most of the capabilities and performance of a licensed radio system with a license-free approach. For long distance data communications in a control or data gathering application, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) radios provide a robust solution. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 33 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D How do they Work? RF systems operate with 2 separate pieces; a transmitter and a receiver. As you can guess, the transmitters job is to transmit a signal, and the receivers is to receive it. Not too hard to do really. What makes RF tracking receivers great is their ability to tell what direction the signal is coming from. The receiver is able to do this by using what is called a Directional Antenna Array. The rst thing the receiver does is lock onto the frequency that your unit is transmitting on. Refer at Figure 31 to see how it works. The signal hits antenna #1 rst, then #3 and #2 almost at the same time, and nished off with #4, indicating that the signal came from the left. Its able to gure this out by timing when the signal hits the individual antennas. This information is then translated into a graphical display (as seen in gure 32), so we can get a visual indication of where the signal is coming from. Most new systems have a 360-degree display though older models just show left or right. After you have a rough idea of direction you can watch the signal strength and follow the signal all the way to the target. What are they used for? RF Tracking systems have been used for a wide variety of cases. While GPS technology has taken over some of the workload, RF beacons are still the ideal technology for some applications. Sample Applications Package tracking RF systems dont need to See the Sky Tracking situations where extremely small size is the pivotal factor. Now that weve covered the way that RF tracking systems work, lets talk about another way of tracking thats not as widely known. The past several years have seen a tremendous rise in the number of cellular phones. What used to be the hallmark of the rich businessperson has now become just another tool in everybodys hands. As a result, cell phones have also become very popular with the criminal element, thinking that wiretaps would be unable to access their conversations. Enter the combination of Cellular Intercept Receivers (CIR) and Radio Frequency (RF) Direction Finder. Radio Frequency Direction Finding RF Tracking Figure 16 Directional antenna array Figure 17 Sample 360 o display RF Tracking a term many investigators have surely heard being tossed around. Since the end of World War II, and up until the early 1990s, Radio Frequency Direction Finding (RF Tracking) was the tracking equipment of choice. In fact, its still used extensively for certain tracking cases. Most of the James Bond movies exaggerated the capabilities of the system, but had the basic premise right. 1 2 3 4 Radio Signal Antenna Array T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 34 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Radio Frequency 101 What is RF? RF = Radio Frequency Electromagnetic (EM) carrier waves upon which audio, video, or data signals can be superimposed for transmission. Generally considered from approx. 300kHz to 1Thz. Wavelength and Frequency Higher frequency = Shorter wavelength One wavelength = The time it takes for one complete cycle of the EM wave. Expressed in Hertz (hz). Equals the number of wave cycles per second. One complete cycle is considered 360 degrees of the wave Typical RF Link Components Transmitter + Antenna Intervening Terrain Fresnel Zone Receiver + Antenna Transmitter + Receiver = Transceiver A device that has the capacity to both receive and transmit data in a two way link is called a transceiver. Transmitters The key transmitter specication is its output power Usually expressed in dBm (decibels, or D B - Ms) or mW (milliwatts). More transmission power means longer range but less battery life. Receivers The key receiver specication is its sensitivity. The lower a receivers sensitivity, the weaker the incoming signal it can detect. Usually expressed in dBm and will be a negative number ie: -106dBm. It is hard to compare receivers since different manufacturers use different criteria to benchmark their products. Some manufactures try to trick and will express their sensitivity in dBW Add 30 to convert dBW to dBm.ie: -136dBW = - 106dBm Antennas Antennas come in many shapes and sizes. Antennas have gain dependent on the antenna type and are usually expressed in dBi. No matter what antenna you use, the installation is still the most important factor in performance. Carrier Frequency The frequency or number of cycles per second of the RF energy carrying the data. The data is encoded onto the carrier frequency by modulating it. There are many types of modulation. Frequency and Amplitude modulation are the most common types. Different carrier frequencies behave differently when they interact with the physical world. Frequency Bands All transmitters must operate within frequency and power guidelines, unless the user is exempt from regulations. Some bands are reserved for specic uses ie: Cellular service, while some bands are not ie: ISM. Industrial/Scientifc/Medical (ISM) 433.05 - 434.79Mhz (US), 804 - 866Mhz (Europe), 902 - 928 (NA), 2.4 - 2.4835GHz, 5.725 - 5.850 GHz (US) Limited to 1W or less transmitter output power. 900Mhz, 2.4Ghz and 5.8Ghz bands licensed for Spread Spectrum use. 2.4Ghz Good Only world wide licensed band. Widest bandwidth means fastest possible data transfer rate. Faster data transfer means less on time for the transmitter and results in power savings Very small antennas are possible Allows the use of spread spectrum to increase connection rate and resistance to interference Will radiate through small openings 2.4Ghz Bad Poor obstruction penetration Short wave length = Shorter range compared to lower frequencies Does not diffuse as well as lower frequencies 900Mhz Good Good obstruction penetration Good data transfer rate Reasonably sized antennas Good bandwidth will allow spread spectrum usage Better range then 2.4Ghz systems 900Mhz Bad North America only, 850Mhz in Europe Compromised frequency T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 35 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Radio Frequency 101 cont 433Mhz Good Longer wavelength = Longer range Good obstruction penetration 433Mhz Bad Large antennas Narrow bandwidth means low data rates, fewer channels, less ability to avoid interference USA only Large Freznel Zone may cause reduced ground to ground range Other: VHF 220Mhz 150-180Mhz Commonly used in beacon systems Very long ranges, very large antennas, very narrow bandwidths Very congested frequencies The Usual Problems Not getting the advertised range Dead zones Picket Fence coverage Unpredictable behaviour Real World Issues The theoretical range and the realistic urban range are usually an order of magnitude apart. Advertised ranges are almost always Free Space. As RF energy strikes an object four things happen. Absorption Reection Refraction Diffraction Absorption All material has a certain RF permeability and this usually differs for different frequencies. The lower the permeability, the more RF energy is lost when it passes through the object. Metal, mirrored glass have very poor RF permeability. Concrete and earth are also not good. Plastic, Gyproc, glass, wood all have good permeability. Refection As the RF energy reects from an object, it changes phase, and contributes to multi-path effects. Multiple reections off many objects interfering with each other causes destructive/constructive interference zones. Interference Patterns When two waves that are out of phase with each other, they can either add to each other or subtract from each other depending on their relative phase. Two waves 180 degrees out of phase of equal amplitude will cancel each other completely. Refraction The portion of the wave that is not absorbed or reected is refracted when it passes through an obstruction. A refracted wave suffers a phase shift and is bent the same way light bends when it passes through water. Difraction Diffraction is the bending of the carrier wave that occurs when it passes through an opening or over an object that is less the one wave length in size. Longer wave lengths are more likely to be diffracted. Diffracted waves suffer a phase shift which is not always a bad thing. It allows an area that might normally be in an RF shadow to have coverage. So What does All That Mean? At any one point a receiver can be detecting a signal that has the same source and data encoded onto it, but has multiple phases, amplitudes and timing. All of that makes decoding the modulation a challenge. If either the transmitter or the receiver are in motion, the affects are magnied. As the cumulative reected signal strengths begin to approach your primary signal strength, errors will occur. There is Hope Good hardware and rmware ltering can increase the odds of extracting the wheat from the chaff. Techniques like spread spectrum also make your data link more robust, and what may be most important Antenna selection and placement! Conclusions Predicting how well an RF system will perform in any given environment is extremely difcult. There are no easy answers or quick xes. Indoors and parking garages will always present a challenge but good antenna placement and patience are your best allies. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 36 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D LONG RANGE RADIO FREQUENCY Long Range Navigation (LORAN) Category: Long Range Radio Transmission Technology: Loran, which stands for LOng RAnge Navigation, is a grid of radio waves in many areas of the globe that allows accurate position plotting. A system of long range navigation whereby latitude and longitude are determined from the time displacement of radio signals from two or more xed transmitters. Loran utilizes timing differences between multiple low-frequency transmissions to provide accurate latitude/longitude position information to within 50. Loran transmitting stations around the globe continually transmit 100-110 kHz radio signals. Loran is the transmission of precisely spaced pulses from which users can derive information of position, velocity, time, and/or data. The low frequency system operates at 100 kHz in a band reserved for marine radionavigation. The most widely recognized format is Loran-C. Using a Loran-C receiver, a user gets location information by measuring the very small difference in arrival times of the pulses for each transmitting / receiving station pair. Each measurement is a time difference, mathematically, a hyperbola. Position is the intersection of two hyperbolas. Enhanced Loran or eLoran is the next generation Loran system that incorporates the latest receiver, antenna, and transmission system technology to enable Loran to serve as a backup and complement to global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) for navigation and timing. This new technology provides substantially enhanced performance beyond what was possible with Loran-C, eLorans predecessor. For example, it is now possible to obtain absolute accuracies of 8-20 meters using eLoran for harbor entrance and approach. Similarly, eLoran can function as an independent, highly accurate source of universal time coordinated (UTC). It is expected that there will be a global evolution towards eLoran, and users can anticipate integrated eLoran/GNSS receivers in the near future for a variety of applications. Users of Loran-C can continue to utilize their equipment, but will not receive the performance benets of eLoran. The International Loran Association (ILA) advocates the use of enhanced or eLoran as a back-up for and complement to global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) in multiple navigation and timing applications as well as the integration of eLoran and GNSS systems to improve the safety and security of individuals and nations. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 37 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Strengths Characterized by dissimilar failure modes to GNSS Provision of an area navigation capability (RNAV) Precise time and frequency service Capable of meeting harbor/harbor minimums Most cost effective per square kilometer Weaknesses Limited coverage - mostly coastal Accuracy variable, affected by geographic situation Easy to jam or disturb Figure 18 Loran Coverage Map The Future Need for Loran Signicant adoption of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) services by government, industry, and private users creates a dependency. A loss of service whether accidental or otherwise can have economic and political consequences. In the United States, ubiquitous GPS usage classies the system as critical infrastructure. Numerous reports and studies assessed the vulnerabilities associated with short- or long-term outages. Recommendations to minimize safety, environmental, or economic impacts include the retention or provision of alternate services that provide position, velocity, and time. Loran is, for the largest user communities, the only viable alternative system. Technological improvements in transmitter performance, system control, and end-user signal processing equipment / antennas offer improved system accuracy, availability, and integrity. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 38 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D SHORT RANGE RADIO FREQUENCY Zigbee Category: Short Range Wireless Technology Technology: Short range, low power, low data rate, Wireless Personal Area Networking (LR-WPAN) technology designed for wireless automation and other lower data tasks, such as smart home automation and remote monitoring. Law Enforcement Potential: Tracking packages or people of interest through buildings, or within building comlpexes, where traditional cellular links are not always available. ZIGBEE QUICK FACTS Air Interface DSSS Protocol Stack 28 kb Devices/Network 2^16 Link Rate 250 kbps Range ~30 meters (w/o power amp) DSSS Stats 11 chips/ symbol 62.5 K symbols/s 4 Bits/ symbol Peak Info Rate ~128 Kbit/second Strengths Relatively Low Equipment Costs Low Power Small Size Potential to be used where cellular fails Reliable Relatively easy to deploy Can be used on a global scale Weaknesses Low bandwidth (usually under 250 Kbps) limits the number of applications used Limited range Limited applications for Law Enforcement Zigbee enables the broad-based deployment of reliable wireless networks with low complexity, low cost solutions, while still providing the ability to run for years on inexpensive primary batteries for a typical monitoring application. ZigBee networks consist of multiple trafc types with their own unique characteristics, including periodic data, intermittent data, and repetitive low latency data. Periodic Data usually dened by the application such as a wireless sensor or meter. Data typically is handled using a beaconing system whereby the sensor wakes up at a set time and checks for the beacon, exchanges data, and goes to sleep. Intermittent Data either application or external stimulus dened such as a wireless light switch. Data can be handled in a beaconless system or disconnected. In disconnected operation, the device will only attach to the network when communications is required, saving signicant energy. Repetitive Low Latency Data uses time slot allocations such as a security system. These applications may use the guaranteed time slot (GTS) capability. GTS is a method of QoS that allows each device a specic duration of time as dened by the PAN coordinator in the Superframe to do whatever it requires without contention or latency. Figure 19 Zigbee Network Structure T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 39 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Zigbee cont ZigBee has been designed for the 868 MHz band in Europe, the 915 MHz band in N America, Australia, etc; and the 2.4 GHz band is now recognized to be a global band accepted in almost all countries. Data rates of 250 kbps (@2.4 GHz), 40 kbps (@ 915 MHz), and 20 kbps (@868 MHz) Optimized for low duty-cycle applications (<0.1%) Yields high throughput and low latency for low duty cycle devices like sensors and controls Range: 50m typical (5-500m based on environment) ZigBee Typical Traf c Types Addressed Periodic data Application dened rate (e.g., sensors) Intermittent data Application/external stimulus dened rate (e.g., light switch) Repetitive low latency data Allocation of time slots (e.g., mouse) Market Name GPRS/GSM Wi-Fi Bluetooth ZigBee Standard 1xRTT/CDMA 802.11b 802.15.1 802.15.4 Application Focus Wide Area Voice & Data Web, Email, Video Cable Replacement Monitoring & Control System Resources 16MB+ 1MB+ 250KB+ 4KB - 32KB Network Size 1 32 7 255 / 65,000 Bandwidth (KB/s) 64 - 128+ 11,000+ 720 20 - 250 Transmission Range (meters) 1,000+ 1 - 100 1 - 10+ 1 - 100+ Success Metrics Reach, Quality Speed, Flexibility Cost, Convenience Reliability, Power, Cost Wi rel ess Networki ng Standards Compari son Chart Table 2 Wireless Standards Comparison Chart T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 40 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Category: Low Bandwidth Wireless Technology Technology: Technology specication created for short- range wireless connection (up to 10 meters) which enables devices to exchange information. It permits seamless wireless short-range communications of data and voice between both mobile and stationary devices. The rst generation of Bluetooth permits exchange of data up to a rate of 1 Mbps per second, even in areas with much electromagnetic disturbance. What is Bluetooth? Developed by Ericsson Inc., Intel Corp., Nokia Corp. and Toshiba, Bluetooth is the name given to a short- range, radio technology making transmission of signals over short distances between telephones, computers and other devices, without the use of wires. Bluetooth is an industrial specication for wireless personal area networks (PANs) and would replace cable or infrared connections for such devices. It uses the 2.4 Ghz spectrum, has an effective range of about 30 feet and a throughput speed of 11 megabits per second. It is intended to be used for both voice and data communications. What are the basic Bluetooth data rate specs? Bluetooth supports both voice and data. The voice channels operate at 64 kbit/s. The Bluetooth 1.0 data rates include an asymmetric data rate (one way) of 721 kbit/s (while permitting 57.6 kbit/s in the return direction); and a symmetric data rate of 432.6 kbit/s. Bluetooth 2.0 has been designed to be backward compatible with existing Bluetooth devices, and will offer data transmission rates up to 12 Mbps. Short Range Radio Frequency Strengths Its wireless. Eliminate messy and confusing cables at home, the ofce, or when traveling. Well dened technology with industry wide support Uses radio signals so can pass through walls and does not require line of sight. Lower power consumption. 2.5 GHz radio frequency ensures worldwide operation. No thinking required. The devices nd one another and connect without any user input at all. Weaknesses Designed for only short-range communications certied to no more than 100 meters (with hub broadcaster.) Data transfer speeds are not as fast as other wireless technologies New type of technology and must be accepted unequivocally by all vendors and manufacturers in order to guarantee compatibility among the array of products. Slightly more expensive that other competing wireless technologies Bluetooth Figure 20 Bluetooth Compatible Trimble 5800 GPS Receiver QUICK BLUETOOTH FACTS Air Interface FHSS FHSS Stats 1600 hops / second 1 M Symbol / second 1 bit/symbol Protocol Stack 250 kb Devices/Network 8 Link Rate 1 Mbps Range ~10 meters (w/o power amp) Peak Info Rate ~108-723 kbit/second T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 41 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D A pager is a very simple radio that listens to just one station all of the time. Paging systems use radio waves to transmit or broadcast one-way messages. A radio transmitter broadcasts signals over a specic frequency. All of the pagers for that particular network have a built- in receiver that is tuned to the same frequency broadcast from the transmitter. The pagers listen to the signal from the transmitter constantly as long as the pager is turned on. Regional and national paging networks set up towers, like those used for cell phones, to cover large areas. On-site paging systems like the ones used by restaurants use a small desktop transmitter. Each pager has a specic identication sequence called a Channel Access Protocol (CAP) code. The pager listens for its unique CAP code. When it hears the code, it alerts the user and may provide additional information, depending on the pager type. A variety of paging systems have been available over the last couple of decades, including ones that delivered single tones (effectively one bit of information), analog voice messages; numeric messages (most common today); and most recently, alphanumeric messages. The most recent innovations in paging include two-way paging networks, as shown in Figure 18. One-way systems are not completely reliable, since there is no acknowledgment from the receiver. Paging companies design their systems for ninety percent or greater reliability. Two-way networks offer higher reliability and message storage while the pager is off or out of coverage. Paging Overview Although paging is not a huge focus in our manual, it deserves a quick overview because paging networks allow certain types of data to be delivered in a very e cient and cost-eective manner. Pagers have many uses, not least of which is the ordinary user who wants to be reachable at all times, whether for personal reasons or work. Figure 17 Beeper Figure 22 Two-way paging network Figure 19 Numeric pager T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 42 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D What type of pager should I get? Pagers are the foot soldiers of the wireless revolution. Early models were small, simple electronic devices that received brief numeric messages only - usually telephone numbers. Todays pagers are still small, but they have evolved into highly sophisticated communication systems, adopting many of the features of wireless phones and Personal Digital Assistants (PDA). With the right paging service, many pagers substitute as answering and fax machines; able to receive and transmit e-mail and other text messages and even get news updates, stock reports, and more. Like wireless phones, the paging service determines the type and features of the pager. Its usually best to sign up with a service rst, before buying a pager. Here are the ve basic pager categories: 1. Beeper - The rst and simplest form of paging, beepers provide a basic alert to the user. Theyre called beepers because the original version made a beeping noise, but current pagers in this category vary in the type of alert. Some use audio signals, others light up and some vibrate. Many of them provide a combination of alerts. 2. Voice/Tone - These pagers provide the ability to listen to a recorded voice message when you are alerted that you have a page. 3. Numeric - These pagers provide the ability to send a numeric message, such as a phone number, along with the page alert. 4. Alphanumeric - These pagers provide the ability to send a text message along with the page alert. Some pagers come with iptop screens, so you can receive long, scrolled text messages ranging from 750 to 16,000 characters in length. 5. Two-way - These pagers provide the ability to send as well as receive numeric and text messages. An example of a two-way alphanumeric pager is the RIM Blackberry Pager. What features should I look for? Almost all pagers share certain standard features: a display; a time/date stamp; enough memory to save at least a few messages for later review or when you cant be reached, and a way of alerting the wearer to an incoming message generally through a beep, but sometimes with a ashing indicator or vibration. Make sure the pager has a sufcient memory backup for your needs. It should at least be able to store messages when youre out of reach, your battery is dead, or when the pager is turned off. It should also then be able to deliver them automatically when youre back in range. Many of the newer, high-tech features, such as e-mail, fax, and voice messaging are service-related features, as long as your pager is PC compatible. Paging systems are characterized by: Small device size most pagers are smaller than other kinds of wireless modems. Long-range capabilities most pagers have strong frequency rates. Long battery life one AAA battery may provide weeks of service. Limited capacity 500 characters is usually the maximum practical message size. High latency messages could potentially take minutes or longer to be delivered. Figure 23 RIM 957 Blackberry alphanumeric pager T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 43 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Strengths Allows tracking of many different types of phone (depends on CIR) Locate the actual user of the cell phone Undetectable by suspect Good accuracy close the suspect Can also intercept audio conversations on AMPS Weaknesses Practice needed for effective use Limited range Susceptible to multi-path and false signals Hard to determine which tower is in use Works only when cellular phone is transmitting Not effective with CDMA network Cellular Phone Intercepts Cellular intercepts are very complicated scanners that are capable of keeping track of all the trafc on cellular phone transmission towers. If an investigator has the ESN (Electronic Serial Number) or the telephone number of a cellular phone, they can be used when a particular phone registers on the cellular tower. Once the intercept has found the phone on the system, it can determine the frequency the phone is transmitting, and pass the information along to a Direction Finding system similar to the ones discussed in the RF tracking section. Once the transmission frequency is established, the suspects cellular phone is, for all intents and purposes, a transmitting beacon that can be tracked. Key Term: MultiPath MultiPath is a phenomenon that occurs when a radio signal hits something it cant penetrate such as a brick building or a water tower. The signal bounces off the object and keeps going in a different direction. Every time the signal bounces, it gets a bit weaker since the object absorbs a little part of the signal. Key Term: Line of Sight Range of a tracking transmitter of any type is often expressed in line of sight terms. That means that there is nothing between you and the transmitter that could block the signal or cause it to bounce. The range (or distance away at which you can still pick up the signal) gets smaller as the line of sight becomes more congested. A transmitter that can be picked up 2 miles away in clear line of sight may only have a range of a few hundred yards in a dense urban core. Cellular Intercept Receiver Tracking Figure 21 Cellular phone intercept Now that weve covered the way that RF tracking systems work, lets talk about another way of tracking thats not as widely known. The past several years have seen a tremendous rise in the number of cellular phones. What used to be the hallmark of the rich businessperson has now become just another tool in everybodys hands. As a result, cell phones have also become very popular with the criminal element, thinking that wiretaps would be unable to access their conversations. Enter the combination of Cellular Intercept Receivers (CIR) and Radio Frequency (RF) Direction Finders. Suspect on phone Cellular tower Transmission frequency from tower T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 44 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D For many years, we have become reliant on using AMPS (Analog) technology for law enforcement tracking requirements. This was the rst cellular protocol offered in North America and it uses the 800MHz radio frequency. As the cell phone industry grew, the FCC & CRTC would not grant any additional bandwidth to handle the overwhelming popularity. They stated that the cell providers would have to come up with another method/technology to support their users. Enter the Digital protocols. Today, the two main Digital options are CDMA and GSM. To my knowledge, CDMA has the largest footprint of coverage, but GSM is growing rapidly. With CDMA, however, there are two bandwidths allocated: 800MHz and 1.9GHZ. This is where you hear the terms Dual Mode, Dual Band, Tri-Mode and PCS Cell Phones. Dual Mode means AMPS and Digital (either 800 or 1.9), Dual Band means 800 and 1.9 Digital only, Tri Mode means AMPS, 800 and 1.9 Digital, and PCS means 1.9GHz only. GSM was rst launched in Europe and is now the standard protocol there. In North America, there are two frequencies allocated to GSM - the 800 Mhz and 1.9GHz bands, while in Europe it utilizes both the 900 and 1800Mhz bands. So, when traveling from Europe to USA, users must manually change the band settings in the phone. There is another protocol (D-AMPS or TDMA), but due to more effective technologies, this system is now being phased out. Therefore it is important that users know which system their network providers use as their Digital Protocol (CDMA or GSM), and also what type of data they offer. 3.2 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Welcome to the Digital age of Communications! There can be a lot of confusion when companies come calling with new Digital products. It is, however, an important topic to understand, especially when using equipment the way we do. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 45 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Wireless data networks, however, have historically been short-range, wireless data communications that were principally the domain of large companies with specialized needs. For example, large organizations that needed to stay in touch with their mobile sales force, or delivery services that needed to keep track of their vehicles and packages used data communication to accomplish these kinds of tasks. This situation is steadily changing, however, and wireless data communications are becoming as commonplace as its wired counterpart. The gure below presents the various wireless data technologies, which are essentially divided into two categories according to their mobility characteristics. For wide-area mobility there are mainly two available technologies: data transmission over cellular networks, whether analog or digital, and data transmission over mobile data networks. As shown in the illustration below, the main difference between these two technologies is the data transport mode. Cellular networks, being primarily voice oriented, utilize circuit-switching technology and, therefore, are optimized to synchronized styles of data trafc conditions, whereas mobile data networks employ packet switching technology and are ideal for uncoordinated data trafc transmission. 3.3 WIRELESS DATA NETWORKS Wireless technology is a broad category which encompasses many services, from Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) allowing users to access the world wide web from their cell phones or personal data assistants, to wireless networking allowing a group of computers to be connected together through radio frequency signals. Figure 24 Various wireless data technologies Wi rel ess Data Opti ons Low Speed Wide-Area High Speed Local-Area Mobi l i ty - Servi ce Characteri sti cs Technol ogy Transport Data Over Analog Cellular Data Over Digital Cellular Mobile Data Cordless Wireless LANs Circuit Mode (isochronous) Packet Mode (asynchronous) T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 46 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D A1-A2 A1 A2 B1 C1 C2 B2 C1-C2 B1-B2 Intermediate offices End offices End users Circuit Switched Communication Circuit Switching Circuit Switching is used when a call is made between two parties and the connection is maintained for the entire duration of the call. Because you are connecting two points in both directions, the connection is called a circuit. Circuit switching can be analog or digital. Circuit switching was originally developed for the analog-based telephone system in order to guarantee steady, consistent service for two people engaged in a phone conversation. Over the years, Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), or analog circuit switching, has given way to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), also known as digital circuit switching. If the connection is between two phones in the same area, the local switch creates a connection between the circuits from each phone. This is pictured as connection A1-A2 in Figure 3. If the connection is between phones in two different areas, a circuit is set up through an intermediate exchange, as shown by circuit C1-C2. Long-distance circuits are made through remote switching ofces, as shown by circuit B1-B2. A networking technology is one that provides a temporary, but dedicated connection between two stations no mater how many switching devices the data is routed through. Circuit switching is a very basic concept that has been used by telephone networks for over 100 years. Figure 25 An example of circuit switch technology Strengths Fixed bandwidth, guaranteed capacity (no congestion) Low variance end-to-end delay (delay is almost constant) Weaknesses Connection set-up and tear-down introduces extra overhead (thus initial delay) User pay for circuit, even when not sending data Other users cant use the circuit even if it is free of trafc when specic events have occurred T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 47 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Packet Switched Communication Packet Switching What happens is this: the sending computer chops data into these small packets, with an address on each one telling the network where to send them. Thus all packets in a single message do not have to travel the same path. They can be dynamically routed over the network, as lines become available or unavailable. When the receiving computer gets the packets, it reassembles them into the original data. Refer to Table 1 for an example of how an e-mail message might be packetized. Packet switching is very efcient. It minimizes the time that a connection is maintained between two systems, which reduces the load on the network. It also frees up the two computers communicating with each other so that they can accept information from other computers as well. Since the Internet is based on packet switching technology, this system is gradually taking over from circuit switched technology. While circuit switching keeps the connection open and constant, packet switching opens the connection just long enough to send a small chunk of data, called a packet, from one system to another. Strengths Packet switching uses resources more efciently Very little set up or tear down time It is more exible (ie. doesnt care too much whats been sent, as long as it can be packetized)
Weaknesses While customers may be able to specify the quality of service required, a guarantee of delay may not always be available Algorithms are more complicated Difcult to bill customers Table 3 An example of packet switch technology Email example of Packet Technology Header Senders IP address 96 bits Receivers IP address Protocol Packet Number Payload Data 896 bits Trailer Data to show end of packet 32 bits Error correction T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 48 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Category: Connection-Oriented Cellular Communications Technology: AMPS uses the 800 MHz frequency band and was originally designed for voice transmission. Technologies have recently been developed to allow for data over these same voice channels. AMPS coverage is still available throughout North America, however, cellular operators have been neglecting, or even downgrading their AMPS service Strengths Coverage - Wherever a cell phone can go for cellular voice communications, wireless Circuit Switched Cellular (CSC) data can go too. Network Stability AMPS cellular is a proven technology that is widely adopted, now for data as well as voice. New modem technologies (e.g. protocols) have also been developed specically for transmitting data over the CSC network, resulting in improvements in reliability and performance. Payment Structure - Since CSC data connections are almost identical to the typical cellular voice connections, billing procedures are more familiar for the end user. CSC data transfer is billed by the connection time, similar to a cellular phone. Since these rates have also become more economical with increased subscriber bases, a variety of rate plans are now available. Equipment Selection - Over the years, numerous AMPS cellular devices have become available for both voice and data, providing a complete selection for the end user. Weaknesses Cost - Since a connection or circuit is established when transferring data over an AMPS cellular network, charges are based on connection time. This means if the wireless application transfers short bursts of data, the cost of the connection time can outweigh the time of the actual data transmission. Delay - Since CSC involves a connected cellular circuit, dial-up delays are introduced. These delays are not only realized when the data connection is to be made, but also when the monthly bill based on connection time is received. Security AMPS Cellular does not provide any data encryption, meaning an appropriately modied radio scanner can intercept voice transmissions. Analog Cellular - AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) Circuit-Switched Cellular in favour of digital technologies such as GSM & CDMA. AMPS service is guaranteed in the US only until 2008, after which it will likely be phased out as a cellular solution. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 49 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Digital Cellular - CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: CDMA allows multiple users to share the same radio spectrum more efciently. There seems to be a consensus that the improvement over analog (AMPS) is approximately 6X. Instead of dividing RF spectrum into narrow channels, CDMA spreads many conversations over a broad spectrum. To separate a particular call from the other calls using the same spectrum at the same time, a unique digital code called a Pseudo-Random Code Sequence (PRCS) is assigned to each user. As a digital, multiple access technology that can provide greater capacity and quality on a wireless network, CDMA can be used with cellular networks or personal communications services (PCS) networks. Refer to Figure 4 for a visual explanation of how CDMA packetized messages are sent and received. Strengths Increased Capacity Due to a combination of voice coder technology and improved resistance to interference, CDMA offers increased voice capacity. It can accommodate more users per MHz of bandwidth than any other technology. Data Services CDMA provides for two-way Short Message Service (SMS). This is often called text messaging. Low Power - Since CDMA was designed so each mobile phone transmits just enough power to maintain a good connection, CDMA phones have much a better battery life than AMPS phones. Security - CDMA offers two levels of security. To the network operator it includes encryption to prevent fraudulent cloning of phones. To the user, the complexity of the pseudo random code sequence makes casual eavesdropping very difcult. Easy Addition of New Functions - The implementation of CDMA allows many new features, including the different forms of supported data to be added largely as software upgrades to the switch. It is one of CDMAs claims that it requires very little additional equipment to add new services. Rural Coverage - CDMA coverage in many rural areas is as good as AMPS, and it continues to improve. Weaknesses Not a Worldwide Cellular Solution Channel Pollution - CDMA has Soft Capacity, meaning that another user can always be added to a CDMA channel, but once a certain point is surpassed, the channel begins to be polluted, such that it becomes difcult to retrieve an error-free data stream for any of the participants. The ultimate capacity of a system is therefore dependent upon where this line is drawn. This is a problem in predominantly high trafc urban areas. Figure 26 CDMA network T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 50 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Digital Cellular - GPRS General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: GPRS is a packet-switched overlay on the GSM voice network. It is a relatively new, non-voice, value added service that allows information to be sent and received across a mobile telephone network. GPRS allows for what has become known as always on data connection for GSM mobile phones, allowing for faster WAP browsing, web surng and email. Strengths Speed - Theoretical maximum speeds are about three times as fast as the data transmission speeds possible over todays xed telecommunications networks, and ten times as fast as current circuit switched data services on GSM networks. Connectivity to the Internet - General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) permits continuous data connectivity over wireless GSM networks. Any service available on the Internet will be accessible through a mobile device. Most of the common Internet services like email, e-commerce, and information lookup will all be available to a GPRS enabled mobile device. Cost - Packet data over the cellular network allows for a greater number of users to share the limited frequencies available for data and voice trafc. Therefore, the cost of the infrastructure per user is defrayed, leading to a cheaper service offering than if the same service were offered over circuit switched data connections. you no longer pay for your online time per-minute, You pay only for the amount of data you transfer. Immediacy - GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately, as the need arises (subject to radio coverage). No dial-up modem connection is necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes referred to be as being always connected. New & Better Applications - GPRS facilitates several new applications that have not previously been available over GSM networks. GPRS will fully enable the Internet applications you are used to on your desktop from web browsing to chat over the mobile network. Weaknesses Available Bandwidth - Common Internet applications such as email will work well over GPRS, but more advanced services such as streaming video/ audio, real-time video conferencing, and upcoming voice over IP will only work to a certain degree over GPRS. In general, the limits of GPRS bandwidth are similar to the state of the Internet of the mid-1990s before broadband technologies became wide spread. If large amounts of data/graphics/sound/images need to be downloaded from a server, using a 56K modem is going to lead to some frustration. In the same way waiting for a large email attachment to download over the air to your laptop will be painful. Figure 27 Diagram of GPRS network authentication system MS Network Authentication Center (AUC) Home Network Visited Network Over the Air Authentification Authentification Information T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 51 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Digital Cellular - CDMA 2000 Code Division Multiple Access 2000 (CDMA) Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: CDMA2000 is an evolution of the original CDMA standard that allows for high-speed packet (Internet) data, without changing the RF technology used by CDMA (Figure 6). It comes in three avours: 1xRTT, 1xEVDO, and 1xEVDV. 1xRTT, the rst phase in the high-speed packet data evolution of CDMA, provides Internet connection speeds comparable to the fastest dial-up landline modems (40-60kbps sustained). It is currently deployed throughout North America. 1xEV-DO, the second phase of CDMA evolution, is being rolled out in 2004 and 2005. It provides Internet connection speeds comparable to lower end DSL and cable modems (300-500kbps download, 40-60kbps upload, predicted). 1xEV-DO is so named because it is the CDMA EVolution that supports Data Only (its also called Data Optimized, because removing the voice capability allows it to be optimized for data). Verizon Wireless now supports 1xEV-DO in many major US cities. 1xEV-DV, is the nal phase of CDMA evolution before network providers will change their CDMA RF technology. It will provide Internet connection speeds that are slightly faster than 1xEV-DO. 1xEV-DV is the CDMA EVolution that will support Data and Voice simultaneously. Strengths High Speed Cellular Internet Access with Broad Coverage Area CDMA2000 1xRTT is slightly faster than GPRS, and it offers a comparably large service area across North America. Backward Compatible with CDMAOne CDMA2000 supports all cdmaOne (the original CDMA deployment) features including circuit- switched data, so applications can be developed that make use of high-speed packet data in areas with CDMA2000 coverage and circuit-switched data in areas without CDMA2000 coverage. Lower Power Consumption The packet data link is powered down when it is idle so the power consumption is reduced when no data is being transferred. A circuit-switched connection stays powered even when it is idle. Internet Speeds Approach Requirements of Multimedia Applications 1xEV-DO, with 300- 500kbps download, will enable more multimedia applications such as streaming video to the mobile. Simple Upgrade to Existing CDMA Networks CDMA operators can upgrade to CDMA2000 relatively simply, therefore it will continue to penetrate existing CDMA networks at a rapid pace.
Weaknesses Slow Upload Speed Even with 1xEV-DO, the upload speed is still only 40-60kbps. This cant quite service the high-speed requirements of applications such as video conferencing. Streaming video from a 1x covert unit is possible but will not be broadband quality. It is much better than circuit-switched CDMA, however, which only offers 14.4kbps! Lack of Global Coverage CDMA/CDMA2000 does not offer the same global coverage that GSM/ GPRS provides. Figure 28 CDMA2000 network T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 52 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Digital Cellular - W-CDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W- CDMA) Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, one of two 3G standards that makes use of a wider spectrum than CDMA and therefore can transmit and receive information for faster and more efciently. Co-developed by NTT DoCoMo, it is being backed by most European mobile operators and is expected to compete with CDMA2000 to be the de facto 3G standard. Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and 3.84 MHz carrier signals. Third-generation wireless access protocol that uses a wider channel band (5 MHz) to increase transmission bandwidth up to 384 Kbps in mobile environments and up to 2 Mbps in xed settings. Also builds on technologies familiar from the GSM mobile telephony standard. Designers are developing a third-generation channel- access standard, specically in Europe, based on a wideband version of CDMA called WCDMA. W-CDMA is based upon two technologies: 1. Spread spectrum technology: this transmits radio signals over a wider frequency band than conventional 2G systems, allowing all users to share a broad bandwidth. It is robust against disturbance and noise and allows a common frequency to be used across all cells, making frequency switching unnecessary. 2. Multi rate technology: this selects the most suitable communication speed and transmission channel for data based upon its type and size, giving the highest speeds and best quality in transmission. The network includes over 1,600 base transceiver stations (BTS), which are sited indoors to allow the consumer more accessible connectivity in major buildings, underground retail outlets and subway stations across Japan. The new 3G network also uses Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a cell switching and asynchronous multiplexing technology that manages packet switching (exibility, efciency for intermittent trafc) and circuit switching (constant transmission delay, guaranteed capacity) on the same network using cell relay technology. This means that the same network can handle various trafc types to allow multimedia connectivity (i.e., voice transmission, video, data, MPEG4 etc). FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access) is a revolutionary service based on W-CDMA technology, which complies with IMT-2000 an international standard for third-generation (3G) mobile communications. FOMA is the worlds rst 3G mobile service based on W-CDMA. Strengths Extremely Fast Downlink Speeds - FOMA, for example, offers two high-speed packet-data communication services: a packet communication service with a maximum downlink speed of 384kbps and, a circuit-switched service offering 64kbps uploading / downloading for large-volume data. Asynchronous Multiplexing - This allows for more efcient use of bandwidth and interleaving of data of varying priority and size; ATM can also operate point-to-point connections or point-to-multi point connections allowing exibility for services. Excellent Voice Quality - Measured speach samples have been rated as excellent. Connection-Oriented Service - This allows for routing through the ATM network over virtual connections, sometimes called virtual circuits, using simple connection identiers.
Weaknesses Limited Coverage Areas Call Handover Problems - calls get dropped when leaving a WCDMA coverage area, as opposed to getting handed off to a GSM network. Lack of Quality of Service (QOS) Implementation Less Environmentally Friendly signicantly higher radiation levels than say CDMA2000. More Expensive - a new infrastructure to support WCDMA would result in higher user fees. Figure 29 3rd Generation CDMA T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 53 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D to: PSTN Operations and Maintenance Center Mobile Switching Center Mobile Switching Center Base Station Controller BTS BTS BTS Base Station Controller BTS BTS BTS Base Station Controller BTS BTS BTS Mobile Station Mobile Station Mobile Station Mobile Station Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: The GSM network consists of three parts (Figure 30): Strengths Global Coverage - GSMs strongest feature is its worldwide coverage. Through the use of exchangeable SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) cards, GSM equipment can be used in most parts of the modern world. Data Services - The Short Message Service (SMS) is currently the most omnipresent data service worldwide and is the most popular type of data service used by the general public to date. GPRS networks are currently rolling out in Europe and North America and are, or will soon be, offering public services. Application Options and Roaming - GSM offers many value-added service options that subscribers can use anywhere, thanks to global roaming capabilities. The introduction of Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) browsers on GSM handsets made it possible to access Internet-like services from a mobile phone. Security - Like any digital technology, voice services are more secure than over an analog cellular service. GSM offers encryption for voice and data transmissions. Weaknesses Transmission Rate - The circuit switched speeds of 14.4 Kbps are possible, but many carriers only support 9.6 Kbps today. GSM is still one of the leading data services widely available today for digital cellular. Although the theoretical maximum user data rate for GPRS networks is 115Kbps, it is doubtful that cell phones within a normal population usage pattern will ever be able to reach these rates. Figure 30 GSM network components Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Digital Cellular - GSM Mobile Station (MS) This is the mobile equipment carried by the user (e.g. terminal), which includes the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), or the transferable module that gives its host device GSM access. The mobile equipment is identied by the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) and the SIM card uses an International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) that makes the user known to the GSM network. Base Station (BS) This controls the radio link to the Mobile Station, and is the interface between the MS and the xed network infrastructure. Base stations cover areas, called cells, from as small as a few hundred meters in diameter to as large as several kilometers in diameter. Network At the heart of the GSM network is the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), which acts similarly to a traditional switching center for the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). It handles all mobile user functionality including registration, authentication, call routing, etc. The network also contains transmission lines (e.g. ber optics, copper pairs, microwave) to connect the base stations to the MSC as well as elements for billing, network management, and operations. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 54 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) / Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS) Category: Digital Cellular System Technology: TDMA interleaves multiple digital signals onto a single, high-speed channel (Figure 31). For cellular, TDMA triples the capacity of the original analog method (FDMA). Digital Cellular TDMA / D-AMPS Strengths Increased Capacity - Using its multiple time slot technique, TDMA can increase user capacity over current analog cellular systems. The actual improvement depends on many factors, but the Universal Wireless Communications Consortium (UWCC) trade organization claims a 10-fold increase. Adaptable for Data - As a digital technology, it has the promise of providing data services with more re-use of common voice network and device components than analog cellular or digital CDPD. Extended Battery Life - Since mobile TDMA devices are only transmitting a portion of the time (i.e. at specied time slots), batteries will last longer than analog. Improved Voice Quality - Improvements in voice Coder-Decoder (CODEC) quality offer voice services of higher quality Mean Opinion Score (MOS) than analog. Weaknesses Bit Rate - Since TDMA (like all digital cellular systems) is designed to carry digitized voice at below 10kbps, it is not readily adaptable to carry higher speed data. Only by displacing several voice channels, can higher data rates be obtained (e.g. 3 voice channels need to be displaced to achieve 28.8 kbps). Obvious Handoffs - TDMA systems still rely on the switch system to determine when to perform a handoff. When handoffs occur infrequently (such as when stationary or in areas with few sites), they really dont present a problem at all. However, when they occur very frequently (while traveling in an area with a huge number of sites) the sound of the handoffs can become annoying. Becoming Obsolete - TDMA is now being phased out to make room for newer digital technologies. This will make the task of nding network support for TDMA hardware increasingly difcult. Figure 31 TDMA network T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 55 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Digital Data Over AMPS - CDPD Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) Category: Digital Cellular Data System Used Over Analog Cellular Networks Technology: CDPD is a packet switched communications network based on Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), that normally operates as an overlay on top of the existing Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) infrastructure (Figure 32). It is, in fact, a digital cellular system designed for data transport that can operate independently on any cellular system that uses 30 kHz channels (e.g. AMPS analog systems in North America). It should be noted that most CDPD carriers, however, have phased out, or are in the process of phasing out their CDPD services. Strengths Transmission Rate CDPD is a wide area, wireless, packet data network offering raw transmission rates of 19,200 bps. Actual throughput is 10,000 bps on the channel due to overhead for error control. Transfer Mode Provides full-duplex communications allowing a radio modem to talk and listen at the same time. This allows CDPD to handle real-time interactive applications that competing packet networks like the Advanced National Radio Data Service (ARDIS) cannot support due to their half-duplex nature. IP-based and Open Specication The CDPD carrier, in effect, acts as an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Since it is IP-based, it is easy to develop and easy to integrate into existing applications. Anything accessible over the Internet, can also be accessed by a CDPD remote device. At the same time, CDPD is a fully open specication, meaning that there are no licenses or royalties to pay when developing for the network. Reliability and Security CDPD uses forward error correction methods to reduce the effects of noise and interference. In fact, there are usually less errors than circuit-switched data. Authentication and encryption are also incorporated into all packet transmissions. CDPD carriers claim six levels of security. Weaknesses Cost - Charges range anywhere from approximately $.08 to $.20 (US) per kilobyte. This is not expensive for average emails and small data transfer applications, but for transferring graphics such as those found in a Web page, CDPD costs could skyrocket. The only way to avoid high monthly charges is by taking advantage of at rate packages offered by some popular carriers. This will drive the costs down by allowing unlimited data access for a at rate per month. Coverage Due to the lack of a National CDPD carrier, coverage in the U.S. is limited. Most major urban / metropolitan areas, may still have coverage and roaming agreements between CDPD carriers allow one single account to be used across the CDPD footprint. Power Consumption Battery power consumption levels are not as low as compared to packet radio consumption levels. Becoming Obsolete - CDPD is now being phased out to make room for newer digital technologies. This will make the task of nding network support for CDPD hardware increasingly difcult. Figure 9 Data over analog network Figure 32 Data Over Analog Network T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 56 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D DataTAC Category: Low Speed Packet Radio Technology: DataTAC technology is a secure, reliable, wireless packet switching network specically designed for wide-area wireless data communications (Figure 33). DataTAC networks provide services such as Internet Low Speed Packet Radio - DataTAC access, two-way messaging, dispatching, information retrieval, email, and electronic funds transfer/point of sale as well as custom host applications. Strengths Quality of Service: The network provides error detection and correction to ensure the integrity of the data being sent and received, and includes transmission acknowledgment. Coverage: The DataTAC network reaches 17 countries around the world, covering 80 percent of the population and 90 percent of commercial businesses. Speed: Set-up time is eliminated and network connection is instantaneous. Also, packet switching makes far more efcient use of channel capacity, typically allowing 10 to 50 times more users over a radio channel than a circuit switched network. Unlike GSM/GPRS networks that are designed primarily for voice transmissions, the DataTAC network has been designed specically for the transmission of data. This means that the latency of the DataTAC network is considerably less when compared with the GSM/GPRS systems. Private DataTAC was the rst technology to combine the industrys fastest data rates (as high as 19.2 Kbps) with a reliable wireless data protocol (RD- LAP). That means quicker response times and higher capacity to support both todays intensive applications and tomorrows growth. Weaknesses Specialized Software: Due to the wireless-specic DataTAC protocols and interfaces, specialized software applications are generally required. Connection: Communication is session-oriented using a host/terminal approach, so hook-up delays are to be expected. Figure 33 DataTAC network Two-Way Packet Data Network Packet Radio Backbone Network Mobile Devices Land-line Access Network Host T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 57 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Low Speed Packet Radio - Mobitex Mobitex Category: Low Speed Packet Radio Technology: Data-only, packet radio, cellular network operating at around 7,200 bps. Mobitex base stations provide communication between the wireless terminals, which may be used in wearable, mobile or xed applications. A Mobitex network can be congured in many different ways, from a large public network providing nationwide coverage, to a small, privately owned network serving a single company or region. A number of base stations (BAS) provide the basic functionality for a Mobitex network and one or more switches (MX) (Figure 34). Each base station serves a single radio cell, which may have a diameter of up to 30 km in certain applications. Together, the radio base stations provide an area of coverage and determine the capacity of the network. Wireless devices communicate with the nearest base station but are also able to roam freely between radio cells and from base station to base station as the user changes location. The MX Switches route trafc to and from the base stations and provides connections between wireless devices and xed terminals. The Network Control Centre (NCC) handles all operation and maintenance tasks, including network conguration, alarm handling, subscriber administration and billing information. Figure 34 Mobitex system Wearable Mobile Fixed Applications Base Stations Switch Levels Mobitex Backbone Network Management Center LAN / WAN Internet T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 58 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Low Speed Packet Radio - Mobitex continued Strengths Narrowband The communications channels in a Mobitex network have a bandwidth of 12.5 kHz, meaning that it is a narrowband radio technology. Today, with radio spectrum becoming an increasingly scarce and expensive resource, a narrowband system has a compelling cost advantage. Dedicated Data Mobitex is a data-only network. This means that it was designed from the start to carry data trafc and that data transfers cannot be blocked by voice calls. As many as 400 Mobitex users can, in fact, share a single communications channel without any deterioration in service, and it has the capacity to support millions of subscribers in total. Packet Switched Mobitex is a highly dependable service with a proven reliability factor greater than 99.99 percent, ensuring accurate transmission for every message. International Standard Mobitex is an open standard available to all, and administered by the Mobitex Operators Association (MOA). Since all networks are based on exactly the same specications, Mobitex applications will work on any network anywhere in the world. Security Mobitex provides a high level of security that makes it virtually impossible to tap and decipher wireless data. The security levels built into the network are so high that some police forces and emergency services use Mobitex unencrypted. Prolonged Battery Life The Mobitex network supports battery saving functions. The device can be set to a power-saving mode, and can be woken by the network when a host sends data to it; thus economizing on power requirements. For highly mobile users, this battery conservation is a particularly useful feature. Weaknesses Roaming Roaming is still a problem for the Mobitex network. It is currently available in approximately 11 countries, but since different frequencies are used, roaming becomes a complicated issue. Speed The maximum speed achieved on the Mobitex network is 8 Kbps. This is signicantly lower than GPRS, but due to the lack of connection delay at the beginning of a session, the lower transmission speeds of Mobitex are not signicant except for a large data transfer. For many short data transfers, Mobitex is equally fast, or potentially faster than GPRS. Latency Although raw throughput is 8,000 bps, actual throughput after protocol overhead is only about half this rate. Round trip delays usually range from 4 to 8 seconds. Figure 35 Mobitex network T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 59 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN) Category: High Speed Packet Radio Network Technology: A technology introduced by Motorola that provides support for voice, data, short messages (SMS) and dispatch radio (two-way radio) in one phone. Though used by various carriers around the globe, Nextel Communications provides nationwide coverage in the U.S. Today, iDEN wireless handsets are utilized in a variety of work environments ranging from manufacturing oors to executive conference rooms as well as mobile sales forces. Strengths Technologies iDEN technology allows business users to take advantage of four advanced wireless technologies in one pocket-sized digital handset. iDEN combines: two-way digital radio, digital wireless phone, alphanumeric messaging, and data/ fax capabilities. Services iDENs service includes: speakerphone, voice command, phone book, voice mail, mobile Internet and e-mail, voice activation, and voice recordings so that an ofce can virtually be recreated on the road, but the biggest market differentiation for iDEN carriers is the walkie-talkie service. This service attracts both lucrative business users and families who need to be in constant contact. iDEN is the only network that supports a two-way radio feature. That service - often called Direct Connect - allows for less expensive and more convenient communication between iDEN members. Weaknesses Consumer Cost When reviewing iDENs customers average minutes used, one will notice that it stands at approximately 400. Thats about two times to three times more than on regular cellular. If capital expenditure (CAPEX) per minute of use is examined, iDEN is on par with GSM or CDMA. If it is evaluated on a pure CAPEX per subscriber, iDEN is more expensive. Thats one reason why, so far, iDEN carriers have focused on high-margin business users. Figure36 Data networks comparison chart High Speed Circuit Switched Data - iDEN A A B Y Z A B Y Z Channel Channel Channel MESSAGE ROUTING N E T W O R K
U S E R S Dedi cated (Ci rcui t-Swi tched Cel l ul ar) Packet Data CDPD Data from A Data from Z Data from A Data from Y Data from B Data from Z Data from Y Data from B voice call voice call Data from A voice T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 60 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite Category: Data Over Satellite Technology: Low orbiting satellite systems provide near global coverage for transmitters, meaning objects can be tracked from anywhere in the world. Data over satellite systems are satellite-based location and data collection systems which operate in various low orbital congurations to provide truly global communication and data collection solutions. Strengths Very High Downlink Speeds (up to ve megabits of data per second for Alpha - more than twice the capacity of current satellite systems). Near Global Coverage provides nearly global coverage for transmitters, meaning objects can be tracked from anywhere in the world, including over oceans. While the ability to constantly monitor the position of a transmitter, or to receive regular updates is not present, worldwide coverage is available. The key issue is that low orbiting satellites are a functional, proven method of communicating small amounts of data from anywhere in the world. No Tower Dependence Is not dependant on cellular towers for transmission. Weaknesses Latency of Transmission Limited number of communication opportunities presented by the system. As opposed to GPS devices with real time communication modems that can transmit real time information back to a base station, the low orbiting transmitters rely on being seen by a passing satellite. As opposed to GPS devices with real time communication modems that can transmit real time information back to a base station, most satellite transmitters rely on being seen by a passing satellite. As a result, if the satellite does not see the transmitter, the user has no easy way to retrieve information. This has traditionally rendered these low orbiting satellite systems unattractive for agents requiring to get precise locations of the target, as needed. Location Coverage Gaps While offering a nearly global coverage, one of the drawbacks of these satellite systems is the limited number of communication opportunities presented. Given that the satellites are in a polar orbit as opposed to a geo- synchronous orbit, communication opportunities are much greater the father removed from the equator the unit is. This issue may cause concern for individuals tracking in equatorial regions. High Power Consumption Low Orbiting Satellite - based equipment requires larger battery pack installations as they have a higher power consumption than traditional celluar-based equipment. High Cost Transmitters and access fees may not make this communication technology a viable solution for all parties. Highly Sensitive This technology is based on low- frequency doppler measurements. Consequently, it is very sensitive to small movements at receiver. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 61 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Law Enforcement Applications It has several advantages in terms of tracking packages and or vehicles. The transmitters are very small with an average size of just a few centimeters square. The power consumption of the actual transmitter is quite low and given that the average transmission length is only milliseconds long, units can operate over extended periods of time with limited batteries. This technology is currently being used mainly by federal agencies that are attempting to track objects across large distances, over long periods of time. Examples of agencies using these transmitters include: DEA, US Customs, USDOD, and the RCMP. Sample of a Low Earth Orbiting Satellite System Iridium System The Iridium System is a satellite-based, wireless personal communications network providing a robust suite of voice features to virtually any destination anywhere on earth. The Iridium system comprises three principal components: the satellite network, the ground network and the Iridium subscriber products including phones and pagers. The design of the Iridium network allows voice and data to be routed virtually anywhere in the world. Voice and data calls are relayed from one satellite to another until they reach the satellite above the Iridium Subscriber Unit (handset) and the signal is relayed back to Earth. Terrestrial and Space Based Network The Iridium constellation consists of 66 operational satellites and 13 spares orbiting in a constellation of six polar planes. Each plane has 11 mission satellites performing as nodes in the telephony network. The 13 additional satellites orbit as spares ready to replace any unserviceable satellite. This constellation ensures that every region on the globe is covered by at least one satellite at all times. The satellites are in a near-polar orbit at an altitude of 485 miles (780 km). They circle the earth once every 100 minutes traveling at a rate of 16,832 miles per hour. Each satellite is cross-linked to four other satellites; two satellites in the same orbital plane and two in an adjacent plane. LEO satellites offer a number of benets to customers. Unlike geosynchronous satellites, which hover about the equator at an altitude of 35,900 kilometers (22,300 miles), the Iridium constellation of 66 satellites are in polar orbits at an altitude of only 780 kilometers (485 miles). This orbital conguration provides the following benets over systems based on other orbital congurations: No signicant transmission delays; small, handheld pagers and phones (versus laptop-size terminals); lower transmit power resulting in longer battery life; and complete global coverage, including all oceans and all land areas including the Poles. The Iridium system design is predicated upon line- of-sight access to the satellite. Therefore, in-building coverage for handsets is generally not available. Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite Figure 37 Rendering of the Iridium Satellite System T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 62 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 3.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS SUMMARY Network Strengths Weaknesses Robust signal low chance of data corruption Excellent coverage, especially in rural areas Reduced support by carriers Low transmission bandwidth No standard encryption Potential for high speed data Potential for long battery life Access by phone or internet Some formats have the potential for wide international roaming Roaming between unsupported carriers can result in dropped calls, loss of features, etc. CDMA coverage is mainly limited to North America AMPS CDMA, GPRS, CDMA2000, W-CDMA, GSM, D-AMPS/TDMA Reasonable coverage in urban areas and corridors Very low power, long battery life (like pager) Easy communication to Blackberry pagers Very convenient, cheap operation Best for small amounts of data, no large downloads Message delays of several seconds DataTAC Mobitex High Speed Packet Data iDEN High speed data, short delays Low cost, monthly packages Not widely available, but coverage is spreading CDPD Reasonable coverage in major centres and corridors High speed data with low latency Direct connection via internet Complexities of dual mode Power consumption not as low as packet radio CDPD technology is being phased out Analog Cellular Digital Cellular Low Speed Packet Radio Digital Data Over AMPS Data Over Satellite Low Earth Orbiting Satellites High Data transfer speeds Global Coverage Does not depend on Cellular Towers No Real Time Tracking Time & Location Coverage Gaps High Power Consumption High Cost Potential Table 4 Wireless Communications Summary T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 63 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 3.5 COVERAGE MAP EXAMPLES The following is an example of what a typical coverage map might look like. Since these technologies are changing so rapidly, we strongly advise you to visit your service providers web site directly for the most accurate and up to date coverage information. You can nd links for US, Canadian and Worldwide coverage maps in the Reference section at the back of this manual or in the list of popular service providers in Appendix H. Figure 38 US GSM coverage map T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 64 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Currently, wireless networks are based on multiple technologies. International roaming is based on the exchange of signaling messages, billing records and other information. Operators need to ensure that their networks - and the switches and databases connected by them - are compatible with their roaming partners, or they will not be able to exchange information. In the international roaming arena, ensuring compatible connections is especially difcult, requiring protocol conversions. In Europe, the competition is only at the service level over a standardized and well-organized cellular infrastructure. Americas cellular competition, on the other hand, is at the service level as well as the technology level, imposing incompatible (sometimes totally proprietary) technologies on their clients. European wireless carriers utilize international, inter- standard roaming which allows customers to roam on different wireless networks that utilize different standards. These standards include the ANSI-41 family of standards (Analog, NAMPS, CDMA, TDMA) and the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard. Wireless operators must overcome the challenges associated with international and inter-standard roaming. This requires bridging the gap between different numbering schemes, different billing and signaling systems, and different network elements. Operators must deal with issues that range from managing roaming agreements and network inter operability to settling roaming debts, managing fraud, and training their customer care departments to troubleshoot roaming- related problems. Figure 39 Common roaming agreements 3.6 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND ROAMING T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 65 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 66 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 4 GPS Accessor i es T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 67 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 4 - INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the ways in which the technologies previously discussed may be applied as well as the implications GPS tracking has on Law Enforcement Agencies. It will further review some of the more popular accessories that are commonly used amongst Law Enforcement communities to aid in covert surveillance applications. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 68 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D All Radio Frequency energy has a wavelength. High frequency signals have short wavelengths, while low frequency signals have long wavelengths. An antenna is a device shaped /cut to fundamentally match the wavelengths of the signal its trying to receive. For example, your car antenna is cut to the correct specications to pick up radio signals, however, you would not be able to use your AM/FM radio antenna for your cellular telephone as it is not designed to receive the wavelengths that cellular phones transmit their signals on. There are many different types of antennas: monopole, dipole, patch, helical, loop, etc. Each of these styles has their own advantages and disadvantages, according to the function they are supposed to serve. You can learn more about each of these various antennas by referring to our Internet Website references found at the back of this manual. There are also passive (cellular) and active (GPS) antennas. Passive antennas consist of only a resonator (raw antenna), whereas active antennas have amplier circuitry to boost their signal. (Examples are strictly applicable to Orion products) The efciency of an antenna is expressed as gain, usually in dBs (decibels). As a general rule, the higher the dB, the more efcient the antenna will be. The gain of a passive antenna actually is an indication of its directionality. In some directions, it will pick up signals very well, but that means that it cannot pick up signals from other directions quite so well. 4.1 ANTENNA OVERVIEW Figure 40 900/1900 MHz Stubby Cellular Antenna Figure 41 3Db gain Rubber Duck Cellular Antenna Figure 42 800,800, 1800, 1900 MHz Dagger Cellular Antenna 2 in c h e s 5 .5 in c h e s In terms of Law Enforcement tracking, there are two sides to the antenna equation - GPS antennas and a communication antenna. Unless youre dealing with a GPS data logger, youll need to install some sort of communication antenna as well, to transmit data taken by your tracking device. The placement of this antenna is just as important as that of the GPS antenna. The majority of antennas do not respond well to being surrounded by metal. Always remember to strike the balance between covertness and functionality. Take a look at some examples of communication antennas below to get a rough impression of their size. The following are some quick-reference antenna facts T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 69 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Key Antenna Installation Tips If installing a GPS antenna, remember it must SEE THE SKY. GPS antennas can see through most plastics, berglass, thin wood, and paper. The better view the antenna has of the sky, the better the results will be. Keep in mind that not all GPS antennas are created equal! Different sized antennas will require different voltages. It is important to check the voltage requirements of your GPS antenna before connecting it to any tracking device to ensure that you are using the proper equipment. As a general rule, the larger the antenna, the more efcient it will be at receiving GPS signals. This having been said, the larger the antenna being used, the more difculties your team will experience in a covert and accurate antenna placement on the target. Make sure you check the RSSI (signal strength) of the communication antenna you install. Most communication antennas dont like to be shielded by metal or non-conductive materials. GPS signals will easily pass through plastic, glass and berglass but not metal, metallic paints and some types of mirrored/tinted glass. When installing a GPS antenna in conjunction with a Cellular antenna (or another RF transmitter antennas), always try to separate them by at least 3 feet. Any closer than that, and you risk getting interference in the GPS antenna from the Cellular antenna. If you have a long extension cable on any of your antennas, make sure you bundle the excess near the unit, not the antenna. Coiling up the excess wire near any RF transmitter antennas (i.e. your own cell antenna, two way radio etc.) can cause interference with the antenna. If possible, avoid coiling any extra cable you might have, as this will reduce your cell antennas efciency. When possible, route the antenna cable in such a way that you make use of the full antenna cable length. Try to install your cellular antenna as vertically as possible. Avoid installing cellular antennas near other electronics that may be interfered with by the radiated cellular energy. The Installation Wizard is a good way to check your installation. Look at RSSI or cellular signal strength. You should aim for at least 60% in a covert install. Again, it cannot be stressed enough, when installing the antenna, always keep in mind how much of the sky can actually be seen by the antenna from the installation point; the more sky, the better the signal! T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 70 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D GPS Antennas All GPS tracking systems have one overriding requirement; they must have a GPS antenna to function. The GPS Antenna is the units link to the GPS system of satellites orbiting overhead. By intercepting this signal, the GPS unit is able to position itself on the world. In addition to the GPS antenna, many Real Time GPS tracking systems need a secondary antenna for communication. The choosing and placing of these antennas will make the difference in the effectiveness of your GPS system. GPS antennas come in all shapes and sizes. As a covert installer, you need to be concerned with 2 issues when it comes to these antennas: 1. How big is the antenna? The smaller the antenna is, the easier it will be to install. As mentioned earlier in this section, the GPS antennas need to See the Sky. As a result, one of the hardest parts of the install is nding somewhere to hide the antenna. Refer to the pictures below for a rough idea of the size of some of the GPS antennas available. 2. What gain is the antenna? When discussing the properties of various GPS antennas the word gain is sure to pop up. Gain is a word that describes the amount of amplication present in the antenna (how much the antenna will amplify these signals it receives). Most GPS receivers come with their own ampliers on the front (receiver) end. Some can even work with passive (0 gain) antennas. Usually any gain over 14dB (in modern GPS receivers) is unnecessary. However, if a signal is very weak, added gain might be useful. Too much gain is a danger when a strong signal is amplied to the point of over-driving the ampliers of the GPS receiver. Do not judge an antenna strictly by gain. The MkIV is a relatively high gain antenna, but it also is not ltered. So the amplier amplies everything the antenna detects including non-GPS signals. This causes problems when placed near powerful RF sources. Note: Pease refer to the previous page for some useful antenna installation tips. Figure 43 Trimble 6Db gain GPS antenna Figure 44 Sigem 18Db gain GPS antenna Figure 45 Mk IV 24Db gain GPS antenna T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 71 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Camera Basics In a nutshell, cameras convert light energy into electrical energy. When taking a picture with a camera, the camera takes a snapshot of what is in its view and this image is converted into an electrical signal that is stored in the memory of the surveillance unit - in a binary format. With the appropriate corresponding software, the stored information is later re-created into a visual display for the user. Technical Camera Tips Bright light shining directly into the camera will cause your image to have a washed out area around the light source. Try and install your cameras so they point away from any windows in an internal install. The cameras Orion supplies are only splash proof; so avoid installation areas that expose the cameras to excessive moisture. Try using various cameras with your units. Some cameras operate better in low light conditions than others. Always test your installation before leaving. Using a video interface unit can help you adjust details like the focus and aiming points of the camera. Investigate if your case requires the use of an infrared light camera for nighttime surveillance. Figure 46 Example of photograph taken by a covert camera hidden in suspects vehicle Figure 47 Examples of covert surveillance cameras 4.2 CAMERA SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 72 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 4.3 MICROPHONE OVERVIEW Microphone Basics A microphone is any device which converts mechanical sound energy into electrical energy (an electrical signal) Hiding a microphone under clothing requires much attention. Not only must the mic be hidden from view, but you must also contend with the problems of clothing noise. Contact clothing noise is caused by clothing physically rubbing against, or striking, the mic capsule or mic cable. The best means to eliminate this type of noise is to immobilize the clothing around the mic. Acoustic noise interference is created from clothing rubbing against itself. Static Guard works very well to lubricate clothing, such as jackets rubbing over shirts. When performing personal audio surveillance, always be sure to wear natural bers such as cotton and wool. As a rule of thumb, cottons and woolens are the quietest clothing bers. Synthetics and silks cause a bad audio feed and should be avoided as much as the situation allows. The best solution to clothing noise is to keep the microphone off of the body entirely. It is a simple matter to hide microphones on many handheld objects. Microphones can also be hidden in other areas, under the collar, under the brim of hats, or hidden in the hair at the forehead. Small microphones can also be hidden on the frames of eyeglasses. Technical Microphone Tips If your microphone cable is stretched taunt, vehicle vibration can be transmitted to the microphone causing audio distortion. Place your microphones as far away from any sources of moving air (i.e. windows, air vents, etc.) as possible. Contact wind noise (the distortion caused when wind strikes the diaphragm of the mic itself) can greatly diminish the quality of the recording. This can be effectively diminished or eliminated with use of an effective foam windshield around the mic. Unfortunately, acoustic wind noise such as wind howling through trees is almost impossible to remove. Placing the microphone as close as possible to the desired source is the only technique that can diminish the acoustic wind noise. Try various spots and at various speeds to get a good idea of performance under a variety of circumstances. Take care not to place microphones near noise sources due to the automatic gain control (within the circuitry that the mic feeds to) as found in most audio equipment. The automatic gain control will cause the mic to focus on the loudest signal it picks up, whether it be the conversation you are attempting to listen to, or the radio in the background, depending on where the mic is placed. Try installing one microphone in the front of the car and one in back, or one on the inside and one on the outside of the vehicle. Imagine where the conversations you want to hear will be most likely to take place. Never store or install microphones in or around Styrofoam, as it too, will interfere with the sound quality. You can, however, wrap the microphone in a small piece of foam to prevent vibration and therefore transmit better audio quality. The end of the microphone should not be permitted to swing or hang loose as the movement will cause excessive background noise. Figure 48 Example of covert microphone mic T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 73 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Batteries come in two types: Rechargeable & Non-rechargeable 1. Regular or Non-rechargeable batteries are good because they have more energy stored for their size than chargeable ones. Also, if you use fresh ones you are pretty sure how long they will last. They are bad because you have to throw them away after use. 2. Rechargeable Batteries are good because you can use them over and over. They are bad because for the same capacity, they are larger and there is a limit to how often they can be used. Rechargeable batteries are dangerous to rely on because you never really know what condition they are in. Rechargeable batteries tend to not stand up to abuse (full discharge, over charge etc) and lose their capacity with no easy way for you to determine what their real capacity is. The only thing you know for sure is that they do not have the capacity they did when they were new, as listed on the spec. At some point they are going to fail, so you need a good plan to keep track of how much they are used. All this makes rechargeable batteries a poor choice for most surveillance applications. Non-rechargeable Batteries Come in Different Chemistries 1. Your basic cheap ashlight battery is Carbon- Zinc. Dont use it in your tracking products! (Except maybe for testing purposes, or in your ashlight!) 2. Most higher price types are Alkaline. These are ne to use at temperatures above approximately 14 degrees F (-10C). Below that, you will get a lot less life from them. The battery companies have come out with a whole bunch of super alkalines with various clever names and high prices. The ones reviewed by Orion all have the same technical specications as the cheap ones so make sure you check the specs before you spend a lot of money on a new name. Beware of ashy marketing tactics! 3. There are scores of specialty batteries generally called Lithium. Be warned that they are nowhere near uniformly the same. All work well at low temperatures, and often have much more energy for their size than the other two types. Some, however, can only supply low currents while others supply high currents, but can explode if shorted! Lithium batteries also generally cost a lot more. Be careful which ones you choose. Some good examples EverReady has a Lithium-Ion AA cell. It is a good replacement for Alkaline AA cells at low temperatures. At regular temperatures it will give you about 20-30% more life. Ultra-life makes a 9-volt lithium battery. It has approximately twice as much energy as the same size Alkaline. A number of manufacturers, including Panasonic, make Lithium batteries intended for cameras. They are odd sizes, but actually are pretty good batteries; both for energy storage and for cold temperatures. Some types may however, need special shipping. 4.4 BATTERIES Figure 49 Sample of a battery set-up Most covert electronics use batteries packs to hardwire themselves or are hardwired to another power source. If you decide to use a battery pack, how do you know what kind of batteries to use, or how long they will last? For that matter, whats the difference between one kind of battery and another? This section will give you the knowledge to answer those questions and more. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 74 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Rechargeable Batteries also Come in Different Chemistries 1. Lead Acid - Your average car battery. Great if you have the space. Basic cell is 2.0 volts. 2. Gell Cell - Your car battery with jello added. Does not spill. Refer to 1) above. 3. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) - Until recently, the most used rechargeable battery. Found in electric razors, mobile phones etc. Does not store much energy for its size by modern standards, and has a charge memory If you dont take care, it will pretend to be charged when it isnt. Easily available. Use with caution, however, as they are toxic and need special disposal. Each Cell 1.2 volts. 4. Nickel Metal Hydride - At least 50% better than Ni-Cad. Tend to lose charge quickly when not used. Not easily bought - except in cell phone battery packs - and require care in charging. 5. Lithium-Ion - Can double Ni-Cad in storage capacity. Very light in weight. Works well over wide temperature range. Tends to lose charge when not used, but not as fast as other types. Requires special care in charging. Best choice in present rechargeable technology if you can deal with the charging issue. Lithium cells usually come in 3.6 volts, with a few exceptions such as the 9 volt or AA. Making Your Own Battery Packs With a little bit of work, you can put together cells or batteries to make your own battery packs. There are two main congurations: Series and Parallel. Series multiplies the voltage but gives the same amp- hour capacity as one cell. Parallel multiplies the amp- hour capacity but leaves the voltage the same. In either series or parallel the energy is the same - the number of cells times the energy in one cell. This concept regarding parallel and series groups of batteries is a very important one. If you want to build your own battery pack - whether you build a series pack or a parallel pack - will be a prime consideration before starting. Golden Rules for Battery Packs 1. Know how long you want them to last. 2. The size of the battery is directly related to how long you want it to last. Figure 50 Parallel battery pack Figure 51 Series battery pack T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 75 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D What are the current and voltages specied? Is there a high current for short time or low current for a long time? Does the draw change depending on the use? What is the power consumption of your unit? If your device draws 500 mA an hour under full load, a single A cell with a capacity of 3000 mA will last about 6 hours. Is that enough? What kind of load will you will put on them? Steady? Pulsed? A pulsed load will generally allow the battery to supply relatively more power than a steady one, because it allows the battery to recover between pulses. Some batteries will not work well with high pulse loads, because their internal resistance is too high and they get hot, wasting energy. What environmental conditions are they going to be used in? If the batteries are going to be subjected to extreme cold weather temperatures, make sure you use a lithium battery. They respond better to cold temperatures. Make sure that you adequately protect the batteries and any circuits you may have from the outside environment. What size limitations will there be in terms of installations? If you only have a small space, consider using the right sized battery and playing with voltages and capacity with your series and parallel arrangements. REMEMBER! Never, never, never solder directly onto a cell. (The heat will damage the cell, and may very well cause it to explode regardless of its chemical makeup. At the very least, it may fail at any later given time.) Power Supplies Different electronic devices use different power supplies and you need to know what kind youre working with when designing your battery pack. 1. A linear supply will be very wasteful if the supply voltage is much different from the internal needs of the unit. For example, a unit might run at 3 volts internally, but have a linear power supply that the manufacturer species from 4 to 12 volts. All the energy supplied over 4 volts will be wasted. If you use a 12-volt battery, around 70% of the battery energy will be wasted in heat. If a unit with a linear supply takes 10mA at 6 volt, it will still take 10mA at 12 volts. 2. A switching supply, on the other hand, will only waste as little as 5% as long as the voltage is within the specied range. The higher the voltage, the lower the current needed with this type. If the unit takes 10 mA at 6 volts, at 12 volts it will take 5 mA. For calculating the life of a battery used with a switching supply, you need to use energy calculations - not capacity ones. (Use milliwatts, not milliamps) Battery Storage Generally speaking, batteries should be stored in a cool location, at just above the freezing mark. Some batteries can be frozen, but this should be discussed with the supplier before attempted. A decent fridge can also be a used to store batteries, although some cells should not be refrigerated because condensation may create a resistance and run the cell down (ie, 9V). If batteries are kept in cool (ex. air conditioned) rooms, refrigeration is not useful. For the most reliable results, it is always best to use new batteries for important cases. Power Requirements and Considerations T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 76 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Carbon Zinc 9V 9 400 3,600 AA 1.5 950 1,425 AAA 1.5 540 810 C 1.5 3,000 4,500 D 1.5 5,900 8,850 Alkaline 9V 9 595 5,355 AA 1.5 2,565 3,847.5 AAA 1.5 1,375 2,062.5 AAAA 1.5 595 892.5 C 1.5 8,350 12,525 D 1.5 18,000 27,000 Lithium Ion A 3 1,550 4,650 9V 9 1,200 10,800 AA 1.5 2,900 4,350 LSH 14-C 3.6 5,500 6,480 LSH 20-D 3.6 13,000 4,680 Nickel Cadmium 9V 7.2 150 1,080 AA 1.2 1,700 2,040 AAA 1.2 750 900 C 1.2 2200 2640 Battery Matrix The following chart outlines some of the specications of different consumer batteries. Use your own judgment and look at the exact specications before deciding on any particular battery. The energy values for some batteries cannot be calculated strictly as voltage times capacity due to their discharge pattern. This applies mainly to Alkaline and Carbon Zinc because their discharge voltage is rarely the stated voltage. If you have any questions about selecting the best battery for your needs, please feel free to call our helpful Orion staff. The chart to the right indicates the discharge patterns of different battery types. As you can see, Lithium holds a constant voltage for a longer period and then drops off. Alkaline drops off a bit at the start, holds a lower voltage and then drops off. Nickel Cadmium has a constant downward slope. Battery Type Battery Size Voltage Capacity (mAh)* Energy (mWatts) Volts Time Lithium Alkaline Nickel Cadmium Table 5 Battery Comparison Chart T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 77 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 78 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 5 I nst al l at i on Ti ps & Tool s T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 79 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 5 - INTRODUCTION This chapter will serve as a valuable introduction to install and protect covert GPS tracking units. On the following pages, we will be discussing issues to keep in mind when preparing for a surveillance installation, and how to effectively mount your tracking devices on a target in order to achieve the best results from your products. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 80 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.1 INSTALLATION PREPARATION Orion employees do not have a lot of practical experience in this eld, so to help us out we asked Trooper Eugene Cullen from the Pennsylvania State Police for some advice. Hes been a great asset to us over the years and most of the information below comes from him. If you ever need help dealing with a GPS system hes a great, experienced resource. Installation is where all your knowledge can be put to bear, and legends are made and broken. Weve all heard stories about 3 minute hardwire installs, borrowing cars in the middle of the night among other things we cant even put into print. As exciting as these stories are, they all have one thing in common: the people involved certainly invested a lot of time and effort in making sure that everything went as perfectly as possible. Its a clich, but the truth is that mistakes in this business have very serious consequences. Look through the following section for some hints and tips on how to make sure your next installation goes as smoothly as possible. Step 1: The Investigators Initial Phone Call Start asking by asking the right questions. This is where you start to get the feel for the case to come. What is the missions objective? What are they trying to accomplish? What type of case is it? Do they need real time monitoring capabilities, memory tracking only, or a combination of both? Step 2: Deciding What to Use and How After your initial conversation with the lead case investigator, you should have a good idea of what kind of unit to use. There are, however, still some questions that need to be answered. What type of tracker needs to be used? Make sure you nd out exactly what kind of GPS unit they want. If they dont know, make the decision based on the initial information the investigator gave you. How long will the unit need to be up and running? Will the installation be Slap & Dash or a hardwire? Note: Refer to page 61 for a quick reference ow chart that can help you decide what kind of product you should be considering for your case. Step 3: Investigating the Target Once you gure out what kind of unit youre going to use, its time to investigate the target vehicle. Whats the exact make and model of the car? Does it have an alarm? If so, is it factory installed or an after market one? Are keys available? How is the investigator going to acquire the vehicle? Where will the installation take place? When does the investigator wish the installation take place? Step 4: Installation Preparation Once you have answered the questions in the sections above, you can begin to prepare for the upcoming installation. The suggestions below are based on signicant experience. While you might not always have time to do every single thing mentioned here, the more you do, the easier the installation will be in the end. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 81 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.2 COVERT GPS TRACKING INSTALLATION Preparation checklist Get the Investigator to obtain surveillance pictures of the target vehicle. Run the vehicles VIN through VIN Assist to get the exact vehicle year, exact Model info, and engine code (V6 or V8). Obtain a Build Sheet from the manufacturer. This provides the specic options installed on the vehicle. *Remember two vehicles may appear alike, but one may have different options. Two Chevy pick-ups with 5.7-liter V8 engines may not be the same as one another. The second one may have a towing package that provides a larger radiator or transmission cooler. Having the exact specications means you wont have practiced on the basic V-8 package, and the install location you found for your midnight raid slap & go is not there at 0300 hours! Obtain other information from outside sources like shop manuals from the dealer, or an aftermarket provider like Chiltons or Mitchells on Demand CDs. Obtain a similar vehicle for testing and practice. You can usually nd one if you look hard enough and it will make the job a lot easier in the long run. Look at the rental agencies, friends or co-workers, a used car lot, auction house, impound lot, or even a junk yard for those older models. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 82 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.3 GPS INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST With regards to hand tools, if you are a full time tech, you will probably already have most of the recommended tools listed. There are, however, some additional automotive tools that will certainly help. Also, many people get by with only using SAE tools and never use metric wrenches and sockets, but with automotive, they are a must! Hand Tools and Accessories Hydraulic jack Jack stands Creeper Wheel dollies Light Sources Snake light (Craftsman) Miners headlight (red) Filter ash light for night installs Special Hand Tools Panel removal tool (Snap-On YA-331) Window or door handle removal tool Razor knife or scalpel (X-acto) Torx set (T-10 through T-50) Snap-on or Craftsman Standard and with hole in middle Inspection mirrors Retrieval magnet or magic ngers Dental probes & hooks (telephone wire picks) Electrical Tools Cordless drill / screwdriver Spare battery Right angle attachment Uni-bit & complete drill index Knock-out set (Greenlee) Spiral saw (Roto-Zip) Portable dremel tool Portable soldering iron Solder & extra butane Portable vacuum (Dustbuster) Electrical Supplies Test light Alligator clip leads (Burger buttons) Misc. 12 volt relays 30-amp automotive relay Automotive noise lter (Radio Shack) RF adapter assortment (BNC to SMA etc) Spare RF connectors Meters (Simpson, Fluke) Fuses Buss type & blade type In-line fuse holders Add a circuit Assorted terminal lugs (3M, Stacon) Assorted wiring Old wire is good (Get an old harness from a junkyard) Parasitic connectors (Scotchlock) Self-sealing is best, but not required Heat shrink (multi color available) Loom tubing (assorted sizes) Zip ties (assorted sizes) Miscellaneous Hardware Automotive screw assortment (including metric sizes) Interior snap / clip assortment Scrounge box (all your leftovers) Self tapping screws Pop rivets Adhesives Windshield sealant Duct sealant or Monkey Goop Silicon (beware of odor) Hot glue gun Epoxy (double bubble packs or syringe) Tapes Double-sided carpet tape Electrical tape Duct tape Adhesive backed Velcro (3M #3541) Spray foam sealant (good for rattles and securing equipment) Continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 83 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Additional Items Polaroid camera Digital camera Automotive paint Primer & touch up Undercoating Trim adhesive Lubricant (CRC or WD-40) Cleaner (Simple Green, etc.) Compressed air PLEASE BE AWARE: If you are installing equipment around the dash of a car, pay particular attention to the airbags. They can be deadly if discharged accidentally! Installation Check List Disable alarm Observe and/or disconnect odometer Record AM/FM presets Record seat & steering wheel positions Consider recording interior with a camera before entry Do not remove power, some cars remember Tapping electrical power? Does unit have internal surge suppression / fusing or is in-line fuse needed Ensure good ground connection! Place GPS antenna in area where it can see the sky Angle antenna to permit optimum view if partially blocked Ensure proper placement of cell or RF antenna Camouage installation so that it matches surroundings! Unit Final Check List Will unit answer? RF link Cellular link If using test box, self check unit Is GPS head taking xes? Cell antenna percentages? Now is the time to nd any problems. Not after you return the vehicle! Installation Final Check List Return interior to original positions Refer to pictures and lists Test AM/FM radio across the band Interference? Re-attach odometer if disconnected Adjust steering wheel Were doors locked? Hand prints all over side of car? Dirt or dust disturbed on side of car? GPS Installation Equipment Checklist continued Never leave your cable runs apping loose. Use tie wraps or tape to attach them to the frame or other wires. Try to keep some black wire conduit around; its perfect for hiding wires and cables. Make sure all equipment is attached rmly to the vehicle. If you are planning on using magnetic plates, make sure they are also secured with tape or tie wraps to prevent slipping and sliding. Make sure all connectors are locked in place to prevent them from vibrating loose. If you are at all concerned, wrap them with black tapeno more worries and it disguises the connectors as a bonus! Test your install as thoroughly as possible. Never pull, stretch, or crush your cables. If you notice nicks or frays, make sure you test them as carefully as possible. If you have any doubts as to the performance condition of the unit, replace it! Take extra installation accessories to the install site, so you are well equipped for any unexpected emergency. Use a vacuum cleaner and reverse its suction to blow dust on newly installed conduits and wires to prevent detection if the rest of the engine bay was previously dusty. This will give it a nice camouage and make it less likely to stand out. Last Minute Quick Reference Installation Tips T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 84 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.4 LEGAL ASPECTS OF COVERT GPS TRACKING Pennsylvania Court order needed regardless of tapping vehicle electrical system (PACC/5761). Good for up to 90 days & only one extension. Only need Reasonable Suspicion to support you request. Need a Probable Cause order to monitor in an area covered by an expectation of privacy. Federal and most other States Order not needed unless tapping vehicle electrical system. An order is needed if tracking is to occur in an area covered by a reasonable expectation of privacy. Having to obtain an order is not very difcult. You can have additional authorization statements added in the order to help you do your job! (see below) Precautionary Order Additions All basic case-related information. Make / Model / Owner information. Maintenance Statement. Authorization to make periodic adjustments to tracking unit as necessary. Steal It Statement. Your agency is hereby authorized to make secret entry into, detain, and/or temporarily remove vehicle from said parking location for purposes of installing a tracking device . Any additional information necessary to complete your task statement. The following locations could provide you information: Manufacturer Local and all dealerships National Insurance Crime Bureau (NICB) Alarm Companies Key Codes Build Sheets Alarm Technical Data If removal not practicable at time of expiration, monitoring shall cease. Shut off GPS head if possible. Geographic limitations of evidence use statement. If vehicle travels outside area covered under this order, any information obtained shall not be used unless authorized by a court in that jurisdiction or area. Technology currently not available. We went back to our friend Sgt. Cullen of the Pennsylvania State Police for this one. Now a lot of the information contained within this section will deal specically with the Pennsylvania legal system. We feel that if you know what other people have to do, it will raise the question: What do I have to be aware of? Once you ask that question youre well on your way to nding out what legalities you have to be aware of in your state or province. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 85 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.5 GPS COVERT TRACKING UNIT INSTALLATION TIPS One of the biggest challenges facing investigators is where to install both the GPS tracking unit and the accompanying antennas it needs to work. Look at the cars below. Pretty average at rst glance, but there are things that make doing an install a lot easier. First consider how much of this car is made of plastic: fenders, bumpers, wheel wells and more. These places also happen to be ideal spots for installing antennas for a GPS installation. Take a look at the pictures below for some universal ideas on installation spots. Plastic grill Headlight, turn signal and brake light assemblies Plastic bumpers Look here for power Place unit behind glove box Place the antenna under the dash Lots of plastic to hide under Look for power in here Dont forget the rear deck of a 4-door sedan as an installation spot. It offers the same benets as the front dash, while being less likely to come under scrutiny. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 86 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Security Chip Keys Car manufacturers today are focusing more on car theft prevention then ever before. This is bad news for the majority of technical investigators. One of the things theyve come up with is a security chip car key. The ignition key has a small, integrated chip built into the key. A sensor in the ignition reads the chip code from the key when someone is trying to start the engine. If the code is not present, it will not allow the engine to start. However, in some cases the engine may start, but it will not stay running for long! After about ten seconds, it will temporarily disable the motor, and generate a fault condition that will require a mechanics attention to clear up. You need to make sure the car youre working with does not have a security chip car key. How do you nd out? Ask a dealership or refer to a shop manual, some of this information may also be found on various vehicle websites. If your car does have one of these keys, you need to get a work around. What that means is getting a blank key and have the proper code programmed into it. There are two ways of programming your blank chip key: Possess an original key that has already been pre-programmed, and follow the manufacturers directions. (Possible, but if you had an original you wouldnt be concerned in the rst place!) Take the vehicle to the same manufacturers dealership, and have them use their multi thousand- dollar machine to program the key! People tell us that this process is very risky and not very practical, so be careful if you attempt it. Beware! A blank chip key is inexpensive in most cases. A dealer may inadvertently provide you with the pre-cut key, and not tell you that it has not been pre- programmed! Some older style chip keys used a resistor in the key. Manufacturers only used approximately a dozen resistor combinations. The resistors can be swapped in until the right combination is found! Alarm Systems Sooner or later youll run into a problem with a car alarm on a vehicle you want to install a unit on. Unfortunately, theres not much you can do here without some good research and contacts. The picture above illustrates some of the parts you may nd in a car alarm. New alarms will use one or all of these features. Older models use the same frequency to turn security system on and off. You can intercept using a scanner or spectrum analyzer if in close enough proximity to the target when they press the key. Many newer alarm systems, however, use a frequency-hopping algorithm that changes every time the remote is pressed. You may intercept one code, but it may not work the next time! 5.6 SECURITY SYSTEMS The Parts of a Car Alarm Figure 5.2 Car Alarm Diagram T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 87 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.7 EXAMPLE OF GPS DIGITAL SWITCHING SETUP Digital Switching Setup for a GPS Informer (ST600) Unit Wiring the Output Switch to a Relay: The internal switch of an Informer unit can only switch up to 0.5 A of current. You will need to use a separate relay to control higher current levels. Most on-board devices in a vehicle use more than 0.5 A such as tail lights, power locks or engine components. Here is an example of how to wire up a relay to the ST600 series Informer AND the device you want to control remotely. Sample Relay Bosch part # 0332-209-150 Switches up to 30 A @ 60 V and can be wired normally open or normally closed. Normally Open = no power running to the device until you change the state of the relay ie. CLOSE switch. Normally Closed = power running to device until you change the state of the relay i.e. OPEN switch. Informer Switch Requirements The Informer does not supply power to the relay or the internal switch. So you will need to wire it into a power supply. RECOMMENDED: Crimp into the +/- 12 V source of the Informer (i.e. the blue lead) The switch in the Informer is normally open. That means, without using an external relay, the device will not have any power until you CLOSE the switch using the software or touch tone commands. You can force the device to be continuously powered using an external relay. Whenever the Informer internal switch is set CLOSED, it will draw additional current until it is set OPEN again. So, if you want the device to be continuously powered, use an external relay. The Bosch relay used here can be wired normally open or closed. Figure 53 External relay - normally open Figure 54 External relay - normally closed T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 88 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 5.8 HOMEMADE GPS BATTERY CALCULATOR One of the hardest things when working with batteries is guring out how long they will last under various circumstances and with various electronic devices. One of the easy ways around this problem is to write a small battery calculator program using a spreadsheet program like Excel or Quattro Pro. The concept is fairly simple and is independent of specic software programs. The result will be a much better understanding of how long your devices will last under a variety of conditions. How to 1. Find a spreadsheet program like Excel or Quattro Pro and open a new document. 2. Heres some information youre going to need before you start: a. The power consumption specications for your device. In other words, how much power the device draws in its various states. b. The capacity of the batteries you plan on using. If youre not sure and are using commercial batteries, go to the manufacturers website and check out the specs. 3. You can see in the example on the following page how its laid out. The section at the top will be pretty universal: the number of batteries, the capacity per battery, the voltage per battery and the end result of total voltage per battery. Please Note: This example assumes a series battery pack. For a parallel battery pack, the voltage would be the same regardless of the number of batteries, while the capacity would change. 4. The second section will change according to what parameters you want to track. For instance, in the example, a Dual Mode Real Time GPS tracking unit has been selected, so variables for both CDMA and AMPS, as well as tracking and not tracking were required. You can see the result in the lower corner, which shows the number of days the battery pack will last. 5. Set up your spreadsheet to resemble the one below. Under the Operating Mode heading, you need to insert the operational modes that are particular to your device. Now that you have your headings, you can input your variables and your formulas. The formulas will be the tools that do the grueling math for us. Take look at the example below to see the formulas used. 6. Now enter the formulas. Under the Total Voltage heading, you will want to create a formula that will multiply the number of batteries by the voltage per battery. Or, as displayed in the example above, =A2*C2, which simply states that we want to multiply the value in cell A2 by whatever value is in C2. This setup allows you to change the numbers in the other cells and not have to continually recalculate. 7. Next, you need to write the formulas for the power consumption. Take your spec sheet and gure out how much power the device consumes under the settings you put down. Then write the formula that will multiply the number of hours with the power consumption. You can see that for this example, the device is drawing 130ma when Taking readings: Cell phone transmitting CDMA. Multiply the number of hours by 130mA, and then multiply that gure with the result of 12 divided by the total voltage. This ensures that your power consumption numbers reect the actual draw at 12 volts. This standard will ensure your power consumption values are consistent regardless of power supply. A general rule is the higher the voltage, the lower the current consumption and the lower the voltage, the higher the current consumption. 8. Now you can set up your nal numbers. You need to total the number of hours you have as variables, and ensure they total 24. You also want to get the total from your power consumption values in the Total Current Drawn column. 9. Once you have those completed, you can write the formula that will tell you how long the battery pack will last. Simply divide the Capacity of the battery by the total you got from your Power Consumption column. This will give you the number of days your battery pack will last. Now you should be done! *Note: As mentioned above, this example was used for a parallel battery setup. In order to calculate a series battery pack, you must multiply the total number of batteries by the individual battery capacity to get the total capacity. You must also change the Total Voltage column to reect the voltage of a single battery. For more information on the difference between a series and parallel battery pack, see the Battery Basics section in this manual. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 89 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Homemade GPS Battery Calculator continued 8 4200 1.5 =A2*C2 Enter approximate hours below Taking readings: cell phone transmitting CDMA 2 =B9*230* (12/D2) Taking readings: cell phone transmitting AMPS 0 =B10*430* (12/D2) Taking readings: cell phone standby 3 =B11*25* (12/D2) Not reading: cell phone off 19 =B12*0.40* (12/D2) Total Hours =SUM(B9:B12) Total Current Draw/24 hours mA =SUM(C9:C12) Total Numbers of Days of Use B2/C14 Number of Batteries Capacity Voltage per Battery Total Voltage Operating Mode Total Hours should equal 24 Total Current Draw mA 8 4200 1.5 12 Enter approximate hours below Taking readings: cell phone transmitting CDMA 2 460 Taking readings: cell phone transmitting AMPS 0 0 Taking readings: cell phone standby 3 75 Not reading: cell phone off 19 7.6 Total Hours 24 Total Current Draw/24 hours mA 542.6 Total Numbers of Days of Use 7.74 Number of Batteries Capacity Voltage per Battery Total Voltage Operating Mode Total Hours should equal 24 Total Current Draw mA T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 90 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Modem Overview Modem is an acronym for Modulator Demodulator. A modem is a device that converts data from digital computer signals to analog signals that can be sent over a phone line. This is called modulation. The analog signals are then converted back into digital data by the receiving modem. This is called demodulation. A modem is fed digital information in the form of ones and zeros from the CPU. The modem then analyzes this information and converts it to analog signals that can be sent over a phone line. Another modem then receives these signals, converts them back into digital data, and sends the data to the receiving CPU. AT Command Sets Long ago, Hayes set a standard for modem commands with its Smartmodem 300. Most modem manufacturers adopted this command set in order to call themselves Hayes compatible. The command set used by the Smartmodem 300, as well as most modems today (with a few advanced commands), is known as the AT command set. AT stands for attention, and precedes all (with the exception of A/) commands directed to the modem. For example, when dialing, it is necessary for either the software or the user to issue an ATDT or ATDP command followed by the number and enter. AT tells the modem that it is about to receive a command. DT tells it to dial by tone, while DP tells it to pulse dial. Finally, the modem dials the number given to it after the command. Different modems do have slightly different command sets, but generally most modems follow the standard set by Hayes. The following is Orions Default Modem String to illustrate an example of an AT Command Set: E1 &D2 &C1 M2 L2 (Note: A full listing of AT Command Denitions can be found in Appendix F) Figure 56 Cable modem connection Figure 55 Dial up modem connection 5.9 MODEM OVERVIEW & AT COMMAND SETS T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 91 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 92 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 6 An I nt r oduct i on t o Or i on Equi pment T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 93 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 6 - INTRODUCTION Chapter 6 presents readers with a condensed introduction to Orions exclusive line of GPS tracking solutions. As a leader in this industry for over 27 years, Orions team of experts is able to offer law enforcement ofcers a wide range of surveillance options to satisfy nearly any GPS tracking situation. For more information on GPS tracking solutions, any one of our qualied Orion representatives will be pleased to assist you in nding the correct product to meet your cases requirements. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 94 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 6.1 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS FLOWCHART How long do your investigations usually last? 2 - 3 days 1 - 2 weeks 1 month or more Do you need information on your targets location during the investigations? Do you need information on your targets location during the investigations? Do you need information on your targets location during the investigations? Yes No Yes No Yes No Does your agency have between $7500 and $10000 for the rst purchase? Data Loggers will keep track of all known positions and tend to be much cheaper than Real Time systems Do you need to see Real Time updates on the suspects location? Look for a long lasting Data Logger. Check the power consumption & make sure the unit will last the time you need. Do you need to see Real Time updates on the suspects location? Look for a long lasting Data Logger. Check the power consumption & make sure the unit will last the time you need. Real Time Systems There are a few things to remember when looking at Real Time Tracking Systems: Talk to your local cellular phone providers. See what is offered in the areas youll be working in. Real Time Tracking sucks up battery life. If youre using a battery pack make sure you know how long the unit will last. For long cases (2 weeks or more) consider hardwiring if possible. Remember to check legalities in your area. Make sure your maps are up to date and accurate. It will make things easier. Data Loggers/Remote Access Data Loggers and Remote Access units can be the perfect choice in many situations: Data Loggers usually last much longer on battery power than Real Time systems. With the addition of a Short Range link, you can access your information without removing the unit. These types of units are usually cheaper as well, making them a great way to enter the GPS tracking eld. Look for a Real Time tracking system with some Analog (AMPS) capabilities. Theres no use having a new digital unit if theres no coverage in your area. Urban Rural Both You can use a digital only Real Time system. Examples of digital communications are GSM, CDMA and GPRS. Remember to check which protocol has the best coverage in your tracking area. You need at least a dual mode Real Time system. Look for a system with a combination of digital and AMPS capabilities. Yes No Consider using a Data Logger with a remote download capability. There are several choices including Short Range RF as well as cellular. Do you need to track in urban or rural areas or both? Do you need to track in urban or rural areas or both? Yes No Yes No Do you need to track in urban or rural areas or both? Consider using a Data Logger with a remote download capability. There are several choices including Short Range RF as well as cellular. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 95 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 6.2 ORION PRODUCT FEATURES MATRIX Product Family HYDRA Product Line JAVELIN LOGGER MICRO- WITNESS OBSERVER SENTINEL SENTRY Product Name HT550 ST60J ST61 ST75 ST55S ST200 ST801 ST802 ST810 TECHNOLOGIES AMPS x NAMPS CDMA x x x x TDMA GSM GPRS RF x x Low Orbitting Satellites x PCS CONNECTION Landline 2.4Ghz Spread Spectrum Radio Frequency x x Analog Only Alpha Satellite System x CDMA (800 & 1900) x x x GSM Tri Mode (900, 1800, 1900) GPRS (900/1800/1900) Tri Mode (Analog 800/CDMA 800/1.9) x Internet Capabilities x Cell To Cell EXTERNAL CONNECTION DEVICES Remote Download Box x Orion Test Box x x Palm Installation Wizard x x x D-AU Audio Unit Requires Basestation / Cellular Intercept Receiver x CONFIGURATION Password Protection x x x Encrypted Data Transmission x Test Phone/Pager Numbers x x x Cell Phone Always On (Stand-by Mode) x x x Cell Phone OFF (Shut-Down Mode) x x Cell Phone Cycles Power Records GPS w/ Motion/Vibration and/or Direction x x x x x x x x User Defined GPS Fixed Record Intervals x x x x x x x x Reports Last Known GPS via SMS Queue Changes x x Can Handle Multiple (5) User Connections x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 5) x x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 10) x x x Includes Battery Calculator x x x x x x x x Paging Capabilities x E-Mail Capabilities x SMS Capabilities x x x x CALLOUT EVENTS Call On Low Battery x x x x Call On Boundary (Entry/Exit) x x x x Call On Motion (Start/Stop) x x x x Call On Input Trip x x x x Output Switch x x x AUDIO/VIDEO Audio x x Video x Live Tracking w/Audio via ST616 Basestation x DATA Smart Download (New Records Only) x x x x x FLASH Memory Backup x x x x x x x x x Download Records Remotely x x x x x Live Tracking x x x x TECHNICAL TRAINING REQUIRED LOW x x x MODERATE x ADVANCED x x x x x HT550 ST60J ST61 ST75 ST55S ST200 ST801 ST802 ST810 GU SKYTRACK T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 96 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Product Family BASE STATION VOICE DATA MODULE CELL- WIRE CELL- SWITCH CAN- TRACK Product Line ST811 ST851 ST852 ST853 ST854 ST616CBS ST615VDM VT300-D CS200 CN502G Product Name TECHNOLOGIES x x x AMPS x NAMPS x x CDMA x TDMA x x x x GSM x x GPRS RF Low Orbitting Satellites x PCS CONNECTION x Landline 2.4Ghz Spread Spectrum Radio Frequency x x Analog Only Alpha Satellite System x x CDMA (800 & 1900) x x x GSM Tri Mode (900, 1800, 1900) x x GPRS (900/1800/1900) Tri Mode (Analog 800/CDMA 800/1.9) x x x Internet Capabilities x Cell To Cell EXTERNAL CONNECTION DEVICES Remote Download Box Orion Test Box x x x x x Palm Installation Wizard x D-AU Audio Unit x Requires Basestation / Cellular Intercept Receiver CONFIGURATION x x x x Password Protection x Encrypted Data Transmission x x x Test Phone/Pager Numbers x x x x x Cell Phone Always On (Stand-by Mode) x x x Cell Phone OFF (Shut-Down Mode) x Cell Phone Cycles Power x x x x x Records GPS w/ Motion/Vibration x x x x x User Defined GPS Fixed Record Intervals x x x x x Reports Last Known GPS via SMS x x Queue Changes x x x Can Handle Multiple (5) User Connections x x x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 5) x x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 10) x x x x x Includes Battery Calculator Paging Capabilities x E-Mail Capabilities x x x x x SMS Capabilities CALLOUT EVENTS x x x x x Call On Low Battery x x x x x Call On Boundary (Entry/Exit) x x x x x Call On Motion (Start/Stop) x x x x x x Call On Input Trip x x x x x x Output Switch AUDIO/VIDEO x x x x x x Audio Video x x x x x Live Tracking w/Audio via ST616 Basestation DATA x x x x x Smart Download (New Records Only) x x x x x x FLASH Memory Backup x x x x x Download Records Remotely x x x x x x x x Live Tracking TECHNICAL TRAINING REQUIRED x LOW x x MODERATE x x x x x x x ADVANCED ST811 ST851 ST852 ST853 ST854 ST616CBS ST615VDM VT300-D CS200 CN502G UARDIAN SERIES UNITASK T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 97 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 98 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Chapt er 7 War ni ngs & Saf et y Concer ns T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 99 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D CHAPTER 7 - INTRODUCTION Chapter 7 will offer readers a general introduction to the most important safety issues surrounding tracking, to promote proper usage and extend the life of your surveillance equipment. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 100 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 7.1 BATTERY DISPOSAL Sooner or later your batteries are going to run out of juice. If youre using primary (non-rechargeable) batteries that will happen after the rst time they run at. Most secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be recharged multiple times, but they will still eventually become un-rechargeable. When this happens you need to dispose of your batteries. The rules for disposal of batteries vary according to where you live, as well as what kind of battery youre trying to dispose of. The chemicals in the battery determine the method of disposal. The common, non-rechargeable alkaline and lithium batteries can be disposed of through normal trash. Rechargeable batteries (nickel/cadmium and mercury) and lead/acid batteries must be disposed of through the Hazardous Waste Program. There are all kinds of rules for disposal of batteries, many of which have toxic contents. Cadmium and Mercury are two of the worst. Do the right thing and check with your local authorities. Please refer to the link below for more information on disposing different batteries. http://data.energizer.com/datasheets/battdisposal/ battdispindex.htm 7.2 RADIO FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS AND YOUR HEALTH Nobody really knows how dangerous radio waves are. Current scientic research indicates that RF heating, like what takes place in a microwave oven, is the most serious safety issue related to RF communications. The RF heating effect can cause cell damage, if the cellular temperature increase is severe. Evidence that radio waves can cause cancer is sketchy, and most scientists do not currently believe that radio waves are carcinogenic (cancer causing). Research in this area, however, is ongoing. Regardless, the RF heating effect is a real risk, and care should be taken when transmitters are carried or worn close to the body. The eyes and testes are particularly sensitive to RF heating because there is relatively little blood ow in those organs to carry away excess heat. Keep this fact in mind when placing a transmitter on the body. The Specic Absorption Rate (SAR) has been adopted as a measure of the RF heating effect. The SAR is simply the rate of energy dissipation (conversion into heat) per unit mass of body tissue. The FCC has adopted near-eld, partial-body SAR limits of 8W/kg for occupation exposure, and 1.6W/kg for general public exposure. Research indicates that, for a 2W transmitter operating up to the low GHZ range, and using a dipole antenna placed 2cm away from the head, the SAR at 1cm inside the brain is within the recommended limits for occupational exposure. SAR is approximately proportional to radiated power, so exercise caution when using a high-power transmitter or high-gain antenna close to the body. Always transmit at the lowest power capable of meeting your needs. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 101 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D REMEMBER! Never, never, never solder directly onto a cell. (The heat will damage the cell, and may very well cause it to explode regardless of its chemical makeup. At the very least, it may fail at any later given time.) Soldering is accomplished by quickly heating the metal parts to be joined, and then applying a ux and a solder to the mating surfaces. The nished solder joint metallically bonds the parts forming an excellent electrical connection between wires and a strong mechanical joint between metal parts. When preparing to solder, heat the pieces sufciently, apply the solder to the items being joined; not to the iron, and do not allow the joint to move until it has cooled. Solder is intended to make electrical connections, not glue things together. Ideally, solder joints should always be mechanically supported. One of the main disadvantages of soldering is that the solder wicks into the wire and stiffens it. If the wire is then exed it is likely to break there. Key Points to Remember 1. Always keep the tip coated with a thin layer of solder. 2. Use uxes that are as mild as possible but still provide a strong solder joint. 3. Keep temperature as low as possible while maintaining enough temperature to quickly solder a joint (2 to 3 seconds maximum for electronic soldering). 4. Match the tips size to the work. 5. Use a tip with the shortest reach possible for maximum efciency. Safety Precautions Please be safe! Remember that you are dealing with melted metal. Always wear eye protection. This is to protect you not only from possible solder splashes, but also from solder fumes. Since soldering involves ller metal (such as lead and cadmium), it can be very toxic. To prevent inhalation of such potentially toxic fumes, extra caution should be exercised when soldering by always working in a well ventilated area. Note: Lithium batteries have a fuse under the top, therefore DO NOT solder directly to the battery, you must use the tabs. Accordingly, if you are making battery packs, be sure to order your lithium batteries with the tabs to solder to. If you instantaneously short out a lithium battery, the fuse will likely blow, so watch your bare wires. 7.3 HOW TO SOLDER SAFELY Figure 57 Soldering Tool T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 102 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Much of what technical investigators deal with today involves electronic equipment. From GPS tracking systems, RF switches, phone taps, video cameras and more, technical investigators are charged with understanding how equipment works and how best to use it. There are a few simple things everyone working with electrical devices should know. One of these is how to protect the equipment you are working with as well as yourself. In an effort to help you along the path, weve added a section that explains some practical hints surrounding the basics of electronic theory. Electrostatic Discharge Static Electricity is an electrical charge at rest. Static electricity is most commonly created by friction and separation. This can be felt by rubbing your feet along a nylon carpet and then barely touching someone. One of the biggest dangers to sensitive electrical equipment is Electrostatic Discharge (ESD). ESD is caused by the buildup of static electric sparks. ESD happens when the difference in charge between the two bodies is great enough to cause the electrons to jump from one body to the other. This can cause severe damage to electronic components and circuits. The smallest discharge of electricity that can be felt by humans as a shock is 3,000 Volts. Many electronic components can be damaged by charges of less than 1,000 Volts, and some by charges as low as 10 Volts. Users should be aware of the relative sensitivity of their devices. Not only are tiny static discharges damaging to components, but the actual damage caused cannot be detected by the naked eye. ESD can destroy or worse invisibly damage electronic components, which will then fail at the most inopportune time. ESD Causing Activities Many of the commonplace activities people may engage in daily generate charges on their bodies that are potentially harmful to electrical components. Some of these activities include: walking across a carpet; walking over untreated vinyl oor; working at a bench; opening a vinyl envelope used for work instructions; or even picking up a common plastic bag from a bench. To Prevent ESD 1. Take ESD Training. 2. Do not work on any electronic equipment unless you are sure the workplace is ESD safe. Ground workbench and equipment Make sure soldering irons are grounded or certied ESD safe. Ground yourself with approved straps. If you expect to work in the eld, get a portable ESD kit - and use it! 3. If access to proper grounding mechanisms is not available, and you must handle sensitive electronic equipment, make sure you touch the metal case of a computer or another grounding device before touching the equipment to neutralize the difference in electrical charge. 7.4 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE (ESD) Figure 58 ESD warning label Figure 59 Grounded workstation T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 103 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 104 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Appendi ces T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 105 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Basic Electronics and Denitions Often youll hear various terms being tossed around when people are discussing electronic equipment. Here is a basic description of what those terms mean. Current Think of Current (I) as the ow of water in a pipe. Current is a measure of the ow of electricity from a power source through wires, or a device. By convention, current is shown as owing from the positive to negative terminals of the power source. Currents produce magnetic elds. There are two types of current encountered in every day life: direct current (DC) as from batteries, and alternating current (AC) as from household plugs. Most Electronic equipment runs off direct current, so to operate these devices from a wall plug, the AC must be converted to DC. Current is measured in Amperes (Amps, A) or milliamps (mA), which are thousandths of amps. Voltage An analogy to voltage is the pressure of water in a pipe. Voltage is the potential difference between the two terminals on a power source. It is the electrical force which causes a current to ow. Voltage is expressed in volts (V) or millivolts (mV) 1/1000 V. Resistance An analogy to resistance is the size of the water pipe - the smaller the pipe, the greater the resistance . Resistance is the opposition to the ow of electrical current, so if you connect a battery across a device with low resistance a high current will ow, but the same battery across a high resistance device will only cause a small current to ow. Good conductors have a small resistance, while poor conductors (insulators) have a high resistance. Resistance is expressed in Ohms (). Ohms Law states that you can calculate the resistance of a device by dividing the voltage applied across the device by the value of the resulting current. R = V/I Power Power is a measure of the amount of energy used per unit of time and is expressed in watts (W) or milliwatts (mW) 1/1000 W. For direct-current circuits, and many AC circuits, it is calculated by multiplying the voltage by the current. P = V * I Energy Most utility bills quote electrical energy consumption in kilowatt-hours (kWhs). One kilowatt hour is dened as the amount of energy used by a device that consumes 1000 watts for one hour. Energy is the amount of power multiplied by the length of time that it is used. Energy is usually expressed in watt-hours (WH) or milliwatt-hours (mWH). Other common units of energy include the Btu, calorie, and kilowatt-hour. This parameter is important in determining battery life. The power consumption of the device (expressed in mWH) must be less than the battery capacity (terminal voltage (V) times the milliamp-hours (mAH) of the battery). APPENDIX A T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 106 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Capacitors A capacitor is made up of three basic parts: one layer of non-conductive material sandwiched between two layers of conductive material. Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store electricity. Capacitors are primarily used for ltering. The unit of capacitance is the Farad (F) but values are usually expressed in F (microfarad, or 1 millionth of a Farad), nF (nanofarad or 1 thousandth of a microfarad), or pF (picoFarad, or 1 millionth of a microfarad). Some examples of symbols for capacitors are: Diodes Diodes have two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is always identied by a dot, ring or some other mark. Since diodes are polarized, they must be inserted into the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) the correct way round. This is because an electric current will only ow through them in one direction. They are often used to convert an alternating current into a direct current. The symbol for a diode is: Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) In this special type of diode, a current owing through it causes it to give out a light. Different types of materials in the diode will cause different wavelengths (colors) of light to be emitted. The Symbol for a Light Emitting Diode is: Solar Cells Most common types of solar cells function on the basis of an LED working backwards; light hits the device and creates electricity. In this process, solar energy is being converted to electrical energy. The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are photovoltaic cells or modules (modules are simply a group of cells electrically connected and packaged in one frame). Photovoltaics, as the word implies (photo = light, voltaic = electricity), convert sunlight directly into electricity. Relays A relay is an electrical switch that allows a low power current to control a higher one. A small current energizes the relay, which pulls in a switch, allowing a large current to ow through. In the radio world, a relay is a device that receives a signal from a low-power, or distant transmitter, and amplies and retransmits it on the same or different frequency in order to increase the coverage area. In commercial TV and radio, relay sites are known as translators. Resistors Resistors are devices with resistance! They can be bought in a whole range of values. Resistors are extremely commonplace in electronic circuits. Without them, most electronic circuits or devices would not function or interface with each other. A couple of symbols for resistor are: Resistors are made generally in two types. Surface Mount resistors are used in almost all electronic circuits these days. Small chips are soldered directly on the circuit card. Through Hole resistors are an older type. They have wires attached so they can be either soldered into circuit cards or used externally. Resistors come in various sizes, shapes, colors, and tolerances. Surface Mount resistors are generally marked with their value (in very small type). Through- hole resistors are color-coded. Each color band on the resistor corresponds to a certain number along with a multiplier. APPENDIX A continued Standard capacitor symbol Fixed, non-polarized (bipolar) capacitor + Fixed, polarized capacitor Variable capacitor Variable Resistance Fixed Resistance T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 107 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Color bands on resistors have the following numerical signicance: Black = 0; Brown = 1; Red = 2; Orange = 3; Yellow = 4; Green = 5; Blue = 6; Violet = 7; Grey = 8; White = 9. The last band (second last in 6-band resistors) signies the tolerance (in percent) of the resistor, and can be a RED 2%, GOLD 5%, or SILVER 10% colored band. Note: the 3rd Digit is not used when reading the 4 band resistor. Inductors Inductors are two-terminal devices consisting of one or more turns of wire. The unit for inductance is Henries (H) but they are usually expressed as mH (MilliHenry, or one thousandth of a Henry) or uH, (microHenry, or 1 millionth of a Henry). Some symbols for inductors include: Iron-Core Inductor Air-Core Inductor Variable Inductor Transistors Transistors are devices used to amplify current or voltage. Another application of transistors is as an electronic switch. The symbols for bipolar transistors are: There are two main uses of transistors: Ampliers - A relatively weak signal feeds into a much larger current owing from the emitter to the collector. Switches - A certain type of signal into the base will either cut off the current owing from the emitter to the collector, or turn on this current. Removing this signal will cause the exact opposite effect. This switching technique can also be used to allow a relatively small voltage to switch, or control, a relatively high voltage. Ammeter and Voltmeter An ammeter is a meter which measures current. It must be placed in the line where the current is owing. A voltmeter measures voltage. It must be connected across the terminals of the voltage to be measured. Ammeters have low resistance, voltmeters have high. DO NOT CONNECT AN AMMETER LIKE A VOLTMETER. It will cause a high current to ow, which might be dangerous. Connector A device for joining two electrical wires, or any plug and socket that links two devices together. When not designed or constructed properly, connectors often become the weakest element in an electronic system.
Series and Parallel Circuits There are only two ways to hook components together in an electronic circuit; in series with each other (in a row), or in parallel (side by side). Most electronic circuits, however, consist of many individual series circuits connected in parallel or vice versa. Power Supplies A power supply is simply the source of power for a APPENDIX A continued Resistors Connected In-Series Resistors Connected In-Series T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 108 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D APPENDIX A continued device. It could be a battery or wall adapter. This phrase is often used, however, to describe an electrical circuit for converting one kind of electrical power to another, especially in electronics. There are two kinds of power supplies of this type: linear and switching. Linear A linear power supply has a regulated output voltage that is lower than its input voltage. The output voltage is kept at a xed voltage, regardless of the input voltage (provided the input voltage is greater than the xed output voltage). The input current is the same as the output current. The excess power (input voltage minus output voltage times the current) is dissipated as heat by the regulator. If the regulator is forced to dissipate too much power it will overheat and fail. Linear supplies are very inefcient because all the extra energy is lost. If a device has a linear supply it will draw the same current regardless of input voltage. This means that if the output voltage is regulated to 5 volts, a 6-volt battery and a 12-volt battery with the same ampere-hour capacity will last the same length of time. The regulator will just get hotter with the 12-volt battery. Switching A switching supply works on the principal of power regulation. Switching supplies can be used to decrease the voltage (buck), increase the voltage (boost) or decrease/increase the voltage as required (buck/ boost). The output voltage is kept xed regardless of the input voltage. The power drawn from the input equals the power required at the output. Not current, like the linear. Switching supplies can be very efcient. With this method very little power is dissipated in the power supply making it very efcient. Also, as the input voltage increases the input current gets less. This is an advantage in battery-powered systems. If the output voltage is regulated to 5 volts, a 12 volt battery will last twice as long as a 6 volt battery with the same ampere- hour capacity Digital Switching Output Once everything is set up, external output connections can be activated using software or Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF, also known as touch- tone) commands using a normal phone. The switch outputs are like a simple toggle switch with two contacts. When the switch is on, the two contacts join. Power will ow from one contact to the other. These two contacts are interchangeable. There is no positive or negative terminal. When the switch is OFF, the two contacts act as an open switch. No current will ow. Note that the unit supplies no power. The external switched circuit must supply its own power. Input A change of external input can force a unit to dial out to a phone or pager. Basic Units V = Voltage (Volts) T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 109 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D P = Power (Watts) I = Current (Amps) C = Capacitance (Farads) R = Resistance (Ohms) L = Inductance (Henrys)
Ohms Law Power V = I *R I = V/ R R = V/ I P = V * I P = I 2 * R P = V 2 / R Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel R total = R 1 + R 2 +R 3 . . . R total = (R 1 x R 2 )/(R 1 +R 2 ) If Rs are all the same value, multiply R value If Rs are all the same value, divide R value by the number placed in parallel by the number placed in parallel
Capacitors in Series Capacitors in Parallel C total = (C 1 x C 2 )/(C 1 +C 2 ) C total = C 1 + C 2 If Cs are all the same value, divide C value by If Cs are all the same value, multiply C value by the number placed in parallel. Effective working the number placed in parallel. Effective working Voltage is increased by the number of Cs in series Voltage does not change.
Inductors in Series Inductors in Parallel L total = L 1 + L 2 +L 3 . . . L total = (L 1 x L 2 )/(L 1 +L 2 ) APPENDIX B Basic Electronic Formulas T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 110 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Basic Units for Working with Batteries I = Current (Amps) R series = Effective Series Resistance (Ohms) V terminal = Terminal Voltage (Volts) H = Hours = 3600 seconds P = Power (Watts) C = Capacity (mA-H or A-H [Amp-Hours]) Q = Charge (Coulombs) E = J = Energy (Joules) = Watt-Seconds Energy Stored Battery Capacity E = V x C C = E/V Simple Battery Model All cells have internal resistance. The terminal voltage will drop under load due to the Voltage drop across the internal series resistance. Energy is consumed in the form of heat by the internal resistance. Batteries in Series Batteries in Parallel V total = Number of Cells in series times V cell V total = V cell C total = Capacity is unchanged = C cell C total = Number of Cells in parallel times C cell E total = Number of Cells in series times E cell E total = Number of Cells in parallel times E cell
R series total = Number of Cells in series times R series R series total = Number of Cells in parallel divided by R series
NOTE: Diodes are used to prevent back powering cells. Diodes drop approx. 0.6 volts (0.4 if using Schottky type) APPENDIX C Basic Battery Reference T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 111 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D APPENDIX D Basic Units V = Voltage (Volts) P = Power (Watts) I = Current (Amps) C = Capacitance (Farads) R = Resistance (Ohms) L = Inductance (Henrys) = Wavelength (meters) v = Velocity (meters/second) f = Frequency (Hertz) T = Period = Time of one cycle (seconds) Constants, Denitions, Equations and Examples c = RF Propagation velocity 0 dbm = RF power reference level = 1 milliWatt (mW) = speed of light = 3 x 10 8 meters/second T = 1/f c = f x f = c / = c/ f Finding Wavelength when Frequency = 900 MHz: 1/2 Wavelength = Wavelength / 2 = /2 = c/f = 3 x10 8 / 900 x 10 6 = .333 meters 1/4 Wavelength = Wavelength / 4 = /4 Constructing a Monopole: Constructing a Dipole: NOTE: Ground plane required NOTE: No ground plane required
Orientation is shown vertically polarized. Balun is used to convert unbalanced coax to the balanced dipole. Orientation is shown vertically polarized (maximum radiation of dipole is at right angles) Basic Antenna Reference T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 112 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D APPENDIX E Metric Prexes Prex Symbol Numerical Multiplier Exponential yotta Y 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 10 24
zetta Z 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 10 21
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 10 18
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 10 15
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 10 12
giga G 1,000,000,000 10 9
mega M 1,000,000 10 6
kilo k 1,000 10 3
hecto h 100 10 2
deca da 10 10 1
no prex: 1 10 0 deci d 0.1 10 1
centi c 0.01 10 2
milli m 0.001 10 3
micro 0.000001 10 6
nano n 0.000000001 10 9
pico p 0.000000000001 10 12
femto f 0.000000000000001 10 15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10 18
zepto z 0.000000000000000000001 10 21
yocto y 0.000000000000000000000001 10 24
T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 113 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D %Cn -- Enable/Disable Data Compression %En -- Auto-Retrain control &Cn -- DCD Control &Dn -- DTR Option &Fn -- Recall Factory Prole &Gn -- Select Guard Tone &Jn -- Telephone Jack Control &Kn -- Data Flow Control &Qn -- Communication (Sync/Async Mode) &Rn -- RTS/CTS (Hardware) Flow Control &Tn -- Test Mode &V -- View Conguration &Wn -- Store User Prole &Yn -- Default User Prole &Zn=x -- Store Phone Number )Mn -- Cellular Power Level Adjustment *Hn -- Link Negotiation Speed +++ -- Escape Sequence +MS -- Select Modulation :En -- Compromise Equalizer Setting ? -- Read Currently Selected S Register @Mn -- Initial Cellular Power Level Setting \An -- Select Maximum MNP Block Size \Bn -- Transmit Break \Gn -- Modem to Modem (Software) Flow Control \Ln -- Select MNP Block/Stream Mode \Nn -- Protocol Negotiation Selection A -- Answer A/ -- Re-execute Command Bn -- CCITT or Bell Selection Cn -- Carrier Control Dn -- Dial En -- Command Echo Fn -- Select Modulation Hn -- Disconnect (Hang-up) In -- Identication Ln -- Speaker Volume Mn -- Speaker Control Nn -- Automode Enable (Automatic Line Speed Detection) On -- Return to On-Line Data Mode P -- Set Pulse Dial Default Qn -- Result Code On/Off Sn -- Select a Specic S Registe Sn=x -- Write an S Register Value Sn? -- Read an S Register T -- Set Tone Dial Default Vn -- Result Code Format Wn -- Negotiation Progress (Connect Message) Control Xn -- Extended Result Code Yn -- Long Space Disconnect Zn -- Modem Reset APPENDIX F AT Command Reference Chart AT Command Reference Summary T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 114 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D WayTek Tools/ wire/ connectors 7600 Quattro Drive PO Box 690 Chanhasses, MN 55317 952-949-0765 1-800-328-2724 Fax: 800-858-0319 www.waytekwire.com Digi Key 701 Brooks Ave. South Thief River Falls, MN 56701-0677 1-800-344-4539 www.digikey.com Mauser Electronics 958 N. Main Manseld, TX 76063-4827 1-800-346-6873 www.mouser.com
Sears Nationwide www.sears.com Johnson Components Inc. PO Box 1732 Waseca, MN 56096-0832 1-800-247-8256 Fax: 507-835-6287 www.johnsoncomp.com Amphenol One Kentucky Ave. Danbury, CT 06810 203-743-9272 Fax: 203-796-2032 www.amphenolcnp.com Stark Electronics 401 Royalston Ave. N Distributor of connectors for Amphenol, Minneapolis, MN 55405 Johnson Components and others. 612-372-3199 or 888-372-3161 Fax: 612-332-1783 www.starkelectronics.com
Antenna World Cellular strip antenna www.antennaworld.com MicroPulse 409 Calle San Pablo, Suite 102 GPS Antennas Camarillo, CA 93012 805-389-3446 Fax: 805-389-448 www.micropulse.com APPENDIX G Installation Tool Sources Installation Tool Source Suggestions T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 115 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D APPENDIX H Verizon Wireless www.verizonwireless.com CDMA, CDPD, BlueTooth SprintPCS www.sprintpcs.com CDMA Nextel www.nextel.com iDEN Cingular Wireless www.cingular.com TDMA, GSM, GPRS, CDPD, Mobitex VoiceStream / T-Mobile www.voicestream.com GSM, GPRS US Cellular Network Providers (not conclusive) Network Provider Air Technology Bell Mobility www.bellmobility.ca AMPS & CDMA Rogers AT&T www.rogers.com AMPS & GSM & GPRS & TDMA Telus Mobility www.telusmobility.com AMPS, CDMA, 1XRTT, iDEN Aliant Net http://english.aliant.net/home.jsp AMPS, CDMA MTS Mobility www.mts.mb.ca CDMA Telstra www.telstra.com DataTAC SaskTel www.sasktelmobility.com AMPS, CDPD, 1XRTT Canadian Cellular Network Providers (not conclusive) Network Provider Air Technology T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 116 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D APPENDIX I Cellular Network System / Band Frequency Chart Worldwide Cellular Bands AMPS/TDMA/ IS-95 824 849 25 2.99 -45 869 894 25 2.84 GSM /EDGE 890 915 25 2.77 -45 935 960 25 2.64 JDC 810 826 16 1.96 -130 940 956 16 1.69 EGSM 925 960 35 3.71
JDC HIGH BAND 1429 1453 24 1.67 -48 1477 1501 24 1.61
KOREA CDMA 1750 1780 30 1.7 -90 1840 1870 30 1.62 DECT 1880 1900 20 1.06 TDD 1880 1900 20 1.06 UMTS TDD 1900 1920 20 1.05 TDD 1900 1920 20 1.05 PCS UNLICENSED 1910 1930 20 1.04 TDD 1910 1930 20 1.04 PCS LICENSED 1850 1910 60 3.19 -80 1930 1990 60 3.06 UMTS FDD (3G) 1920 1980 60 3.08 -190 2110 2170 60 2.80 Low MHz High MHz Width MHz Width % MHz Low MHz High MHz Width MHz Width % System Band Edges TX Offset Band Edges TX Frequencies RX Frequencies T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 117 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 118 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Gl ossar y T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 119 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D 1G - The rst generation of mobile cellular communications systems. Originally used for voice communications, they were primarily analog systems such as AMPS, TACS and NMT. 2G - The second generation of mobile cellular communications systems used digital encoding and include GSM, TDMA and CDMA. Except for GSMs SMS text message service, 2G systems have been used mostly for voice communications. 3G - The third generation of mobile cellular communications systems is designed for high-speed multimedia data and voice communications. Its goals include high-quality audio and video as well as advanced global roaming, which means being able to go anywhere and automatically be handed off to whatever wireless system is available (in- house phone system, cellular, satellite, etc.). A Carrier - The cellular service provider operating on the A System. Also see Non-Wireline. A System (Band) - Frequency range operated by the A Carrier. A/B Switch - See System Selection Switch. Access Fee (Access Charge) - A at monthly service charge for use of the cellular telephone system. Airtime - The time spent placing or receiving a cellular telephone call. Airtime Package - A selected level of service chosen by the subscriber that includes the monthly Access Fee and may or may not include a guaranteed amount of Airtime (number of usage minutes). Some service plans may also include certain calling features. Alkaline Cell/Battery - Modern, high-performance, non- rechargeable cells and batteries used in most modern battery-driven electrical and electronic consumer devices. Alphanumeric Display - A display containing both letters and numbers. Amperage - This is a name sometimes used in place of current. It is used because the electrical current is measured in Amperes (Amps). The amount of electrical current through a conductive source is equal to Coulombs per second. This is the ow rate of electrons moving through a circuit, very roughly analogous to gallons per minute owing from a faucet. Ampere - The internationally accepted unit for the measure of current ow (migrating electrons) in an electronic circuit. One ampere of current will ow through one ohm of resistance under the inuence of one volt. AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) - The analog cellular mobile phone system in North and South America and more than 35 other countries. It uses FDMA transmission in the 800Mhz band. Analog - A method of modulating radio signals so that they can carry information such as voice or data. Anywhere Fix - The ability of a receiver to start position calculations without being given an approximate location and approximate time. AP (Access Point) - A hardware device or a computers software that acts as a communication hub for users of a wireless device to connect to a wired LAN. APs are important for providing heightened wireless security and for extending the physical range of service a wireless user has access to. APN (Access Point Name) Identies a PDN that is congured on and accessible from a GGSN in a GPRS network. Carrier specic username. ARDIS (Advanced National Radio Data Service) Now termed the Motient Network, it is a wireless data network from Motient Corporation that covers more than 11,000 cities and towns in the U.S., Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands. ARDIS is a packet-switched network that provides a data rate of 19.2 Kbps and is known for its deep penetration into buildings. Area Code - A telephone number prex designating a particular geographic calling area. Assisted GPS (AGPS) - AGPS works in conjunction with a mobile communications device. The mobile network knows the GPS location of the closest tower and transmits that to the mobile communication device, enabling the GPS head to more quickly and accurately decipher its current position. The mobile network may also assist with computing power and other tasks the GPS receiver must perform. AGPS is a system will be implemented in part to satisfy USA E911 requirements to be able to quickly locate people calling from mobile phones. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) - A cell switching and asynchronous multiplexing technology that manages packet switching (exibility, efciency for intermittent trafc) and circuit switching (constant transmission delay, guaranteed capacity) on the same network using cell relay technology. Auxiliary Alert - An optional feature available on some models that, when activated, will sound your vehicles horn or ash the headlights to alert you of an incoming call. B Carrier - The cellular service provider operating on the B System. See also Wireline. B System (Band) - Frequency range operated by the B carrier. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 120 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Bandwidth - The amount of data that can be passed along a communications channel in a given period of time. The range of frequencies in a signal. Battery - An electro-chemical device consisting of separate cells connected together to sum their voltages or current capability. Examples are lead-acid batteries, 9-volt batteries, maintenance-free batteries, gel cells, among many others. Bit - The smallest unit of digital data, often represented by a one or a zero. Eight bits usually comprise a byte. BlueTooth The code name for a new wireless technology developed by Ericsson Inc., Intel Corp., Nokia Corp. and Toshiba. This short-range technology enables data connections between electronic devices such as desktop computers, wireless phones, electronic organizers and printers in the 2.4 GHz range. Bluetooth would replace cable or infrared connections for such devices. bps (bits-per-second) - A measure of the information transfer rate of digital data across a communication channel. Brown-out - Even though a roaming agreement may be in place, you may occasionally be unable to use your phone in certain areas. When high fraudulent use is detected on a cellular system, the cellular service provider may temporarily suspend roaming privileges for specic roaming customers to protect themselves and the cellular customers from fraudulent users. BTA (Basic Trading Area) - A group of counties, as dened by a study conducted by Rand McNally, that represent a geographic area of common business interests and relationships. These areas were used by the FCC to dene the boundaries of the new C, D, E and F block PCS licenses. Byte - A string of digital data usually made up of eight data bits. The actual data rate the user experiences might be lower due to some bits being used for error detection and synchronization. C/A Code - The standard (Course/Acquisition) GPS code. A sequence of 1023 pseudo-random, binary, biphase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 1.023 MHz. Also known as the civilian code. Capacity (C) - This is the parameter that most users are concerned with, and is not normally listed on consumer type battery packaging. This specication has units of Amp-Hours (A-H) or milliAmp-Hours (mA-H) and gives the usable energy from a particular cell. For example, a cell rated at 3 A-H could deliver 100 mA for 30 Hours: divide the A-H rating by the current draw to determine how long the battery will last. CAP (Channel Access Protocol) - A specic identication sequence that each pager has to identify itself. Car Phone - Car Phone - Cellular phone installed in a vehicle. Also referred to as a Mobile. Carrier (meaning 1) - A company that provides telephone service. Carrier (meaning 2) - A signal that can be varied from a known reference by modulation. Carrier-Aided Tracking - A signal processing strategy that uses the GPS carrier signal to achieve an exact lock on the pseudo random code. Carrier Frequency - The frequency of the unmodulated fundamental output of a radio transmitter. Carrier Phase GPS - GPS measurements based on the L1 or L2 carrier signal. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) - CDMA is a digital communication technology used by some carriers to provide PCS service. Other examples of such technologies used are TDMA and GSM. CDMA is a popular digital cellular telephone system in the US and Korea. A method for transmitting simultaneous signals over a shared portion of the spectrum. CDMA phones are noted for their excellent call quality and long battery life. CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) - A technology for transmitting data over analog cellular networks. Requires a special modem and the wireless carriers network must be upgraded to accommodate such data transmissions. Once a popular cellular packet network in the US, it is now being phased out. Cell (meaning 1) - Single-unit, self-contained voltage/ current source. Has positive and negative connectors for use with devices, with or without other cells. Examples of cells are AA, AAA, C-size, D-size, button cells and others. Cell (meaning 2) - In cellular telephone systems, a geographic area. Each cell in a cell phone system represents the area served by one cell phone tower. A xed area served by a particular cell site. A Cellular Geographic Service Area is divided into a number of cells, which can vary in size depending upon system requirements. These requirements can include capacity needs and topographic restrictions. Cell (meaning 3) - In communications and networking, a cell represents a xed-size packet of data. Cell Site - The radio transmitting and receiving equipment for a given Cell area used to communicate between your cellular phone and the MTSO. Cell Switching - Using cell switches to forward xed-length packets in a network. CGSA (Cellular Geographic Service Area) - May include one or more licensed cellular MSA and/or RSA service areas. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 121 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Channel - A path in which voice or data is transmitted. There are currently a total of 832 channels assigned to cellular use for both the A and B systems. A channel of a GPS receiver consists of the circuitry necessary to receive the signal from a single GPS satellite. Chip - The transition time for individual bits in the pseudo- random sequence. Also, an integrated circuit. Charge - The electric charge of an object is a measure of how much electricity is there. It is similar to the mass of an object when you are dealing with gravity, but unlike mass, charge can be either positive (+) or negative (-). At the atomic level, charge is measured in multiples of the charge on an electron (-1), In larger, macroscopic cases, the usual measurement is the Coulomb. Cipher Text - Encrypted data. Circuit Switching - A networking technology that provides a temporary, but dedicated connection between two stations no matter how many switching devices the data is routed through. Clock Bias - The difference between the clocks indicated time and true universal time. CODEC (COder-DECoder) - Hardware or software that converts analog sound, speech or video to digital code and vice versa (analog to digital -- digital to analog). Code Phase GPS - GPS measurements based on the pseudo random code (C/A or P) as opposed to the carrier of that code. Conductor - A conductor is a material that allows electricity to move through it easily. That is, it is a material with low electrical resistance, one in which a fairly small voltage will produce a fairly large current. The opposite of an insulator. Connect Fee - A one time charge associated with the initiation of service and the assignment of a new telephone number. Continuous Discharge Current - This is the maximum current that can be drawn from the cell on a continuous basis. Generally a battery discharged at a continuous rate will not provide the rated capacity. Control Segment - A world-wide network of GPS monitor and control stations that ensure the accuracy of satellite positions and their clocks. Coulomb - The Coulomb is the unit normally used to measure large charges. 1 Coulomb = the amount of electricity passing a given point in 1 second at a current of 1 Ampere. Coverage Area - The geographic area served by a wireless system (same as Service Area). Crosstalk - An occurrence when a second conversation can be overheard. This situation arises occasionally due to interference involving Frequency Reuse. CSC (Circuit-Switched Cellular) - Current technologies are primarily circuit-switched, meaning a continuous circuit transmission allows the network to route continuous data to a single location. Circuit-switched data requires a dedicated radio channel even when no data is being sent. Current - The electrical current is simply a measure of how much electric charge passes a given point in a xed amount of time. The organized migration of electrons through a circuit or conductive material, as the result of an applied voltage and the presence of resistance. It is similar to the current of a stream or river, which measures how much water passes a given point in a xed amount of time. Electrical current is measured in Amperes (Amps). Cycle Slip - A discontinuity in the measured carrier beat phase resulting from a temporary loss of lock in the carrier tracking loop of a GPS receiver. DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) - The broadcasting of radio programs in digital format. D-AMPS (Digital-Advanced Mobile Phone Service) - The second generation of TDMA, and is also known as IS-136. DARS (Digital Audio Radio Service) - The FCC nomenclature for digital radio. DARS is the landline version that is implemented with the IBOC technology. DAS (Data Analysis Software) - This is your mapping / data analysis software, such as SkyTrack North America. Data Integrity - The process of preventing accidental erasure or adulteration in a database. Data Message - A message included in the GPS signal which reports the satellites location, clock corrections and health. Included is rough information on the other satellites in the constellation. Data Security - The techniques used to ensure that data stored in a computer cannot be read or compromised. Datum - A math model which depicts a part of the surface of the earth. Latitude and longitude lines on a paper map are referenced to a specic map datum. The map datum selected on a GPS receiver needs to match the datum listed on the corresponding paper map in order for position readings to match. DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) - An alternative to cable television is now available nationwide. It provides cable- like television programming directly from satellites on small satellite dishes. Decibel (db) - A unit of reference for audio volume. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 122 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued DGPS (Differential GPS) - An extension of the GPS system that uses land-based radio beacons to transmit position corrections to GPS receivers. DGPS reduces the effect of selective availability, propagation delay, etc. and can improve position accuracy to better than 10 meters. Differential Positioning - Accurate measurement of the relative positions of two receivers tracking the same GPS signals. DOP (Dilution Of Precision) - A measure of the GPS receiver/satellite geometry. A low DOP value indicates better relative geometry and higher corresponding accuracy. The DOP indicators are GDOP (geometric DOP), PDOP (position DOP), HDOP (horizontal DOP), VDOP (vertical DOP), and TDOP (time clock offset). The multiplicative factor that modies ranging error. It is caused solely by the geometry between the user and his set of satellites. Digital - A method of encoding information using a binary code of 0s and 1s. Most newer, wireless phones and networks use digital technology. Directional Antenna Array - An antenna having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than others. Distance - The length (in feet, meters, miles, etc.) between two waypoints or from your current position to a destination waypoint. This length can be measured in straight-line (rhumb line) or great-circle (over the earth) terms. GPS normally uses great circle calculations for distance and desired track. Dithering - The introduction of digital noise. This is the process the DoD uses to add inaccuracy to GPS signals to induce Selective Availability. Dongle A dongle is a small hardware device that connects to a computer and acts as an authentication key for a particular piece of software. When the dongle is present, the software will run properly; when it is not, the program will run in a restricted mode or refuse to start. Sometimes called a Memory Key, or just a Key. Doppler-Aiding - A signal processing strategy that uses a measured doppler shift to help the receiver smoothly track the GPS signal. Allows more precise velocity and position measurement. Doppler Shift - The apparent change in the frequency of a signal caused by the relative motion of the transmitter and receiver. Downlink - A transmission path for the communication of signals and data from a communications satellite or other space vehicle to the earth. DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory (see RAM) Dropped Call - The disconnection of a call due to temporary signal interference, reduction of signal strength near a coverage area border, or loss of power. DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) - the system used by touch-tone telephones. DTMF assigns a specic sound frequency, or tone, to each key so that it can easily be identied by a monitoring microprocessor. That frequency is then translated into a usable analog or digital signal. Commonly known as Touch Tone. Duplex - Allows parties to talk and listen simultaneously. Dynamic IP A dynamic IP address changes each time you connect to your Internet Service Provider (ISP). This allows ISPs to keep a pool of addresses available to subscribers. If you disconnect from the ISP, your address is returned to the pool, becoming available to the next computer that connects. EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) - An enhancement to the GSM and TDMA wireless communications systems, which increases data throughput to 384 Kbps. Electric Field - The space near a charged body where other charges are affected. Similar to the gravitational eld near a planet, except that it can also repel. The term is also used to describe how the eld will affect other charges (which way and how much it will accelerate them). Elevation - The distance above or below mean sea level. Ellipsoid - A geometric surface, all of whose plane sections are either ellipses or circles. Encryption - The translation of data into a form that is unintelligible without a deciphering mechanism. Enhanced GPS The DE-GPS technique allows a GPS receiver to use the signal from a DBS satellite when it is in a bad spot. The E-GPS seeks to capture the best-quality signals from either satellites or cellular base stations, whichever has a preferred position x at that precise time. Ephemeris Data - The predictions of current satellite position and timing information transmitted to the user as part of the GPS satellite data message. A set of ephemeris data is valid for several hours, but is usually updated hourly. ESN (Electronic Serial Number) - a unique 32-bit serial number programmed into the phone when it is manufactured. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 123 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D ESD (Electrostatic discharge) - ESD is more commonly referred to as static electricity. ESD is produced by friction between two surfaces that are in intimate contact. Some materials such as synthetics have a higher capacity than others for holding static charges. This is especially true in dry environments. Damage due to ESD can be catastrophic to the device. It is important to realize that ESD damage is accumulative and repeated exposure to ESD can result in below average performance and / or product failure. EPE (Estimated Position Error) - A measurement of horizontal position error in feet or meters based upon a variety of factors including DOP and satellite signal quality. ETE (Estimated Time Enroute) - The time it will take to reach your destination (in hours/minutes or minutes/ seconds) based upon your present position, speed, and course. ETA (Estimated Time Of Arrival) - The estimated time you will arrive at a destination. ETC (Enhanced Throughput Cellular) - Has been designed to allow for the highest throughput and the most reliable connections available today on the analog cellular network. Faraday Cage - The name given to a device that shields its interior from electric elds generated by static electricity. Usually a complete conductive shell, it collects stray charges and, because like charges repel, stores them on the outside surface (where they can be further apart than on the inside). The electric elds generated by these charges then cancel each other out on the inside of the cage. Often used to protect sensitive radio equipment. Fast Switching Channel - A single channel which rapidly samples a number of satellite ranges. Fast means that the switching time is sufciently fast (2 to 5 milliseconds) to recover the data message. FCC (Federal Communications Commission) - The governmental agency which regulates communications services. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Known today as narrowband analog mobile-phone service (ex. NAMPS) FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) - Involves the application of a pseudorandom code, which causes the transmitter to periodically hop or jump to a new frequency, transmit information on the frequency for a dened period of time, then hop to the next frequency and repeat the process. FM (Frequency Modulation) - A form of modulation which represents information as variations in the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. (Contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.) The exact frequency of the radio signal varies slightly from moment to moment, in proportion to the intensity of the sound waves. This is the style of modulation used in FM broadcasting and for the audio portion of TV broadcasts. Line of sight radio transmission less susceptible to atmospheric and electrical interference. Cellular telephones operate using frequency modulation. FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access) - the freedom to access multimedia content without restrictions in time and place. FOMA is the worlds rst 3G mobile service based on W-CDMA Frequency - For an alternating current, the frequency is the number of times that the current goes through a complete cycle per second. It is measured in Hertz (cycles per second). Frequency Band - A particular range of frequencies. Frequency Reuse - The basic concept behind cellular communication. The same frequencies are reused repeatedly throughout a cellular system allowing for greater system capacity. Each cell is designed to utilize only a portion of the available frequencies. Neighboring cells use different frequencies, but cells farther away can use the same frequencies once again. The more cells that are used in the design of a cellular system, the more the frequencies are reused. Frequency Spectrum - The distribution of signal amplitudes as a function of frequency. Geocaching - A high-tech version of hide-and-seek. Geocachers seek out hidden treasures utilizing GPS coordinates posted on the Internet by those hiding the cache. Geodetic Datum - A math model representing the size and shape of the earth (or a portion of it). GIS (Geographic Information System) - A computer system or software capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information (i.e., data identied according to their location). In practical use, GIS often refers to the computer system, software, and the data collection equipment, personnel, and actual data. GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision) - A measure of the GPS receiver/satellite geometry. Also see Dilution of Precision. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 124 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Geosynchronous Orbit - A specic orbit around where a satellite rotates around the earth at the same rotational speed as the earth. A satellite rotating in geosynchronous orbit appears to remain stationary when viewed from a point on or near the equator. It is also referred to as a geostationary orbit. GGRF (GSM Global Roaming Forum) - Provides a collaborative and non-competitive opportunity for the discussion and development of technical requirements and commercial standards for roaming between GSM and other wireless technologies. Gain (Antenna) - A measure of how much of the input power to the antenna is concentrated in a particular direction as it radiates. It is expressed with respect to a hypothetical isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all directions. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) - An enhancement to the GSM mobile communications system that supports data packets. GPRS enables continuous ows of IP data packets over the system for such applications as Web browsing and le transfer. GPRS is a high-speed cellular packet network over GSM. GPS (Global Positioning System) - A global navigation system of 24 satellites for identifying earth locations, launched by the U.S. Department of Defense. These satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of 12,000 statue miles and provide very precise, worldwide positioning and navigation information 24 hours a day, in any weather. By triangulation of signals from a minimum of three of the satellites, a receiving unit can pinpoint its current location anywhere on earth to within a few meters. Also called the NAVSTAR system. Glonass - The Global Orbiting Navigational Satellite System; the Russian counterpart to the United States GPS system. GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) - The mean solar time for Greenwich, England, which is located on the Prime Meridian (zero longitude). Based on the rotation of the earth, GMT is used as the basis for calculating standard time throughout most of the world. Grid - A pattern of regularly spaced horizontal and vertical lines forming square zones on a map used as a reference for establishing points. Grid examples are UTM, MGRS, and Maidenhead. Ground - The ground is an arbitrarily decided point whose voltage is taken as zero. In many situations, equipment is connected physically to the actual, dirt ground, so that voltage is taken as zero; hence the name. In England the term earth is used, for the same reason. To be grounded means to be connected to a place that is maintained at the ground voltage. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications / Global Standard for Mobile) - A digital cellular phone communication protocol based on TDMA that is the predominant system in Europe, but is also used in a variety of countries around the world, and is now being introduced in North America by some of the new PCS licensees. GSM denes the entire cellular system, not just the air interface. Global Standard for Mobile. Handoff - The transfer of a cellular telephone call from one cell site to another. Handset - The part of the phone consisting of the ear- and mouth-piece, and the keypad. Hands-Free Speakerphone - A phone with secondary microphone and speaker, separate from those contained in the handset, that allows you to converse without removing the handset from the cradle. This is a safety feature required in some states. Hardover Word - The word in the GPS message that contains synchronization information for the transfer of tracking from the C/A to P code. HASP HASP stands for Hardware Specic software. Your HASP is also referred to as your Orion Tracking Control software. HDOP (Horizontal Dilution of Precision) - Is caused when the satellites are in a poor geometric conguration. Heading - The direction in which a vehicle is moving. For air and sea operations, this may differ from actual Course Over Ground (COG) due to winds, currents, etc. Healthy - A term used when an orbiting GPS satellite is suitable for use. State is also used to refer to satellite health. Horn Alert - An option feature available on some phones that sounds your vehicles horn to alert you of an incoming call. HSCSD (High Speed Circuit-Switched Data) - An enhancement to the GSM mobile communications system that enables up to four 14.4 Kbps channels to be combined to provide 57.6 Kbps data transfer. IBOC (In-Band /On-Channel) - The technology used for terrestrial digital audio broadcasting (DAB). It transmits digital signals in the same frequency band as the analog signals, and uses the same channel number so listeners can tune into the same radio station. iDEN (Integrated Digital Enhanced Network) - A wireless communications technology from Motorola that provides support for voice, data, short messages (SMS) and dispatch radio (two-way radio) in one phone. Each channel can be divided six times to transmit any mix of voice, data, dispatch or text message. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 125 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) - Uniquely identies mobile equipment for GSM systems. IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) - Contained in the SIM card, the IMSI is used to identify the subscriber to the GSM system. IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service. The predecessor to cellular telephone service which used a single transmitting and receiving location. Inductance - The property of an electric circuit by which an electromotive force is induced in it as the result of a changing magnetic ux. A circuit element, typically a conducting coil, in which electromotive force is generated by electromagnetic induction, is called an inductor. Induction - Induction is the process by which charge is moved in a conductor by the presence of an electric eld. In wires this will lead to a current, in discrete conducting objects it will lead to local charging. Initialization - The rst time a GPS receiver orients itself to its current location and collects almanac data. After initialization has occurred, the receiver remembers its location and acquires a position more quickly because it knows which satellites to look for. I/O (Input/Output) - The two-way transfer of GPS information with another device. Insulator - An insulator is a material that electricity has a hard time moving through, if it can at all. For a true insulator it takes a very high voltage to produce any current at all, and that often results in damage to the insulator. The opposite of a conductor. Internal Resistance - All battery cells have some internal resistance. As cell sizes increase, their internal resistance decrease due to larger conducting surfaces. As cells become discharged the resistance also rises, so a cell that has failed in a high-current application will still work for some time in a lower current application. Lower internal resistance means longer life and higher current. Internet - Originally developed for the U.S. military, the Internet became widely used for academic and commercial research. Users had access to both published and unpublished works and journals on a huge variety of subjects. Today, the Internet has become commercialized into a worldwide information highway, providing information on every subject known to humankind. Ionosphere - A region of the earths atmosphere where ionization caused by incoming solar radiation affects the transmission of GPS radio waves. It extends from a height of 50 kilometers (30 miles) to 400 kilometers (250 miles) above the Earths surface. Ionospheric Refraction - The change in the propagation speed of a signal as it passes through the ionosphere. IP (Internet Protocol) - Each computer on the Internet has an address, an example of such is 194.69.121.3 The IP address distinguishes between each and every computer on the Internet. IPs allow messages to be routed to a different network or subnet. IP does not ensure delivery of a complete message, and the TCP transport layer is used to provide that guarantee. IRM (International Roaming MIN) - A special type of MIN (Mobile Identication Number) that identies a mobile outside the NANP. An IRM always begins with the digit 0 or 1. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - An international telecommunications standard for providing a digital service from the customers premises to the dial-up telephone network. Unlike an analog modem, which converts digital signals into an equivalency in audio frequencies, ISDN deals only with digital transmission. Analog telephones and fax machines are used over ISDN lines, but their signals are converted into digital by the ISDN modem. ISP (Internet Service Provider) - An organization that provides access to the Internet. Small Internet service providers provide service via modem and ISDN, while the larger ones also offer private line hookups. L1 Frequency - One of the two radio frequencies transmitted by the GPS satellites. This frequency carries the Coarse Acquisition Code (C/A code), P-Code, and the nav message, and is transmitted on a frequency of 1575.42 MHz. L2 Frequency - One of the two radio frequencies transmitted by the GPS satellites. This frequency carries only the P-Code, and is transmitted on a frequency of 1227.6 MHz. LAAS (Local-Area Augmentation System) - The implementation of ground-based DGPS to support aircraft landings in a local area (20-mile range). Landline - Conventional telephone communications connected by wire. Latency - Timelapse: The time it takes for a packet to cross a network connection, from sender to receiver. The period of time that a frame is held by a network device before it is forwarded. Latitude - A positions distance north or south of the equator, measured by degrees from zero to 90. One minute of latitude equals one nautical mile. L Band - The radio frequencies that extend from 390 MHz to 1550 MHz. The GPS carrier frequencies are in the L band (1227.6 MHz and 1575.42 MHz). Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 126 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued Leg (Route) - A portion of a route consisting of a starting (from) waypoint and a destination (to) waypoint. A route that is comprised of waypoints A, B, C, and D would contain three legs. The route legs would be from A to B, from B to C, and from C to D. Line Of Sight (LOS) Propagation - Of an electromagnetic wave, propagation in which the direct transmission path from the transmitter to the receiver is unobstructed. The need for LOS propagation is most critical at GPS frequencies. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) - A display circuit characterized by a liquid crystal element sandwiched between two glass panels. Characters are produced by applying an electric eld to liquid crystal molecules and arranging them to act as light lters. Lithium Battery - A soft, silvery, highly reactive metallic element that is used in batteries where weight and cold weather conditions are concerns. Li-ion (Lithium Ion) - Modern, high capacity, rechargeable cell or battery, used where a compact or small physical size is demanded. Often used in cellular phones so that they are smaller and lighter to carry, without loss of performance, as compared to a similarly rated nickel cadmium. LAAS (Local Area Augmentation System) - The implementation of ground-based DGPS to support aircraft landings in a local area (20-mile range). Longitude - The distance east or west of the prime meridian (measured in degrees). The prime meridian runs from the north to south pole through Greenwich, England. LORAN - Loran, which stands for LOng RAnge Navigation, is a grid of radio waves in many areas of the globe that allows accurate position plotting. Latitude and longitude are determined from the time displacement of radio signals from two or more xed transmitters. Loran transmitting stations around the globe continually transmit 100 kHz radio signals. LORAN is relatively obsolete. Magnetic North - Represents the direction of the north magnetic pole from the observers position. The direction a compass points. Magnetic Variation - In navigation, at a given place and time, the horizontal angle (or difference) between true north and magnetic north. Magnetic variation is measured east or west of true north. Map Display - A graphic representation of a geographic area and its features. MDN (Mobile Directory Number) - A 10-digit directory number used to call a wireless phone. The MDN is the actual phone number that you would dial to get a hold of the device. Mean Sea Level - The average level of the oceans surface, as measured by the level halfway between mean high and low tide. Used as a standard in determining land elevation or sea depths. Milli Amp Hour (mAh) - The number of amperes that a battery can continually supply to a load in one hour. MIN (Mobile Identication Number) - A 10 digit number that uniquely identies an AMPS or CDMA mobile phone. MNP (Microcom Network Protocol) - A family of communications protocols from Microcom Inc., that have become de facto standards for error correction and data compression. Mobile - Cellular phone installed in a vehicle. Generally referred to as a car phone. Mobitex - Data-only packet radio cellular network operating at around 7,200 bps. Modular Jack - Quick connecting plug, similar to that of a home telephone. MOS (Mean Opinion Score) - The quality of a digitized voice line. It is a subjective measurement that is derived entirely by people listening to the calls and scoring the results from 1 to 5, with a 5 meaning that speech quality is perfect. The MOS is an average of the numbers for a particular codec. MSA (Metropolitan Service Area) - A group of counties, as dened by the US Census Bureau, that represent a central major city and its suburban communities. These 306 areas were used by the FCC to dene the boundaries of the initial cellular telephone operating licenses. MSC (Mobile Switching Center) - Connects mobiles to other mobiles or to phones in the telephone network or on other cellular systems. MSID (Mobile System Identier) - Wireless systems use ve-digit MSID codes to uniquely identify each operators network and market. Commonly known as SID. MTA (Major Trading Area) - A group of counties, as dened by a study conducted by Rand McNally, that represent a geographic area of common business interests and relationships. These areas were used by the FCC to dene the boundaries of the new A and B block PCS licenses. MTAs are created by combining multiple BTAs. MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Ofce) - The brains of a mobile communications network, it controls the routing of calls, connects cellular phones with other telephone systems, collects billing information, checks customer validity, etc. Multi-Channel Receiver - A GPS receiver that can simultaneously track more than one satellite signal. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 127 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued Multipath Error - An error caused when a satellite signal reaches the GPS receiver antenna by more than one path. Usually caused by one or more paths being bounced or reected. The TV equivalent of multipath is ghosting. Multiplexing Channel - A channel of a GPS receiver that can be sequenced through a number of satellite signals. Multi-Tracking Using a combination of multi-tracking enabled Software, and IP tracking units, investigators now have the ability to track multiple units at the same time, on one computer screen. IP based multi-tracking systems allow users to conduct large-scale investigations by keeping command and control centers updated on everyones location. NAM (Number Assignment Module) - A computer chip that is programmed to contain information specic to your cellular phone, such as its phone number, lock code, system identication number (SID) and other important information necessary for call validation and billing. Some cellular telephones offer dual- or multi-nam capabilities, allowing cellular customers to operate as a local customer in more than one cellular service area. NANP (North American Numbering Plan) - the numbering plan for the Public Switched Telephone Network in the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and many Caribbean nations, including Anguilla, Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and Turks & Caicos. Nautical Mile - A unit of length used in sea and air navigation, based on the length of one minute of arc of a great circle, especially an international and U.S. unit equal to 1,852 meters (about 6,076 feet). Navigation - The act of determining the course or heading of movement. This movement could be for a plane, ship, automobile, person on foot, or any other similar means. Navigation Message - The message transmitted by each GPS satellite containing system time, clock correction parameters, ionospheric delay model parameters, and the satellites ephemeris data and health. The information is used to process GPS signals to give the user time, position, and velocity. Also known as the data message. NAVSTAR - The ofcial U.S. Government name given to the GPS satellite system. NAVSTAR is an acronym for NAVigation Satellite Timing and Ranging. Nickel-Cadmium - The most commonly used secondary or rechargeable cell or battery. Often used in cellular phones, cordless phones, radio-controlled devices, toys, and many others. Nickel-Metal Hydride - Modern, high capacity, rechargeable cell or battery, used where a compact or small physical size is demanded. Often used to make a cellular phone smaller and lighter to carry without loss of performance, as compared to a similarly rated nickel cadmium. NMEA (National Marine Electronics Association) - A U.S. standards committee that denes data message structure, contents, and protocols to allow the GPS receiver to communicate with other pieces of electronic equipment aboard ships. NMEA Standard - A NMEA standard denes an electrical interface and data protocol for communications between marine instrumentation. No Service Indicator - Indicates when cellular users are in an area where cellular service is unavailable. Non-Wireline - The A Carrier, referring to a cellular provider that usually has no involvement in providing local, conventional telephone services within that area. Off-Peak - Period during a day of lowest trafc on a cellular system. Some cellular service providers charge a lower per minute rate during this low-use period. Ohm - The Ohm is the unit of electrical resistance and is represented by the Greek letter omega (). Operating Temperature - Since batteries convert chemical reactions into electrical power, temperature greatly affects the energy and voltage a cell can present. The effects of temperature are highly dependent on the state of discharge of the battery and are typically displayed using graphs. Packet Switching - A networking technology that breaks up a message into smaller packets for transmission and switches them to their required destination, where they are then re-assembled. Parallel Channel Receiver - A continuous tracking receiver using multiple receiver circuits to track more than one satellite simultaneously. PCB (Printed Circuit Board) - A thin substrate on which chips and other electronic components are placed. Computers consist of one or more boards, often also called cards. PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) - An international standards body and trade association that was founded in 1989 to establish a standard for connecting peripherals to portable computers. PCMCIA created the PC Card. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 128 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued P-code - The Precise code. This precise code of the GPS signal typically used only by the U.S. military. It is a very long sequence of pseudo random binary biphase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 10.23 MHz which repeats about every 267 days. Each one week segment of this code is unique to one GPS satellite and it is reset each week. It is encrypted and reset every seven days to prevent use from unauthorized persons. PCS (Personal Communications Services) - Refers to wireless services that emerged after the U.S. Government auctioned commercial licenses in 1994 and 1995. This radio spectrum in the 1.8-2GHz range is typically used for digital cellular transmission that competes with analog and digital services in the 800Mhz and 900MHz bands. PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) - A small electronic device to store and manage personal information. PDC (Personal Digital Communications) - A digital cellular phone system widely used in Japan. Based on TDMA, it transmits in the 810-826MHz and 1477-1501MHz bands. PDC is a 2G wireless system. PDN -1 (public data network) - Network operated either by a government (as in Europe) or by a private concern to provide computer communications to the public, usually for a fee. PDNs enable small organizations to create a WAN without the equipment costs of long-distance circuits. PDN -2 (public/private/packet data network) - Represents a public or private packet-based network, such as an IP or X.25 network. Peak - Period during a day of highest trafc on a cellular system. Some cellular service providers charge a higher per minute rate during this high-use period. Plain Text - Unencrypted data. Photovoltaic Cells (photo = light, voltaic = electricity) - They convert sunlight directly into electricity. Pixel - A single display element on an LCD screen. The more pixels, the higher the resolution and denition. Polarity - (+) and ( - ) markings on a battery to facilitate proper installation into a battery compartment. Negative polarity or pole indicates an area with an excess of free electrons. Positive polarity or pole indicates an area with a decit of free electrons. Portable - Small, self-contained, hand-held cellular telephone. Position - An exact, unique location based on a geographic coordinate system. Position Fix - The GPS receivers computed position coordinates. Position Format - The way in which the GPS receivers position will be displayed on the screen. Commonly displayed as latitude/longitude in degrees and minutes, with options for degrees, minutes and seconds, degrees only, or one of several grid formats. PPS (Precise Positioning Service) - The most accurate dynamic positioning possible with standard GPS, based on the dual frequency P-code and no SA. Primary Cell - A cell that cannot be recharged. An example is an alkaline-type cell or battery, which must be replaced when discharged. Prime Meridian - The zero meridian, used as a reference line from which longitude east and west is measured. It passes through Greenwich, England. PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise or Number) - A sequence of 1s and 0s generated by a feedback shift register and used to represent something resembling a random pattern. Pseudolite - A ground-based differential GPS receiver which transmits a signal like that of an actual GPS satellite, and can be used for ranging. Pseudo-Random Code - The identifying signature signal transmitted by each GPS satellite and mirrored by the GPS receiver in order to separate and retrieve the signal from background noise. A signal with random, noise-like properties. It is a very complicated but repeating pattern of 1s and Os. Pseudorange - The measured distance between the GPS receiver and the GPS satellite using uncorrected time comparisons from satellite-transmitted code and the local receivers reference code. PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) - The worldwide voice telephone network. Once a strictly analog system, the heart of most telephone networks today is digital. Pulsed Discharge Current - In pulsed mode, batteries can deliver higher currents for short periods of time. This can get complicated, as one has to know the duration of the pulse and the repetition rate. Most manufacturers can provide technical assistance for determining a cells suitability for a particular pulsed application. Quadrilar Helix Antenna - A type of GPS antenna in which four spiraling elements form the receiving surface of the antenna. For GPS use, quadrilar antennas are typically half-wavelength or quarter-wavelength size and encased in a plastic cylinder for durability. QOS (Quality of Service) - The ability to dene a level of performance in a data communications system. T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 129 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D RAIM - Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring; A GPS receiver system that would allow the receiver to detect incorrect signals being transmitted by the satellites by comparing solutions with different sets of satellites. RAM (Random Access Memory) - A group of memory chips, typically of the dynamic RAM (DRAM) type, which function as the computers primary workspace. The random in RAM means that the contents of each byte of storage in the chip can be directly accessed without regard to the bytes before or after it. Real-Time (meaning 1) - Relating to tracking refers to the ability to watch your suspects movements live, or in real time. Real-Time (meaning 2) - Relating to computer systems refers to the ability to update information at the same rate as they receive data, enabling them to direct or control a process such as an automatic pilot. Relays - A device that responds to a small current or voltage change by activating switches or other devices in an electric circuit. Resistance - The opposition of a body or substance to current passing through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat or another form of energy. Electrical resistance is a measure of how hard it is for a current to pass through a given material. It is similar to the way that it is harder for you to walk through water than air. It is usually measured in Ohms. RF (Radio Frequency) - The range of electromagnetic frequencies above the audio range, and below the range of visible light (between 30 kHz and 300 GHz). RIM (Research In Motion) - The manufacturer company of wireless BlackBerry (PDA) devices. RKP (Relative Kinematic Positioning) - is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, accurate determination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 centimeters by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques. Roaming - Using your cellular phone outside of your home coverage area. Roaming Agreement - A reciprocal agreement between two carriers that allows for cellular customers of one system to use the others system without having to pre-register or use a credit card to place and receive calls. Route - A group of waypoints entered into the GPS receiver in the sequence you desire to navigate them. RS-232 - A serial input/output standard that allows for compatibility between data communication equipment made by various manufacturers. RSA (Rural Service Area) - After initial cellular operating licenses were awarded for operating within Metropolitan Service Areas (MSA), the FCC divided the remaining counties within each state in to Rural Service Areas. RTCM (Radio Technical Commission For Maritime Services) Special Committee 104 - A committee created for the purposes of establishing standards and guidance for interfacing between radio beacon-based data links and GPS receivers, and to provide standards for ground-based differential GPS stations. SAR (Specic Absorption Rate) - This is a measure of the quantity of radio frequency energy absorbed by the body. The exposure standard for wireless mobile phones employs a unit of measurement known as the Specic Absorption Rate, or SAR. Satellite Constellation - The arrangement in space of a set of satellites. SCP (Service Control Point) - A node in an SS7 telephone network that provides an interface to databases, which may reside within the SCP computer or in other computers. The SCP may also be combined with the SS7 node that routes messages, called a signal transfer point (STP). S-DARS (Satellite DARS) - The satellite version of DARS, the FCC nomenclature for digital radio. DARS is the landline version that is implemented with the IBOC technology. Search The Sky - A message shown when a GPS receiver is gathering satellite almanac data. This data tells the GPS receiver where to look for each GPS satellite. Secondary Cell - A cell that can be recharged to its voltage rating by causing current to ow in reverse polarity, from positive to negative regions. Examples are nickel cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lead-acid cells or batteries. SA (Selective Availability) - A policy adopted by the US Department of Defense to introduce some intentional clock noise into the GPS satellite signals thereby degrading their accuracy to prevent adversaries from using the extremely accurate GPS positioning data. This policy was discontinued as of May 1, 2000 and now SA is turned off. Serial Communication - The sequential transmission of the signal elements of a group representing a character or other entity of data. The characters are transmitted in a sequence over a single line, rather than simultaneously over two or more lines, as in parallel transmission. The sequential elements may be transmitted with or without interruption. Service Area - The geographic coverage area served by a given cellular telephone system. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 130 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Service Plan - A selected level of service chosen by the subscriber that includes the monthly Access Fee and may or may not include a guaranteed amount of Airtime (number of usage minutes). Some service plans may also include certain calling features. Shelf Life - Battery cells discharge and decay when left standing. Shelf life is dened as the time taken for a cells capacity to fall to 85% of its original. Applications that take little current, like smoke alarms, will often use the battery for over a year; so a failure could present if a battery is used that has outlived its shelf life. SID (System Identication Code) - Wireless systems use ve-digit SID codes to uniquely identify each operators network and market. Signaling - The process of making, managing and ending calls within and between telephone systems. SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) - A smart card inserted into GSM phones that contains your telephone account information. It lets you use a borrowed or rented GSM phone as if it were your own. Slow Switching Channel - A sequencing GPS receiver channel that switches too slowly to allow the continuous recovery of the data message. SMS (Short-Messaging Service) - A text message service that enables short messages of generally no more than 140-160 characters in length to be sent and transmitted from a cellular phone. SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) - Ratio of signal power to noise power of a received signal. A higher SNR will generally lead to improved clarity in an audio transmission. SS (Spread Spectrum) - A communications technique whereby a radio frequency signal is modulated (spread) a second time so as to generate an expanded bandwidth wideband signal. SONAR - A system using transmitted and reected underwater sound waves to detect and locate submerged objects or measure the distance to the oor of a body of water. An example of this technology is used in Garmin sh nders and sounder products. Space Segment - The satellite portion of the complete GPS system, as found in space. Speed Over Ground (SOG) - The actual speed a GPS unit is moving over the ground. This may differ from airspeed or nautical speed due to such things as head winds or sea conditions. For example, a plane that is going 120 knots into a 10-knot head wind will have a SOG of 110 knots. Spread Spectrum - A system in which the transmitted signal is spread over a frequency band much wider than the minimum bandwidth needed to transmit the information being sent. This is done by modulating with a pseudo random code, for GPS. This provides the ability to receive all satellites unambiguously and to give some resistance to noise and multipath. SPS (Standard Positioning Service) - The normal civilian positioning accuracy obtained by using the single frequency Course/Acquisition (C/A) code. Standby Time - The amount of time a fully charged battery will operate a Portable or Transportable phone turned ON and waiting for a call to be placed or received. Requires less power than Talk Time. Example: Specication for a particular battery may offer 8 hours of Standby Time or 45 minutes of Talk Time. Static Electricity - Static electricity (or just static) is the name used to cover those phenomena that involve charges that are not moving (much)--ie. they are static. The other form of electrical phenomena is current electricity, where the charges are moving in a large-scale, organized way. Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges. Static IP A xed (non-dynamic) IP address. Your IP address and host name are recorded in DNS, and remain unchanged each log in. Servers usually have static addresses, so they can always be found at the same location. Static Positioning - Location determination when the receivers antenna is presumed to be stationary on the Earth. This allows the use of various averaging techniques that improve accuracy by factors of over 1000. Statute Mile - A unit of length equal to 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards (1,609 meters) used in the U.S. and some other English-speaking countries. STP (Signal Transfer Point) - Packet switches that relay messages between network switches and databases. Their main function is to route SS7 messages to the correct outgoing signaling link, based on SS7 message address elds. Switching Power Supply - A non-linear DC-DC converter that operates more efciently than a linear voltage regulator can. Inverters also use switching technology to obtain AC power from a DC source. System Selection Switch - A feature on your cellular phone (usually activated by pressing several keys) that allows you to select either the A (Non-wireline) or B (Wireline) cellular system. A or B priority is usually automatic, with the alternate service being switched to only when the preferred carrier is unavailable, or when your carrier advises you of an advantage in switching bands. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 131 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Talk Time - The amount of time a fully charged battery will operate a Portable or Transportable phone while transmitting and receiving calls. Requires more power than Standby Time. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) - Internet protocol that sets up a connection between two entities, allowing for an ordered stream of data to pass back and forth. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) - A satellite and cellular phone technology that interleaves multiple digital signals onto a single high-speed channel. A popular cellular telephone network in the US Terminal Voltage (V) - The typical voltage on the terminals with no load and a full charge. Sometimes battery manufactures give a nominal voltage roughly half way down the discharge curve (i.e. Lithium Ion rechargeables are usually operated between 4.2 and 3.0 Volts and in this case the nominal voltage is often given to be 3.6 volts). Time To First Fix (TTFF) - Time to First Fix (TTFF) is the time it takes a GPS receiver to nd satellites after the user rst turns it on (when the GPS receiver has lost memory or has been moved over 300 miles from its last location). If you have not used your GPS unit for several months, the almanac data for the satellites may be out of date. The unit is capable of recollecting this information on its own, but the process can take several minutes. TLDN (Temporary Location Directory Number) - A number that is used to route a call to a roaming mobile, to enable call delivery. Transceiver - A radio transmitter and receiver combined in a single unit. A cellular phone uses the transceiver to send and to receive signals from the cell site. Transducer - A device, much like a microphone, that converts input energy of one form into output energy of another. Fish nders separate and enhance the information received from a transducer to show underwater objects. Transformer - A transformer is a simple device that transforms AC electricity from one voltage to another. The power coming out of the transformer cannot exceed that going in, so the output current is reduced in direct proportion to the gain in voltage, and vice versa. Transportable - A cellular phone that is normally installed in a car but has the capability of being removed and carried in a pack or case with an attached battery pack. Triangulation - A method of determining the location of an unknown point, as in GPS navigation, by using the laws of plane trigonometry. Troposphere - The lowest region of the atmosphere between the surface of the earth and the tropopause, characterized by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. GPS signals travel through the troposphere (and other atmospheric layers). True North - The direction of the north pole from your current position. Magnetic compasses indicate north differently due to the variation between true north and magnetic north. A GPS receiver can display headings referenced to true north or magnetic north. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) Provides service in the 2GHz band and offers global roaming and personalized features. Uplink - A transmission path by which radio or other signals are sent from the ground to an aircraft or a communications satellite. USB (Universal Serial Bus.) - A plug-and-play interface between a computer and add-on devices (such as mobile phones, audio players. scanners and printers). User Interface - The way in which information is exchanged between the GPS receiver and the person using it. This takes place through the screen display and buttons on the unit. The controls and displays. User Segment - The segment of the complete GPS system that includes the GPS receiver and operator. UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) - A nearly worldwide coordinate projection system using north and east distance measurements from reference point(s). UTM is the primary coordinate system used on U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps. UWCC (Universal Wireless Communications Consortium) - A membership organization that supports the IS-41 (WIN) information and control system and EDGE enhancements for increased data rates. Voltage - Voltage is a measure of the force, or potential difference, on a unit charge at a given point in space due to all the other local charges, usually expressed in volts. Electro-motive Force (EMF), the internationally accepted unit of measure for the potential difference between an area with an excess of free electrons (negative charge) and an area with an electron decit (positive charge). Voltage induces current to ow in a circuit. It is similar to the gravitational pull on a unit mass in space, except that, since charges can be + and -, the force can be attractive or repulsive. 1 Volt = force required to produce a current of 1 Ampere in a wire of 1 Ohm resistance. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 132 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D VSELP (Vector Sum Excited Linear Predictor) A speech coding technique, VSELP digitally codes and signicantly compresses voice signals, increasing radio channel capacity by reducing the amount of information that needs to be transmitted. VSP (Vehicular Speaker Phone) - A phone with secondary microphone and speaker, separate from those contained in the handset, that allows you to converse without removing the handset from the cradle. This is a safety feature required in some states. Also commonly referred to as a Hands-Free Speakerphone. WAGE (Wide Area GPS Enhancement) - is an attempt to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite clock and ephemeris (orbital) data to specially-equipped receivers. WAN (Wide Area Network) - A communications network that covers a wide geographic area, such as state or country. WAP (Wireless Applications Protocol) - A standard for providing cellular phones, pagers and other handheld devices with secure access to e-mail and text-based Web pages. Wavelength - The distance between points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles of a wave. Waypoints - Waypoints are locations or landmarks worth recording and storing in your GPS. These are locations you may later want to return to. They may be check points on a route or signicant ground features. (e.g., camp, the truck, a fork in a trail, or a favorite shing spot). Waypoints may be dened and stored in the unit manually by taking coordinates for the waypoint from a map or other reference. This can be done before ever leaving home. Or more usually, waypoints may be entered directly by taking a reading with the unit at the location itself, giving it a name, and then saving the point. Waypoints may also be put into the unit by referencing another waypoint already stored, giving the reference waypoint, and entering the distance and compass bearing to the new waypoint. W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) - One of two 3G (third generation) standards that makes use of a wider spectrum than CDMA and therefore can transmit and receive information for faster and more efciently. Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and 3.84 MHz carrier signals. Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and 3.84 MHz carrier signals. WGS-84 - World Geodetic System, 1984. The primary map datum used by GPS. Secondary datums are computed as differences from the WGS 84 standard. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) - A system of satellites and ground stations that provide GPS signal corrections for better position accuracy. A WAAS-capable receiver can give you a position accuracy of better than three meters, 95 percent of the time. (At this time, the system is still in the development stage and is not fully operational.) WAAS consists of approximately 25 ground reference stations positioned across the United States that monitor GPS satellite data. Two master stations, located on either coast, collect data from the reference stations and create a GPS correction message. Wireline - The B Carrier, referring to a cellular provider that is often involved in providing local landline telephone services within that area. Y-Code - The encrypted P-Code. P-Code represents the precise code of the GPS signal typically used only by the U.S. military. It is a very long sequence of pseudo random binary biphase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 10.23 MHz which repeats about every 267 days. Each one week segment of this code is unique to one GPS satellite and it is reset each week. It is encrypted and reset every seven days to prevent use from unauthorized persons. Zigbee - ZigBee is a proprietary set of high level communication protocols designed to use small, low power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area networking. Zinc-Carbon - Common, older-style cell using zinc and carbon compounds to create current ow. They deliver light to medium service, limited shelf life, and can leak contents if left discharged in battery compartment. Examples are AA, AAA, C-size, and D-size as the most common sizes. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 133 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 134 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Ref er ence I nf or mat i on T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 135 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. 3G Technologies http://www.mymobile.com/3g.htm AMPS http://www.cellular.co.za/celltech.htm http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/3G/technology/ Analog vs Digital Cellular http://www.wirelessadvisor.com/analog-cellular.cfm Antennas http://www.borg.com/~warrend/guru.html http://www.aticourses.com/antennas_tutorial.htm http://www.marcspages.co.uk/rtc/0147.htm http://www.telex.com/Wireless/web.nsf http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/antennas/antenna-basics.htm Assisted GPS http://www.GPSworld.com http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com AT Command Sets http://www.modems.com/glossary/glos10.html http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/comndset.mspx http://www.modemhelp.org/sets.html http://www.modems.com/general/extendat.html http://www.ij.net/init_strings.htm Batteries http://data.energizer.com http://www.batteryexpress.net/battery_glossary.html http://www.greenbatteries.com/documents/battery_myths.htm http://es.epa.gov http://w3fp.arizona.edu/riskmgmt/battery_disposal.htm http://home.ican.net/~ccs/AlkBattW.htm http://www.nec-tokin.com/english/product/me/index.html http://www.powerpulse.net/powerpulse/archive/aa_080601a2.stm http://www.buchmann.ca/Article10-page2.asp http://www.motorola.com/EHS/environment/battery/ http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/battery/oem/chem/lith/index.html http://dbserv.maxim-ic.com/tarticle/view_article.cfm?article_id=104 http://dbserv.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm?appnote_number=663 http://www.rayovac.com http://www.pureenergybattery.com/technology.html http://www.rbrc.org http://www.m-j-h.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/hiltec/elec/battery.html http://www.tadiranbat.com/home.php http://www.ultralifebatteries.com/ T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 136 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. Bluetooth http://www.bluetooth.com/ Capacitors http://ourworld.cs.com/gknott5413/elect14.htm http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/capacitor.html CDMA http://www.arcx.com/sites/CDMAvsTDMA.htm http://www.qualcomm.com/technology/index.html CDPD http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CDPD.html http://www.budgetweb.com/cdpd/ Circuits http://physics.bu.edu/py106/notes/Circuits.html http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html?tqskip1=1&tqtime=0628 Circuit Switched vs. Packet Switched http://infocenter.cramsession.com/techlibrary/gethtml.asp?ID=1576 http://www.linktionary.com/c/circuit_switching.html Coverage Maps CANADA http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/overview.asp http://www.data.bellmobility.ca/products/data/coverage/default.asp http://www.cellular-news.com/coverage/canada.shtml http://www.canadiancontent.net/tech/mobile/ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/overview.asp http://support.airdesk.biz/?body=wireless-coverage#UnitedStates http://www.rentcell.com/world-phone-coverage-frame.htm http://www.verizonwireless.com http://www.wow-com.com/content/index.cfm/AID/62 http://www.nextel.com/services/coverage/index.shtml http://www1.sprintpcs.com/explore/ExploreHome.jsp http://www.t-mobile.com/locator.asp?referer=/coverage/Default.asp http://www.cingular.com WORLDWIDE http://www.cellular-news.com/coverage/ http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/international.asp http://idenphones.motorola.com/iden/international/international_home.jsp Crimping http://www.molex.com/tnotes/crimp.html T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 137 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. DataTAC http://www.dopforum.com/ http://www.abb.com/global/abbzh/abbzh251.nsf!OpenDatabase&db=/global/seapr/seapr035.nsf&v=63126&e=us&m http://www.motorola.com/LMPS/RNSG/data/pdtac.htm http://www.eaccessinc.com/wireless_tech/datatac.htm http://www.motorola.com/cgiss/datatac.shtml Differential GPS http://www.fieldworker.com/support_gps_differential.html Digital & Satellite Radio http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio4.htm Electricity / Electronics http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell1.htm http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html?tqskip1=1&tqtime=0628 http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/g_knott/elect12.htm Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) http://www.esda.org/aboutesd.html http://www.warmbier.com/englisch.htm http://www.esda.org/basics/part4.cfm FOMA http://www.peterindia.net/FOMA.html Glossary / Terminology http://www.csgnetwork.com/glossary.html http://www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/ http://www.letstalk.com/glossary/ http://www.dictionary.com http://www.webopedia.com/ http://www.nightflight.com/foldoc http://www-306.ibm.com/ibm/terminology/index.html http://www.americanroamer.com/indstry/glossary.html http://business.cisco.com/glossary/ weather.gov/glossary/index.php http://www.trimble.com/gps/glossary.html GPRS http://www.wirelessready.org/nettech_gprs.asp http://www.ram.com http://www.mobilecomms-technology.com/projects/indiana/ http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml http://www.notepage.net/smtp.htm T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 138 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. GPS http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite.htm http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/ www.garmin.com http://www.trimble.com/gps/how.html GPS Errors http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps_accuracy.html http://www.fieldworker.com/support_gps_errors.html http://theinfrequentflyer.com/global-positioning-system-errors.php GSM http://www.wirelessready.org/nettech_gsm.asp www.gsm-pcs.org iDEN http://www.geocities.com/45peter/iden.html http://idenphones.com/ Inductors http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/i1/inductor.asp http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html?tqskip1=1&tqtime=0628 Installation Guides http://www.bulldogsecurity.com Loran http://www.loran.org/basics.html http://www.megapulse.com/needforloran.html Mobitex http://www.cellular.co.za/mobitex.htm http://www.ericsson.com/technology/tech_articles/MOBITEX.shtml Modems http://www.modems.com/technical.html http://www.modems.com/glossary/glos24.html http://www.howstuffworks.com/modem.htm http://www.howstuffworks.com/cable-modem2.htm Pagers http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~wdutton/comm533/Ap-che.htm http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/wireless6.html#paging http://eshop.msn.com/softcontent/softcontent.aspx?scpId=2071&scmId=990 Radio Frequency Direction Finding (RF Tracking) http://members.aol.com/homingin/ http://www.dopsys.com/faq.htm http://www.howstuffworks.com/location-tracking.htm T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 139 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. Resistors http://www.williamson-labs.com/resistors.htm Roaming http://www.atis.org/about.shtml http://www.cdg.org/technology/roaming.asp http://www.cdg.org/technology/roaming/resource%5Flinks.asp http://www.americanroamer.com Safety Concerns & Warnings http://www.fcc.gov Specic Absorption Rate http://wwwapps.motorola.com/rfhealth/sar/sar.html http://www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/ Soldering http://www.elexp.com/t_solder.htm http://www.mindhertz.com/Solder.php http://www.antex.co.uk/pages/paper2.htm Spread Spectrum Radio http://www.microwavedata.com/ Power Switching http://www.howstuffworks.com/power-supply1.htm TDMA http://www.arcx.com/sites/CDMAvsTDMA.htm http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214175,00.html http://www.fiercewireless.com/topics/3g.html http://www.cnp-wireless.com/tdma.html Technical Information (miscellaneous) http://www.marcspages.co.uk http://www.nrc.ca/cisti/cisti_e.shtml WAAS http://www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.htmlIt just keeps getting better http://www.gpscentral.ca/whatiswaas.htm http://gpsinformation.net/exe/waas.html http://users.erols.com/dlwilson/gpswaas.htm http://iono.jpl.nasa.gov/waas.html Wireline Telephone Technology Development http://www.agilent.com/Feature/English/archive/C006.html T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 140 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D References and Useful Websites Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers, or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed in this document. Wireless Technologies http://www.rim.net http://www.wirelessready.org/ http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/surveys/public/3q99issue/salkintzis.html http://www.cnp-wireless.com/cellular.html http://www.pcmag.com/article/0,2997,s=1483&a=3867,00.asp http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/wireless6.html#ram http://idenphones.motorola.com/iden/iden_home.jsp http://www.gsmdata.com http://www.getyourwireless.com/cellular_data.htm http://www.wavenet.com.au/ http://ai.bpa.arizona.edu/go/datawarehousing/publications/tpdmobile/ http://www.americanroamer.com/indstry/glossary.html Zigbee http://www.zigbee.org/en/index.asp T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 141 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 142 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Or i on El ect r oni cs Li mi t ed Cont act I nf or mat i on T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3 For more i nformati on on any of the topi cs di scussed i n thi s manual , pl ease refer to the URL reference i ndex. 143 O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D Critical Contacts Mike Morris President ext# 365 mmorris@orion.ns.ca Paul Sangster VP of Sales and Client Services ext# 303 psangster@orion.ns.ca Michael Peach Technical Support Supervisor ext# 325 skytracksupport@orion.ns.ca 902-790-0506 After Hours I N N O V A T I O N , I N T E G R I T Y & S U P P O R T 1-800 NO LIMIT 90 SANFORD DRIVE, PO BOX 2728, WINDSOR, NOVA SCOTIA CANADA B0N 2T0 www. ori on. ns. ca sal es1@ori on. ns. ca