Spanish Civil War

Part of Interwar period

Republican International Brigadiers at the Battle of
Belchite ride on a T-26 tank
Date 18 July 1936 1 April 1939
(2 years, 8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)
Location Peninsular Spain, Extrapeninsular
Spain, Spanish Morocco,
Mediterranean, Spanish Guinea, North
Sea
Result Nationalist victory
End of the Second Spanish
Republic
Beginning of Franco's rule
Belligerents
Republican
Popular Front
CNT/FAI
UGT
ERC / EC
EG (193637)
PG
Supported by
Soviet Union
Mexico
Foreign
Nationalist
Falange
Carlists
(193637)
CEDA (1936
37)
Alfonsists
(193637)
Supported by
Italy
Germany
Spanish Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra Civil
Espaola)
[nb 2]
was fought from 17 July 1936 to 1 April
1939 between the Republicans, who were loyal to the
democratically elected Spanish Republic, and the
Nationalists, a rebel group led by General Francisco
Franco. The Nationalists prevailed, and Franco ruled
Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in
1975. The war is often called the dress rehearsal for
World War II.
The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of
opposition) by a group of generals of the Spanish
Republican Armed Forces, under the leadership of Jos
Sanjurjo, against the elected, leftist government of the
Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the
leadership of President Manuel Azaa. The rebel coup
was supported by a number of conservative groups,
including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous
Right,
[nb 3]
monarchists such as the religious
conservative (Catholic) Carlists, and the Fascist
Falange.
[nb 4][7]
The coup was supported by military units in Morocco,
Pamplona, Burgos, Valladolid, Cdiz, Crdoba, and
Seville. However, rebelling units in important cities
such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Mlaga
were unable to capture their objectives, and those
cities remained under the control of the government.
Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The
Nationalists, now led by General Francisco Franco, and
the Republican government fought for control of the
country. The Nationalist forces received munitions and
soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the
Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the
"Loyalist", or "Republican", side. Other countries, such
as Britain and France, operated an ofcial policy of non-
intervention, although France did send in some
munitions.
The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the
south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern
coastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the
area to its south and west for much of the war. Capturing
large parts of Catalonia in 1938 and 1939, the war ended
with the victory of the Nationalists and the exile of
thousands of leftist Spaniards, many of whom ed to
refugee camps in southern France. Those associated with
volunteers Portugal
Turkey
[1][2]
Foreign volunteers
Commanders and leaders
Republican leaders
Manuel Azaa
Julin Besteiro
Francisco Largo
Caballero
Juan Negrn
Indalecio Prieto
Vicente Rojo Lluch
Jos Miaja
Juan Modesto
Juan Hernndez
Saravia
Carlos Romero
Gimnez
Buenaventura
Durruti
Llus Companys
Jos Antonio
Aguirre
Alfonso Castelao
Nationalist leaders
Jos Sanjurjo
Emilio Mola
Francisco Franco
Juan Yage
Miguel Cabanellas
Manuel Goded
Llopis
Manuel Hedilla
Manuel Fal
Cond
Gonzalo Queipo de
Llano
Mohamed
Meziane
Strength
450,000 infantry
350 aircraft
200 batteries
(1938)[3]
600,000 infantry
600 aircraft
290 batteries
(1938)[4]
Casualties and losses
estimated 500,000 killed[5][nb 1]
450,000 ed[6]
the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious
Nationalists. With the establishment of a dictatorship led
by General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the war,
all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the
Franco regime.
[7]
The war became notable for the passion and political
division it inspired, and for the atrocities committed by
both sides. Organized purges occurred in territory
captured by Franco's forces to consolidate the future
regime.
[8]
A smaller but signicant number of killings
took place in areas controlled by the Republicans,
normally associated with a breakdown in law and
order.
[9]
The extent to which Republican authorities
connived in Republican territory killings varied.
[10][11]
Contents
1 Background
2 Military coup
2.1 Preparations
2.2 Beginning of the coup
2.3 Outcome
3 Combatants
3.1 Republicans
3.2 Nationalists
3.3 Other factions
4 Foreign involvement
4.1 Support for the Nationalists
4.1.1 Germany
4.1.2 Italy
4.1.3 Portugal
4.1.4 Others
4.2 Support for the Republicans
4.2.1 International Brigades
4.2.2 Soviet Union
4.2.3 Mexico
4.2.4 France
5 Course of the war
5.1 1936
5.2 1937
5.3 1938
5.4 1939
6 Evacuation of children
7 Atrocities
7.1 Nationalists
7.2 Republicans
8 Social revolution
9 Art and propaganda
10 Timeline
11 People
12 Political parties and organizations
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Notes
14.2 Citations
14.3 Bibliography and books by noted
authors
15 Further reading
16 External links
16.1 Images and lms
16.2 Academics and governments
16.3 Other
16.4 Archives
Background
At the end of the 19th century, the owners of large estates, called latifundia, held most of the power in a
land-based oligarchy. The landowners' power was unsuccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchant
sectors.
[12]
In 1868, popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon. In
1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated due to increasing political
pressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.
[13][14]
After the restoration of the
Bourbons in December 1874,
[15]
Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.
[16][17]
Alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring
republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute.
[18]
Growing resentment of
conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.
[19]
Spain was neutral in the First World War. Afterwards the working class, the industrial class, and the military
united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government, but were unsuccessful.
[20]
Fears of communism
grew.
[21]
A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923, and he ran Spain as a military
dictatorship.
[22]
Support for his regime gradually faded, and he resigned in January 1930. He was replaced
Foreshadowing the conict: Salvador
Dal's Soft Construction with Boiled
Beans (Premonition of Civil War)
(1936)
by General Dmaso Berenguer and then Admiral Aznar, who both
continued to rule by decree. There was little support for the
monarchy in the major cities, and King Alfonso XIII gave in to
popular pressure for the establishment of a republic and called
municipal elections for the 12 April 1931. The socialist and liberal
republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and with the
resignation of Aznar's government, King Alfonso XIII ed the
country.
[23]
The Second Spanish Republic was formed and would
remain in power until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War.
[24]
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal-Zamora
became the provisional government, with Niceto Alcal-Zamora as
the President and Head of State.
[25]
The republic had broad support
from all segments of society.
[26]
In May, an incident where a taxi
driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical
violence throughout Madrid and south-west Spain; the government's
slow response disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that
the Republic was determined to persecute the church. In June and July the Confederacin Nacional del
Trabajo called several strikes, which led to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard
and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the CNT in Seville; this led many workers
to believe the Second Spanish Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced
their intention of overthrowing it via revolution.
[27]
Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of
Republicans and Socialists.
[28]
With the onset of the Great Depression, the government attempted to assist
rural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and giving land tenure to farm workers.
[29][30]
Fascism remained
a reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the military.
[31]
In December, a new reformist, liberal,
and democratic constitution was declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularization of
the Catholic country, which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.
[32]
In October 1931, Republican
Manuel Azaa became prime minister of a minority government.
[33][34]
In 1933, the right won the general
elections, largely due to the anarchists' abstention from the vote, increased right wing resentment of the
incumbent government caused by an illegal decree conscating the land of the aristocracy, the Casas Viejas
incident, the socialists' (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) dissatisfaction with the caution of Republicans and
perceived brutality of Manuel Azaa and the formation of a right-wing alliance, Spanish Confederation of
Autonomous Right-wing Groups; women's newfound right to vote also contributed to this (most women
voted for centre-right parties).
Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black two years," seemed to make a civil war
more likely.
[35]
Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government and rolled
back changes made under the previous administration
[36]
and also granted amnesty to the collaborators of
the unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo in August 1932.
[37][38]
Some monarchists joined with the
Fascist Falange Espaola to help achieve their aims.
[39]
Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish
cities, and militancy continued to increase,
[40]
reecting a movement towards radical upheaval, rather than
peaceful democratic means as solutions.
[41]
In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought members of the right-wing Confederation of
the Autonomous Right (CEDA) into the government.
[42][43]
Farm workers' wages were cut in half, and the
military was purged of Republican members.
[43]
A Popular Front alliance was organized,
[43]
which narrowly
won the 1936 elections.
[44]
Azaa led a weak minority government, but soon replaced Zamora as president
in April.
[45]
Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving
several generals, who decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain.
[46]
Military coup
Preparations
In an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts, the Republican government sacked Franco as
chief of staff and transferred him to command of the Canary Islands.
[47]
Manuel Goded Llopis was removed
as Inspector General and was made general of the Balearic islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head of
the Army of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.
[47]
This, however, allowed Mola to
direct the mainland uprising. General Jos Sanjurjo became the gurehead of the operation and helped reach
an agreement with the Carlists.
[47]
Mola was chief planner and second in command.
[48]
Jos Antonio Primo
de Rivera was put in prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.
[47]
However, government actions
were not as thorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director of Security and other gures
were not acted upon.
[49]
On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yage, who managed to falsely convince
Casares of his loyalty to the republic.
[50]
Mola began serious planning in the spring.
[48]
Franco was a key
player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed
the Socialist uprising of 1934.
[48]
He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Spanish Republican
Army's toughest military force.
[51]
He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting that the
military was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, failing to arrest
or buy off Franco.
[51]
On 5 July, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to
Morocco.
[52]
It arrived on 14 July.
[52]
On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant Jos Castilloa Socialist party
memberof the Assault Guards police force.
[52]
The next day, members of the Assault Guards arrested Jos
Calvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative.
[53]
Calvo Sotelo
was shot by the Guards without trial.
[53]
The killing of Calvo Sotelo, with involvement of the police,
aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.
[54][nb 5]
Massive
reprisals followed.
[53]
Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in the advanced stages of
a planned uprising, the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justication for their coup.
[53]
The
Socialists and Communists (led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the
military took over. The prime minister was hesitant.
[53]
Beginning of the coup
The uprising's timing was xed at 17 July, at 17:01, agreed to by the leader of the Carlists, Manuel Fal
Cond.
[55]
However, the timing was changedthe men in Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 05:00, and
those in Spain itself starting exactly a day later, so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and
forces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there.
[56]
The rising was intended to be a
General map of the Spanish Civil War (19361939).
Initial Nationalist zone Jul
1936
Nationalist advance to Sep
1936
Nationalist advance to Oct
1937
Nationalist advance to Nov
1938
Nationalist advance to Feb
1939
Last area under Republican
control
Main Nationalist centres
Main Republican centres
Land battles
Naval battles
Bombed cities
Concentration
camps
Massacres
Refugee camps
swift coup d'tat, but the government retained control of most of the country.
[57]
Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain.
[58]
The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July,
which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately. Little resistance was encountered. In total, the
rebels shot 189 people.
[59]
Goded and Franco
immediately took control of the islands to which
they were assigned.
[48]
On 18 July, Casares
Quiroga refused an offer of help from the
Confederacin Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and
Unin General de Trabajadores (UGT), leading
the groups to proclaim a general strikein
effect, mobilizing. They opened weapons caches,
some buried since the 1934 risings.
[58]
The
paramilitary forces often waited to see the
outcome of militia action before either joining or
suppressing the rebellion. Quick action by either
the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough
to decide the fate of a town.
[60]
General Queipo
de Llano managed to secure Seville for the
rebels, arresting a number of other ofcers.
[61]
Outcome
The rebels failed to take any major cities, with
the critical exception of Seville, which provided
a landing point for Franco's African troops, and
the primarily conservative and Catholic areas of
Old Castile and Len, which fell quickly.
[57]
Cadiz was taken for the rebels, with the help of
the rst troops from the Army of Africa.
[62]
The government retained control of Mlaga,
Jan, and Almera. In Madrid, the rebels were
hemmed into the Montaa barracks, which fell
with considerable bloodshed. Republican leader
Casares Quiroga was replaced by Jos Giral,
who ordered the distribution of weapons among
the civilian population.
[63]
This facilitated the
defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, but
it allowed the anarchists to take control of Barcelona, along with large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia.
[64]
General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death.
[65]
The Republican government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around
Madrid, as well as Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north.
Flags of the Popular Front (left) and CNT/FAI (right)
The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated as Nationalists, though the former implies
"true Spaniards" rather than a pure nationalistic cause.
[66]
The result of the coup was a nationalist area of
control containing 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million.
[67]
The Nationalists had secured the
support of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the Army of Africa, made up
of 35,000 men,
[68]
and a little under half of Spain's militaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil
Guards, and the Carabineers.
[69]
Republicans controlled under half of the ries and about a third of both
machine guns and artillery pieces.
[68][70]
The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufciently modern design, and the Republicans took
control of 10.
[71]
Naval capacity was uneven, with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage, but
with the Navy's top commanders and two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias captured at
the Ferrol shipyard and Baleares, in Nationalist hands.
[72]
The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from
the same problems as the armymany ofcers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so.
[71]
Two-thirds of air capability was retained by the government however, the whole of the Republican Air
Force was very outdated.
[73]
Combatants
The war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and democracy, and by
Nationalist supporters as between communist and anarchist "red hordes" and "Christian civilization".
[74]
Nationalists also claimed they were protecting the establishment and bringing security and direction to an
ungoverned and lawless society.
[74]
Spanish politics, especially on the left, were quite fragmented, since socialists and communists supported the
republic. During the republic, anarchists had had mixed opinions, but major groups opposed the Nationalists
during the Civil War. The Conservatives, in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the
Republican government and presented a more unied front.
[75]
Republicans
The Republicans received weapons and
volunteers from the Soviet Union, Mexico, the
international Marxists movement, and
International Brigades. Their supporters ranged
from centrists who supported a moderately
capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary
anarchists. Their base was primarily secular and
urban, but also included landless peasants, and
was particularly strong in industrial regions like
Asturias and Catalonia.
[76]
This faction was called variously leales ("loyalists") by supporters; Republicans, the Popular Front, or the
government by all parties; and/or los rojos ("the reds") by their opponents.
[77]
Republicans were supported
by most urban workers, a large share of peasants, and much of the educated middle class.
Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936.
Flags of the Falange (left) and Carlist Traditionalist Requets
(right)
Republican troops at Guadalajara,
1937
The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Galicia and the more left-leaning Catalonia,
sought autonomy, or even independence, from the central government of Madrid. The Republican
government allowed for the possibility of self-government for the two regions,
[78]
whose forces were
gathered under the People's Republican Army (Ejrcito Popular Republicano, or EPR), which was
reorganized into mixed brigades after October 1936.
[79]
A few well-known people fought on the Republican side, such as English novelist George Orwell and
Canadian physician and medical innovator Norman Bethune.
Nationalists
The Nationalists (nacionales)also called "insurgents",
"rebels", or, by opponents, "Franquists" or "fascists"feared
national fragmentation and opposed the separatist movements.
They were chiey dened by their anti-communism, which
galvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists and
monarchists. Their leaders had a generally wealthier, more
conservative, monarchist, landowning background.
[80]
The Nationalist side included the Carlists and
Alfonsist monarchists, Spanish nationalists,
the fascist Falange, and most conservatives
and monarchist liberals. Virtually all
Nationalist groups had strong Catholic
convictions and supported the native Spanish
clergy.
[80]
The Nationals included the
majority of the Catholic clergy and
practitioners (outside of the Basque region),
important elements of the army, most large landowners, and many businessmen.
[74]
One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-
clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Church,
[80]
which had been targeted by opponents, including Republicans, who
blamed the institution for the country's ills. On the other hand, the
Church was against the Republicans' liberal principles, which were
fortied by the Spanish Constitution of 1931.
[81]
Prior to the war, in
the Asturias uprising of 1934, religious buildings were burnt and at
least 100 clergy, religious civilians, and police were killed by
revolutionaries.
[82][83]
Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain's colonial Army of
Africa and reduced the miners to submission by heavy artillery
attacks and bombing raids. The Spanish Foreign Legion committed atrocitiesmany women and children
were killed, and the army carried out summary execution of leftists. The repression in the aftermath was
brutal. In Asturias, prisoners were tortured.
[84]
Franco believed that he was justied in the brutal use of
troops against Spanish civilians. Historian Paul Preston said, "Unmoved by the fact that the central symbol
of rightist values was the reconquest of Spain from the Moors, Franco did not hesitate to ship Moorish
mercenaries to ght in Asturias, the only part of Spain where the crescent had never own. He saw no
contradiction about using the Moors, because he regarded left-wing workers with the same racialist
contempt he possessed towards the tribesmen of the Rif".
[85]
Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Jesuits. This proscription deeply offended many
within the conservative fold. The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war, in which 7,000
clergy and thousands of lay people were killed, deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists.
[86][87]
The Moroccan Regulares joined the rebellion and played a signicant role in the civil war. In a 2009 news
story, Reuters reported, "About 136,000 Moroccan ghters fought for the Generalissimo's Army of Africa,
the feared vanguard of a force that, ironically, Franco portrayed as a Christian crusade against godless
communists".
[88]
Other factions
Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists sided with the
Republicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government due
to anti-clericalism and conscations occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded by
the conservative Basque Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican government, even
though some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons inuencing conservative Catalans.
Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque nationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided
with the Republicans.
[89]
Foreign involvement
The Spanish Civil War seized the fears and hopes of the world, including not just diplomats and politicians,
but intellectuals, religious leaders, and labor unions, as well. Opinion divided three ways. The right and the
Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including
labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism.
Antiwar and pacist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the
potential of escalating into a second world war.
[90]
In retrospect, however, the Spanish Civil War was not a
prelude to the Second World War, but rather an indicator of the growing instability encompassing the whole
of Europe.
[91]
The Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisory
positions. Germany sent a Luftwaffe unit and modern warplanes. Italy sent 100,000 men. Britain and France
led a bloc of 27 nations that promised an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofcially went
along. Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union also signed on ofcially, but blatantly ignored the embargo. The
attempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective, however, and France especially was
accused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops.
[92]
The clandestine actions of the various
European powers were, at the time, considered to be risking another "Great War", alarming antiwar elements
across the world.
[93]
The League of Nations' reaction to the war was slightly biased against communism,
[94]
and insufcient to
contain the massive importation by ghting factions of arms and other war resources. Although a Non-
Intervention Committee was formed, its policies accomplished little, and its directives were ineffective.
[95]
The ofcial Spanish Government of Juan Negrn was gradually abandoned within the organization during
this period.
[96]
Members of the Condor Legion
Support for the Nationalists
Germany
German involvement began days after ghting broke out in July
1936. Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armored
units to assist the Nationalists. The war provided combat
experience with the latest technology for the German military.
However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a
world war for which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limited
his aid, and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send in
large Italian units.
[97]
Nazi actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor
Legion, while German efforts to move the Army of Africa to
mainland Spain proved successful in the war's early stages.
[98]
German operations slowly expanded to include strike targets, most notably and controversially the
bombing of Guernica which, on 26 April 1937, killed 200 to 300 civilians.
[99]
German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula, a U-boat
undertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories,
particularly in aerial combat,
[100]
while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics.
The training German units provided to Nationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War's end, perhaps
56,000 Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial and naval forces, had been trained by
German detachments.
[98]
A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the war, including approximately 300 killed,
[101]
though no more than 10,000 participated at any one time. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to
approximately 43,000,000 ($215,000,000) in 1939 prices,
[101][nb 6]
15.5% of which was used for salaries
and expenses and 21.9% for direct delivery of supplies to Spain, while 62.6% was expended on the Condor
Legion.
[101]
In total, Germany provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks.
[102]
Italy
After Francisco Franco's request and encouragement by Hitler, Benito Mussolini joined the war. While the
conquest of Ethiopia made Italy condent in its power, a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italian
control of the Mediterranean.
[103]
The Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) played a substantial role in the
Mediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, the
Legionary Air Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria), and the Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: Corpo
Truppe Volontarie, or CTV) to the Nationalist cause.
[104]
The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply the
Nationalists with 50,000 men.
[104]
Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade of
Nationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Malaga,
Valencia, and Barcelona.
[105]
In total, Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800
artillery pieces, 10,000 machine guns, and 240,000 ries.
[106]
Portugal
The Etkar Andr battalion of the
International Brigades.
The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister Antnio de Oliveira Salazar played an important role
in supplying Franco's forces with ammunition and logistical help.
[107]
Despite its discreet direct military
involvement restrained to a somewhat "semi-ofcial" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime, of a
volunteer force of up to 20,000,
[108][109]
so-called "Viriatos" for the whole duration of the conict,
Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the
Iberian neighbour to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply trafc directed to the
Nationalist cause.
[110]
Others
The United Kingdom maintained a position of strong neutrality. It refused to allow arms shipments and sent
warships to try to stop shipments. It became a crime to volunteer to ght in Spain, but about 4,000 went
anyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans. Many visited, hoping to nd authenticity and anti-
fascism. They had little impact on the government, and could not shake the strong public mood for
peace.
[111]
The Labour Party was split, with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists. It nally voiced
some support to Loyalists.
[112]
Romanian volunteers were led by Ion I Mo!a, deputy-leader of the Legion of the Archangel Michael (or Iron
Guard), whose group of seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with the
Nationalists.
[113]
Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, around 600 Irishmen, followers
of Irish political activist Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade", went to Spain to ght alongside
Franco.
[108]
Support for the Republicans
International Brigades
Many non-Spaniards, often afliated with radical communist or
socialist entities, joined the International Brigades, believing
that the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war against
fascism. The units represented the largest foreign contingent of
those ghting for the Republicans. Roughly 40,000 foreign
nationals fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18,000
were entered into the conict at any given time. They claimed to
represent 53 nations.
[114]
Signicant numbers of volunteers originated in France (10,000),
Germany and Austria (5,000), and Italy (3,350). More than 1,000 each came from the Soviet Union, the
United States, the United Kingdom, Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Canada.
[114]
The Thlmann
Battalion, a group of Germans, and the Garibaldi Battalion, a group of Italians, distinguished their units
during the Siege of Madrid. Americans fought in units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, while
Canadians joined the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion.
[115]
Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side, including Romanian Communist Party members Petre
Boril" and Valter Roman.
[116]
About 80 volunteers from Ireland formed the Connolly Column, which was
immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song "Viva la Quinta Brigada." Some Chinese joined
Polish volunteers in the International
Brigades
British Battalion banner
the Brigades, and the majority of them eventually returned to China,
while some went to prison or French refugee camps, and a handful
remained in Spain.
[117]
Soviet Union
Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-
Intervention Agreement, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
contravened the League of Nations embargo by providing material
assistance to the Republican forces, becoming their only source of
major weapons. Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin tried to do this
covertly.
[118]
In total, estimates of material provided by the USSR to
the Republicans vary between 634 and 806 planes, 331 and 362
tanks, and 1,034 and 1,895 artillery pieces.
[119]
Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head the
weapons shipment operation, called Operation X. Despite Stalin's
interest in aiding the Republicans, the quality of arms was
inconsistent.
[120][121]
On one hand, many of the ries and eld guns
provided were old, obsolete or otherwise of limited use. On the other
hand, the T-26 and BT-5 tanks were modern and effective in
combat.
[120]
The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in current
service with their own forces, but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior by
the end of the war.
[121]
The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many shipments were lost or
arrived only partially matching what had been authorized.
[122]
Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false
decks in the original designs of ships and, while at sea, Soviet captains employed deceptive ags and paint
schemes to evade detection by the Nationalists.
[123]
The Republic paid for Soviet arms with ofcial Bank of Spain gold reserves. This would later be the
frequent subject of Franquist propaganda, under the term "Moscow Gold". The cost of the Soviet Union
arms was more than the value of Spain's gold reserves, the fourth-largest in the world, estimated at US $500
million (1936 prices), 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France.
[124]
The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000
[125]
3,000
[126]
),
[127]
and, while Soviet troops
were fewer than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made tanks and aircraft,
particularly at the beginning of the war.
[114]
In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties
around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades.
Another signicant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs
(NKVD) inside the Republican rearguard. Communist gures including Vittorio Vidali ("Comandante
Contreras"), Iosif Grigulevich, Mikhail Koltsov and, most prominently, Alexander Orlov led operations that
included the murders of Catalan anti-stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin
[128]
and independent left-
wing activist Jos Robles.
[129]
Also, the shooting down in December 1936 of the French aircraft in which
the delegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Georges Henny, carried to France
extensive documentation on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD-led operation.
[130]
Mexico
See also es:exilio republicano espaol (Mxico).
Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments, such as the ABC Powers and Peru, the
Mexican government supported the Republicans.
[131][132]
Mexico refused to follow the French-British non-
intervention proposals,
[131]
furnishing $2,000,000 in aid and material assistance, which included 20,000
ries and 20 million cartridges.
[131]
Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help, as well as the
sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees, including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children
from Republican families. Some 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City, accompanied by
$300 million in various treasures still owned by the Left.
[133]
France
Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front" government in France did not
send direct support to the Republicans. French Prime Minister Lon Blum was sympathetic to the
republic,
[134]
fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally
state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy (largely surrounding France).
[134]
Right-wing politicians opposed
any aid and attacked the Blum government.
[135]
In July 1936, British ofcials convinced Blum not to send
arms to the Republicans and, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military aid,
technology or forces to assist the Republican forces.
[136]
However, Blum made clear that France reserved
the right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic:
We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitimate
government... We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who would be
tempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. Blum, 1936.
[137]
On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, demanding that he send
aircraft to the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the
Republic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.
[137]
Germany
informed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported "the
manoeuvres of Moscow" by supporting the Republicans.
[138]
On 21 August 1936, France signed the Non-
Intervention Agreement.
[138]
However, the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 54
bomber aircraft, Dewoitine aircraft, and Loire 46 ghter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to
December of that year to Republican forces.
[139]
The French also sent pilots and engineers to the
Republicans.
[140]
Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they
were bought in other countries.
[141]
Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, the possibility of French
intervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war. German intelligence
reported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about
Map showing Spain in September 1936:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Attack on Nationalist position near
Madrid, Somosierra, 1936
intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.
[142]
In
1938, Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain
through French occupation of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.
[143]
Course of the war
1936
A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco
was organized to the southwest of Spain.
[144]
Coup leader
Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20 July,
[145][146]
leaving
an effective command split between Mola in the North and
Franco in the South.
[48]
This period also saw the worst actions
of the so-called "Red" and "White" "Terrors" in Spain.
[147][148]
On 21 July, the fth day of the rebellion, the Nationalists
captured the central Spanish naval base, located in Ferrol in
northwestern Spain.
[149]
A rebel force under Colonel Beorlegui Canet, sent by General
Mola and Colonel Esteban Garcia, undertook the Campaign of
Gipuzkoa from July to September. The capture of Gipuzkoa
isolated the Republican provinces in the north. On 5 September,
after heavy ghting, the force took Irn, closing the French
border to the Republicans.
[150]
On 15 September, San Sebastin,
home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basque
nationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.
[110]
The Nationalists
then advanced toward their capital, Bilbao, but were halted by
Republican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September.
The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September,
unable to cope with the situation, and was replaced by a mostly
Socialist organization under Largo Caballero.
[151]
The new
leadership began to unify central command in the republican
zone.
[152]
On the Nationalist side, Franco was chosen as chief
military commander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamanca
on 21 September, now called by the title Generalsimo.
[48][153]
Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the Alczar in Toledo,
[153]
which had
been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel Moscardo since the beginning of the rebellion, resisting
thousands of Republican troops, who completely surrounded the isolated building. Two days after relieving
the siege, Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ("chieftain"), while forcibly unifying the various and diverse
falangist, Royalist, and other elements within the Nationalist cause.
[151]
The diversion to Toledo gave
Madrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed as a major propaganda victory and personal success for
Franco.
[154]
A similar dramatic success for the Nationalist occurred on 17 October, when troops coming
from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo, in Northern Spain.
Map showing Spain in October 1937:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Ruins of Guernica.
In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,
[155]
reaching it in early
November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November.
[156]
The Republican government was
forced to shift from Madrid to Valencia, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.
[157]
However, the
Nationalists' attack on the capital was repulsed in erce ghting between 8 and 23 November. A contributory
factor in the successful Republican defense was the arrival of the International Brigades, though only an
approximate 3,000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle.
[158]
Having failed to take the capital, Franco
bombarded it from the air and, in the following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircle
Madrid. The battle of the Corunna Road, a Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushed Republican forces
back, but failed to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into January.
[159]
1937
With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial
soldiers from Morocco, Franco made another attempt to capture
Madrid in January and February 1937, but was again
unsuccessful. The Battle of Mlaga started in mid-January, and
this Nationalist offensive in Spain's southeast would turn into a
disaster for the Republicans, who were poorly organised and
armed. The city was taken by Franco on 8 February.
[160]
The
consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army had
started in December 1936.
[161]
The main Nationalist advance to
cross the Jarama river and cut the supply of Madrid by the
Valencia road, termed the Battle of Jarama, led to heavy
casualties (6,00020,000) on both sides. The operation's main
objective was not met, though Nationalists gained a modest
amount of territory.
[162]
A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was a
more signicant defeat for Franco and his armies. It proved the only publicised Republican victory of the
war. Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco, and while many strategists blamed the latter
for the rightists' defeat, the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualties
and loss of valuable equipment.
[163]
The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists needed
to concentrate on vulnerable areas rst.
[164]
The "War in the North" began in mid-March,
[165]
with Biscay as
a rst target.
[166]
The Basques suffered most from the lack of a
suitable air force.
[167]
On 26 April, the Condor Legion bombed
the town of Guernica, killing 200-300. The destruction had a
signicant effect on international opinion.
[168]
The Basques
retreated.
[169]
April and May saw inghting among Republican groups in
Catalonia. The dispute was between an ultimately victorious
government Communist forces and the anarchist CNT. The
disturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done to
exploit Republican divisions.
[170]
After the fall of Guernica, the
Map showing Spain in July 1938:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Republican government began to ght back with increasing effectiveness. In July, it made a move to
recapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front, but for only two weeks. A
similar Republican attack on Huesca failed similarly.
[171]
Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June.
[172]
In early July, despite the earlier fall in June of
Bilbao, the government launched a strong counter-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on Brunete. The
Battle of Brunete, however, was a signicant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its most
accomplished troops. The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and left 25,000
Republican casualties.
[173]
A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and aerial advantages, the
Battle of Belchite resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and the loss of much equipment.
[174]
Franco invaded Aragn in August and took the city of Santander.
[175]
With the surrender of the Republican
army in the Basque territory came the Santoa Agreement.
[176]
Gijn nally fell in late October.
[177]
Franco
had effectively won in the north. At November's end, with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, the
government had to move again, this time to Barcelona.
[178]
1938
The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city,
which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists, was conquered
by Republicans in January. The Francoist troops launched an
offensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but Franco was
forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.
[179]
On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and,
by 14 April, they had pushed through to the Mediterranean,
cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain in two. The
Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May,
[180]
but Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war
raged on. In July, the Nationalist army pressed southward from
Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the
Republic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy ghting along the
XYZ Line, a system of fortications defending Valencia.
[181]
The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of
the Ebro, from 24 July until 26 November.
[182]
The campaign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by the
Franco-British appeasement of Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed
Republican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.
[183]
The retreat from the
Ebro all but determined the nal outcome of the war.
[182]
Eight days before the new year, Franco threw
massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia.
[184]
1939
Map showing Spain in February 1939:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Franco declares the end of the war.
However, small pockets of
Republicans ght on.
Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the rst two months of 1939.
Tarragona fell on 15 January,
[185]
followed by Barcelona on 26 January
[186]
and Girona on 2 February.
[187]
On 27 February, the United Kingdom and France recognized the
Franco regime.
[188]
Only Madrid and a few
other strongholds
remained for the
Republican forces. On 5
March 1939, the
Republican army, led by
the colonel Segismundo
Casado and the politician
Julin Besteiro, rose
against the prime
minister Juan Negrin and
formed a military junta
with the Council of
National Defense
(Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) to negotiate a peace deal.
Negrin ed to France on 6 March, but the Communist troops around
Madrid rose against the junta, starting a brief civil war within the
civil war. Casado defeated them, and began peace negotiations with
the Nationalists, but Francisco Franco only accepted an
unconditional surrender.
On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid
and, by 31 March, they controlled all the Spanish territory.
[189]
Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech
aired on 1 April, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.
After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies.
[190]
Thousands of
Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000 executed.
[191]
Other calculations of these deaths range
from 50,000
[192]
to 200,000, depending on which killings are included. Many others were put to forced
labour, building railways, drying out swamps, and digging canals.
[192]
Hundreds of thousands of Republicans ed abroad, with some 500,000 eeing to France.
[193]
Refugees were
conned in internment camps of the French Third Republic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where
12,000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions. In his capacity as consul in Paris, Chilean poet and
politician Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in France using the
ship SS Winnipeg.
[194]
Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not nd relations in France were
encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Franquist government, to return to Spain. The
great majority did so and were turned over to the Franquist authorities in Irn.
[195]
From there, they were
transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purication" according to the Law of Political
Responsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Ptain of the Vichy regime, the refugees
became political prisoners, and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from
Children preparing for evacuation, some giving the
Republican salute. The Republicans showed a raised
st whereas the Nationalists gave the Roman
salute.
[197]
the camp. Along with other "undesirable" people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp
before being deported to Nazi Germany. About 5,000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration
camp.
[195]
After the ofcial end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis
well into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population.
In 1944, a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded
the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.
[196]
Evacuation of children
The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,000
35,000 children from their zone,
[198]
starting with
Basque areas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Their
destinations included the United Kingdom
[199]
and the
USSR, and many other locations in Europe, along with
Mexico.
[198]
On May 21, 1937, around 4,000 Basque
children were taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS
Habana from the Spanish port of Santurtzi. This was
against initial opposition from both the government and
charitable groups, who saw the removal of children from
their native country as potentially harmful. On arrival
two days later in Southampton, the children were
dispersed all over England, with over 200 children
accommodated in Wales.
[200]
The upper age limit was
initially set at 12, but raised to 15.
[201]
By mid-
September, all of los nios, as they became known, had found homes with families. Most were repatriated to
Spain after the war, but some 250 still remained in Britain by the end of the Second World War in 1945.
[202]
Atrocities
Death totals remain debated. British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history of the Civil War that
Franco's ensuing "white terror" resulted in the deaths of 200,000 people and that the "red terror" killed
38,000.
[203]
Julius Ruiz contends that, "Although the gures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843
executions were carried out in the Republican zone, with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including
50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain".
[204]
In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzn, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of
114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951. (Garzn has since been indicted for violating a
1977 amnesty law through his actions.) Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and
dramatist Federico Garca Lorca.
[5]
Mention of his death was forbidden during Franco's regime.
[205]
The view of historians, including Helen Graham,
[206]
Paul Preston,
[207]
Antony Beevor,
[208]
Gabriel
Jackson
[209]
and Hugh Thomas,
[210]
is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organized
and approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines were
the result of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:
Spanish Civil War grave sites.
Location of known burial places.
Colors refer to the type of
intervention that has been carried out.
Green: No Interventions Undertaken
so far. White: Missing grave. Yellow:
Transferred to the Valle de los Cados.
Red: Fully or Partially Exhumed.
Blue star: Valle de los Cados.
Source: Ministry of Justice of Spain
(http://mapadefosas.mjusticia.es)
Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid in
late November 1936.
Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, the "cleaning
up", of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a disciplined policy of the new
authorities and a part of their programme of regeneration. In republican Spain, most of the
killing was the consequence of anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work
of the state, even though some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and even
though some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority.
Hugh Thomas
[210]
Nationalists
Nationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered to
eradicate any trace of "leftism" in Spain, were common. The notion
of a limpieza (cleansing) formed an essential part of the rebel
strategy, and the process began immediately after an area had been
captured.
[211]
According to historian Paul Preston, the minimum
number of those executed by the rebels is 130,000,
[212]
and is likely
to have been far higher, with other historians placing the gure at
200,000 dead.
[213]
The violence was carried out in the rebel zone by
the military, the Civil Guard and the Falange in the name of the
regime.
[214]
Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the
rst weeks of the war.
[214]
This included the execution of school
teachers,
[215]
because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republic to
promote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closing
religious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalists
as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings of
civilians were carried out in the cities captured by the
Nationalists,
[216]
along with the execution of unwanted individuals.
These included non-combatants such as trade-unionists, Popular
Front politicians, suspected Freemasons, Basque, Catalan,
Andalusian, and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals,
relatives of known Republicans, and those suspected of voting
for the Popular Front.
[214][217][218][219][220]
Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some
8,000 people were shot; 10,000 were killed in Cordoba; 6,000
12,000 were killed in Badajoz.
[221]
In Granada, where working-
class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right-wing
squads were given free rein to kill government
sympathizers,
[222]
at least 2,000 people were murdered.
[215]
In
February 1937, over 7,000 were killed after the capture of
Mlaga.
[223]
When Bilbao was conquered, thousands of people
were sent to prison. There were fewer executions than usual, however, because of the effect Guernica left on
Nationalists' reputations internationally.
[224]
The numbers killed as the columns of the Army of Africa
Bombing in Barcelona, 1938.
"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by
Communist militiamen. The photograph in
the London Daily Mail had the caption
"Spanish Reds' war on religion".
[232]
devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly difcult to calculate.
[225]
Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular
incident, following the capture of Bilbao, they took hundreds of
people, including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the
Republican forces, to the countryside or graveyards and
murdered them.
[226][227]
Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering
20 Protestant ministers.
[228]
Franco's forces were determined to
remove the "Protestant heresy" from Spain.
[229]
The Nationalists
also persecuted Basques, as they strove to eradicate Basque
culture.
[175]
According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basques
were murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil
War.
[230]
The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by the
Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe
Volontarie: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombing
of Guernica was among the most controversial.
[231]
Republicans
According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died
in Republican-held territories. This is considered excessive by
Antony Beevor. However, it was much less than the half a
million claimed during the war.
[234]
The deaths would form the
prevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombing
of Guernica.
[234]
The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters
attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the
news of military revolt.
[227]
In his 1961 book, Spanish
archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time was
director of the journal Ecclesia, wrote that 6,832 were killed
during the war, including 4,184 priests, 2,365 monks and friars,
and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a gure accepted by
historians, including Beevor.
[228][235][236]
Some sources claim
that by the conict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy had
been killed,
[237]

[nb 7]
The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of
Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los ngeles near
Madrid, on 7 August 1936, was the most infamous of widespread desecration of religious property.
[238]
In
dioceses where the Republicans had general control, a large proportion often a majority of secular priests
were killed.
[239]
The Puente Nuevo bridge. Both
Nationalists and Republicans are claimed
to have thrown prisoners from the bridge to
their deaths in the canyon.
[233]
Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were executed as suspected
Falangists.
[240]
Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the
Nationalist zone.
[241]
Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.
[242]
Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they didn't sympathize with the Republicans, and were usually
spared if they did.
[243]
Fake justice was sought through a commission, known in Russia as checas.
[240]
As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the
Nationalists, many civilians were executed by councils and
tribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchist
groups.
[240]
Some members of the latter were executed by
Soviet-advised communist functionaries in Catalonia,
[233]
as
recounted by George Orwell's description of the purges in
Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which followed a
period of increasing tension between competing elements of the
Catalan political scene. Some individuals ed to friendly
embassies, which would house up to 8,500 people during the
war.
[241]
In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalists
were executed in the rst month of the war.
[233]
Communist
Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the killing of
Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos del
Jarama.
[244]
Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Republicans, including
other Marxists: Andr Marty, known as the Butcher of Albacete, was responsible for the deaths of some 500
members of the International Brigades.
[245]
Andreu Nin, leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist
Unication), and many other prominent POUM members, were murdered by the Communists, with the help
of the USSR's NKVD.
[246]
Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war, 17,000 of whom were killed
in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup. Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support
of extrajudicial killings, much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders.
[247]
Azaa came close to
resigning.
[241]
He, alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of other local ofcials,
attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched. Some of those in positions of power intervened
personally to stop the killings.
[247]
Social revolution
In the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragn and Catalonia, in addition to the temporary military success, there
was a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry and set up
councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government.
[248]
This revolution was opposed by the Soviet-
supported communists who, perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of civil property rights.
[248]
As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to exploit their access to Soviet arms
to restore government control over the war effort, through diplomacy and force.
[246]
Anarchists and the
Workers' Party of Marxist Unication (Partido Obrero de Unicacin Marxista, POUM) were integrated
into the regular army, albeit with resistance. The POUM was outlawed and falsely denounced as an
Women at the Siege of the Alczar
in Toledo, 1936
instrument of the fascists.
[246]
In the May Days of 1937, many thousands of anarchist and communist
Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona.
[170]
The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 30,00040,000 members.
[249]
It also called for a social
revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism.
[250]
Following the
execution of its leader, Jos Antonio Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size to
several hundred thousand members.
[251]
The leadership of the Falange suffered 60% casualties in the early
days of the civil war, and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders, called camisas
nuevas ("new shirts"), who were less interested in the revolutionary
aspects of National Syndicalism.
[252]
Subsequently, Franco united all
rightist parties into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the National
Syndicalist Offensive Juntas (Spanish: Falange Espaola
Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET y
de las JONS).
[253]
The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacist organizations,
including the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the War Resisters League,
and the War Resisters' International. Many people including, as they are
now called, the "insumisos" ("deant ones", conscientious objectors)
argued and worked for non-violent strategies. Prominent Spanish
pacists, such as Amparo Poch y Gascn and Jos Brocca, supported
the Republicans. Brocca argued that Spanish pacists had no alternative
but to make a stand against fascism. He put this stand into practice by
various means, including organizing agricultural workers to maintain
food supplies, and through humanitarian work with war refugees.
[nb 8]
Art and propaganda
Throughout the course of the Spanish Civil War, people all over the world were exposed to the goings-on
and effects of it on its people not only through standard art, but also through propaganda. Motion pictures,
posters, radio programs, and leaets are a few examples of this media art that was so inuential during the
war. Produced by both fascists and republicans, propaganda allowed Spaniards a way to spread awareness
about their war all over the world. In a lm co-produced by famous early-twentieth century authors such as
Ernest Hemingway and Lillian Hellman, video footage was used as a way to advertise Spains need for
military and monetary aid. This lm, The Spanish Earth, premiered in dwellings all over America in July,
1937. This was an inuential lm during this time period because it was one of few pieces of propaganda
that was created from a Spanish Republican point of view. It exposed the hardships of Spanish civilians
during the war, captured footage of battles from the republicans front, and uncovered the immoralities thrust
upon the Spanish people by the fascists. By promoting this lm, as well as other forms of propaganda, to
international audiences, Spain was able to gather more military allies as well as monetary donations to
support their battered homeland. After the war, even in the present-day, not only propaganda, but also all
forms of art created during and after the war, serve as reminders of the Spanish Civil War. They not only
allow audiences to recall the horrors of the war, but also serve as a reminder of how much Spain has
overcome and accomplished since this time.
Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Snchez Prez's El pueblo espaol tiene un camino que conduce
a una estrella maqueta ("The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to a Star"), a 12.5m monolith
constructed out of plaster representing the struggle for a socialist utopia;
[254]
Julio Gonzlez's La
Montserrat, an anti-war work which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona, is created from a sheet
of iron which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small child in one arm
and a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder's Fuente de mercurio (Mercury Fountain) a protest work by
the American against the Nationalist forced control of Almade'n and the mercury mines there.
[255]
As to other works of art, Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937, taking inspiration from the bombing of
Guernica. Guernica, like many important Republican masterpieces, was featured at the 1937 International
Exhibition in Paris. The work's size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed much attention and casted the horrors of the
mounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight.
[256]
The painting has since been herald as an anti-war
work and a symbol of peace in the 20th century.
[257]
Joan Mir created El Segador (The Reaper, formally
titled El campesino cataln en rebelda (Catalan peasant in revolt), which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet
[258]
and depicted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air, to which Mir commented that "The sickle is not a
communist symbol. It is the reapers symbol, the tool of his work, and, when his freedom is threatened, his
weapon."
[257]
This work, featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris, was shipped back to the
Spanish Republic's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition, but has since gone missing or has been
destroyed.
[258]
Timeline
Spanish Civil War Timeline
Date Event
1868 Overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon
1873
Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicates throne ending the short-
lived First Spanish Republic
1874 (December) Restoration of the Bourbons
1909 Tragic Week in Barcelona
1923 Military coup brings Miguel Primo de Rivera to power
1930 (January) Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns
1931 Spanish Constitution that included articles 24 and 26 which banned Jesuits
1931
(April 12) Municipal elections, King Alfonso XIII abdicates, Second Spanish Republic is formed
with Niceto Alcala-Zamora as President and Head of State
1931 (June) Elections return large majority of Republicans and Socialists
1931 (October) Republican Manuel Azana becomes prime minister of a minority government
1931 (December) New reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution is declared
1932 (August) Unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo
1933 Beginning of the "black two years"
1934 Asturias uprising
1936 (April) Popular Front alliance wins election and Azana replaces Zamora as president
1936 (June 12) Prime Minister Casares Quiroga meets General Joan Yague
1936 (July 5) Aircraft chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco
1936 (July 12) Lieutenant Jose Castillo is murdered
1936 (July 13) Jose Calvo Sotelo is arrested
1936 (July 14) Franco arrives in Morocco
1936 (July 17) Military coup gains control over Spanish Morocco
1936 (July 17) Ofcial beginning of the war
1936 (July 20) Coup leader Sanjurjo is killed in a plane crash
1936 (July 21) Nationalists capture the central Spanish naval base
1936
(August 7) "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los
Angeles in Getafe
1936
(September 4) The Republican government under Giral resigns, and are replaced by mostly Socialist
organization under Largo Caballero
1936 (September 5) Nationalists take Irun
1936 (September 15) Nationalists take San Sebastian
1936 (September 21) Franco chosen as chief military commander at Salamanca
1936 (September 27) Franco's troops relieve the Alcazar in Toledo
1936 (September 29) Franco proclaims himself Caudillo
1936 (October 17) Nationalists from Galicia relieve the besieged town of Oviedo
1936 (November) Bombing of Madrid
1936 (November 8) Franco launches major assault on Madrid that is unsuccessful
1936 (November 6) Republican government is forced to move to Valencia from Madrid
1937 Nationalists capture most of Spain's northern coastline
1937 (February 6) Battle of Jarama begins
1937 (February 8) Malaga falls to Franco's forces
1937 (March) War in the North begins
1937 (March 8) Battle of Guadalajara begins
1937 (April 26) Bombing of Guernica
1937 (May 21) 4,000 Basque children taken to the UK
1937 (June 3) Mola, Franco's second-in-command, is killed
1937 (July) Republicans move to recapture Segovia
1937 (July 6) Battle of Brunete begins
1937 (August) Franco invades Aragon and takes the city of Santander
1937 (August 24) Battle of Belchite begins
1937 (October) Gijon falls to Franco's troops
1937 (November) Republican government forced to move to Barcelona from Valencia
1938 Nationalists capture large parts of Catalonia
1938 (January) Battle of Teruel, conquered by Republicans
1938 (February 22) Franco recovers Teruel
1938 (March 7) Nationalists launch the Aragon Offensive
1938 (March 16) Bombing of Barcelona
1938 (May) Republican sue for peace, Franco demands unconditional surrender
1938 (July 24) Battle of the Ebro begins
1938 (December 24) Franco throws massive force into invasion of Catalonia
1939 Beginning of General Francisco Franco's rule
1939 (January 15) Tarragona falls to Franco
1939 (January 26) Barcelona falls to Franco
1939 (February 2) Girona falls to Franco
1939 (February 27) UK and France recognize the Franco regime
1939 (March 6) Prime minister Juan Negrin ees to France
1939 (March 28) Nationalists occupy Madrid
1939 (March 31) Nationalists control all Spanish territory
1939 (April 1) Last Republican forces surrender
1939 (April 1) Ofcial ending of the war
1975 Ending of General Francisco Franco's rule
People
Figures identied with the Republican side
Politicians or military
Manuel Azaa (Republican)
Santiago Carrillo (Communist)
Valentin Gonzlez ("El Campesino")
(Communist)
Dolores Ibarruri ("La Pasionaria")
(Communist)
Francisco Largo Caballero (Socialist)
Diego Martnez Barrio (Republican)
Juan Negrn (Socialist)
Andrs Nin (Communist)
Indalecio Prieto (Socialist)
Buenaventura Durruti (Anarchist)
Others identied with the Republican side
(including volunteers)
W. H. Auden (poet)
Robert Capa (photojournalist)
Pablo Casals (cellist, conductor)
Federico Garca Lorca (poet, dramatist -
assassinated)
Figures identied with the Nationalist side
Military
Milln Astray (Spain)
Francisco Franco (Spain)
Miguel Cabanellas (Spain)
Jos Sanjurjo (Spain)
Emilio Mola (Spain)
Gonzalo Queipo de Llano (Spain)
Juan Yage (Spain)
Hugo Sperrle (Germany)
Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma (Germany)
Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (Germany)
Mario Roatta (Italy)
Ettore Bastico (Italy)
Non-military
Pedro Muoz Seca (playwright - assassinated)
Ramn Serrano Ser (politician)
Egon Erwin Kisch (writer, journalist)
Pablo Picasso (painter, sculptor)
Rafael Alberti (poet)
Ernest Hemingway (author, journalist)
John Dos Passos (novelist)
Jose Robles (academic, activist)
Laurie Lee (poet, novelist, screenwriter)
George Orwell (novelist, journalist)
Luis Buuel (lmmaker)
Miguel Hernandez (poet)
Pablo Neruda (poet)
#ikica Jovanovi$ %panac (Socialist)
Political parties and organizations
The Popular Front (Republican)
Supporters of the Popular Front
(Republican)
Nationalists (Francoist)
The Popular Front was an electoral
alliance formed between various left-
wing and centrist parties for elections
to the Cortes in 1936, in which the
alliance won a majority of seats.
UR (Unin Republicana -
Republican Union): Led by
Diego Martnez Barrio, formed
in 1934 by members of the
PRR, who had resigned in
objection to Alejandro
Lerroux's coalition with the
CEDA. It drew its main support
from skilled workers and
progressive businessmen.
IR (Izquierda Republicana -
Republican Left): Led by
former Prime Minister Manuel
Azaa after his Republican
Action party merged with
Santiago Casares Quiroga's
Unin Militar Republicana
Antifascista (Republican
Anti-fascist Military Union):
Formed by military ofcers in
opposition to the Unin
Militar Espaola.
Anarchist groups. The
anarchists boycotted the 1936
Cortes election and initially
opposed the Popular Front
government, but joined during
the Civil War when Largo
Caballero became Prime
Minister.
CNT (Confederacin
Nacional del Trabajo -
National
Confederation of
Labour): The
confederation of
anarcho-syndicalist
Virtually all Nationalist groups had
very strong Roman Catholic
convictions and supported the native
Spanish clergy.
Unin Militar Espaola
(Spanish Military Union) - a
conservative political
organisation of ofcers in the
armed forces, including
outspoken critics of the
Republic like Francisco
Franco. Formed in 1934, the
UME secretly courted fascist
Italy from its inception. After
the electoral victory of the
Popular Front, it began
plotting a coup with
monarchist and fascist groups
in Spain. In the run-up to the
Civil War, it was led by
Emilio Mola and Jos
Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War
Galician independence party
and the Radical Socialist
Republican Party (PRRS). It
drew its support from skilled
workers, small businessmen,
and civil servants. Azaa led
the Popular Front and became
president of Spain. The IR
formed the bulk of the rst
government after the Popular
Front victory with members of
the UR and the ERC.
ERC (Esquerra
Republicana de
Catalunya - Republican
Left of Catalonia): The
Catalan faction of
Azaa's Republicans, led
by Llus Companys.
PSOE (Partido Socialista
Obrero Espaol - Spanish
Socialist Workers' Party):
Formed in 1879, its alliance
with Accin Republicana in
municipal elections in 1931
saw a landslide victory that led
to the King's abdication and the
creation of the Second
Republic. The two parties won
the subsequent general election,
but the PSOE left the coalition
in 1933. At the time of the Civil
War, the PSOE was split
between a right wing under
Indalecio Prieto and Juan
Negrn, and a left wing under
Largo Caballero. Following the
Popular Front victory, it was
the second largest party in the
Cortes, after the CEDA. It
trade unions.
FAI (Federacin
Anarquista Ibrica -
Iberian Anarchist
Federation): The
federation of anarchist
groups, very active in
the Republican militias.
Mujeres Libres (Free
Women): The anarchist
feminist organisation.
FIJL (Federacin
Ibrica de Juventudes
Libertarias - Iberian
Federation of
Libertarian Youth)
Basque separatists.
PNV (Partido
Nacionalista Vasco -
Basque Nationalist
Party): A Catholic
Christian Democrat
party under Jos
Antonio Aguirre, which
campaigned for greater
autonomy or
independence for the
Basque region. Held
seats in the Cortes and
supported the Popular
Front government
before and during the
Civil War. Put its
religious disagreement
with the Popular Front
aside for a promised
Basque autonomy.
ANV (Accin
Nacionalista Vasca -
Basque Nationalist
Sanjurjo, and latterly Franco.
Alfonsist Monarchist -
supported the restoration of
Alfonso XIII. Many army
ofcers, aristocrats, and
landowners were Alfonsine,
but there was little popular
support.
Renovacin Espaola
(Spanish Restoration)
- the main Alfonsine
political party.
Accin Espaola
(Spanish Action) - an
integral nationalist
party led by Jos Calvo
Sotelo, formed in 1933
around a journal of the
same name edited by
political theorist and
journalist Ramiro de
Maeztu.
Bloque
Nacional
(National
Block) - the
militia
movement
founded by
Calvo Sotelo.
Carlist Monarchist -
supported Alfonso Carlos I de
Borbn y Austria-Este's claim
to the Spanish throne and saw
the Alfonsine line as having
been weakened by Liberalism.
After Alfonso Carlos died
without issue, the Carlists split
- some supporting Carlos'
appointed regent, Francisco-
supported the ministries of
Azaa and Quiroga, but did not
actively participate until the
Civil War began. It had
majority support amongst urban
manual workers.
UGT (Unin General
de Trabajadores -
General Union of
Workers): The socialist
trade union. The UGT
was formally linked to
the PSOE, and the bulk
of the union followed
Caballero.
Federacion de
Juventudes Socialistas
(Federation of Socialist
Youth)
PSUC (Partit Socialista
Unicat de Catalunya -
Unied Socialist Party of
Catalonia): An alliance of
various socialist parties in
Catalonia, formed in the
summer of 1936, controlled by
the PCE.
JSU (Juventudes Socialistas
Unicadas - Unied Socialist
Youth): Militant youth group
formed by the merger of the
Socialist and the Communist
youth groups. Its leader,
Santiago Carrillo, came from
the Socialist Youth, but had
secretly joined the Communist
Youth prior to merger, and the
group was soon dominated by
the PCE.
PCE (Partido Comunista de
Action): A leftist
Socialist party, which at
the same time
campaigned for
independence of the
Basque region.
STV (Solidaridad de
Trabajadores Vascos -
Basque Workers'
Solidarity): A trade
union in the Basque
region, with a Catholic
clerical tradition
combined with
moderate socialist
tendencies.
SRI (Socorro Rojo
Internacional - International
Red Aid): Communist
organization allied with the
Comintern that provided
considerable aid to Republican
civilians and soldiers.
International Brigades: pro-
Republican military units
made up of anti-fascist
Socialist, Communist and
anarchist volunteers from
different countries.
Xavier de Borbn-Parma,
others supporting Alfonso
XIII or the Falange. The
Carlists were clerical hard-
liners led by the aristocracy,
with a populist base amongst
the farmers and rural workers
of Navarre providing the
militia.
Comunin
Tradicionalista
(Traditionalist
Communion) - the
Carlist political party
Requets
(Volunteers) -
militia
movement.
Pelayos -
militant youth
movement,
named after
Pelayo of
Asturias.
Margaritas -
women's
movement,
named after
Margarita de
Borbn-Parma,
wife of Carlist
pretender
Charles VII
(1868-1909).
Falange (Phalanx):
FE (Falange Espaola
de las JONS) - created
by a merger in 1934 of
two fascist
organisations, Primo de
Espaa - Communist Party of
Spain): Led by Jos Daz in the
Civil War, it had been a minor
party during the early years of
the Republic, but came to
dominate the Popular Front
after Negrn became Prime
Minister.
POUM (Partido Obrero de
Unicacin Marxista -
Worker's Party of Marxist
Unication): An anti-Stalinist
revolutionary communist party
of former Trotskyists formed in
1935 by Andreu Nin.
JCI (Juventud
Comunista Ibrica -
Iberian Communist
Youth): the POUM's
youth movement.
PS (Partido Sindicalista -
Syndicalist Party): a moderate
splinter group of CNT.
Rivera's Falange
(Phalanx), founded in
1933, and Ramiro
Ledesma's Juntas de
Ofensiva Nacional-
Sindicalista
(Assemblies of
National-Syndicalist
Offensive), founded in
1931. It became a mass
movement when it was
joined by members of
Accin Popular and by
Accin Catlica, led by
Ramn Serrano Ser.
OJE
(Organizacin
Juvenil
Espaola) -
militant youth
movement.
Seccin
Femenina
(Feminine
Section) -
women's
movement in
labour of Social
Aid.
Falange Espaola
Tradicionalista y de
las JONS - created by a
merger in 1937 of the
FE and the Carlist
party, bringing the
remaining political and
militia components of
the Nationalist side
under Franco's ultimate
authority.
CEDA - coalition party
founded by Jos Mara Gil-
Robles y Quiones whose
ideology ranged from
Christian democracy to
conservative. Although they
supported Franco's rebellion,
the party was dissolved in
1937, after most members and
militants joined FE and Gil-
Robles went to exile.
See also
List of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil War
Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic
Guernica (painting)
The Falling Soldier
Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
List of war lms and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (19361939)
List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil War
List of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War
List of non-participants who died defending their freedom of conscience
Polish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
Jewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
European Civil War
Spain in World War II
SS Cantabria
Pacism in Spain
Spanish Republican Armed Forces
Art and culture in Francoist Spain
References
Notes
1. ^ The number of casualties is disputed; estimates generally suggest that between 500,000 and 1 million people were
killed. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death gures and modern research concludes that 500,000 deaths
is the correct gure. Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. xviii & 899901, inclusive.
2. ^ Also known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War among Carlists, and The Rebellion or
Uprising among Republicans.
3. ^ Known in Spanish as Confederacin Espaola de Derechas Autnomas (CEDA).
4. ^ Known in Spanish as the Falange Espaola de las JONS.
5. ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196198, 309: Conds was a close personal friend of Castillo. His squad had originally sought
to arrest Gil Robles as a reprisal for Castillo's murder, but Robles was not at home, so they went to the house of
Calvo Sotelo. Thomas concludes that Conds intended to arrest Calvo Sotelo, and that Cuenca acted on his own
initiative, though he acknowledges other sources that dispute this nding.
6. ^ Westwell (2004) gives a gure of 500 million Reichmarks.
7. ^ Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 clergy were killed, the proportion could well
be lower.
8. ^ See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America,
19151963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press, 2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: The
Story of War Resisters' International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corpsucles in Europe,
Chicago, Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spain: A Challenge to Pacism, London, The
Finsbury Press, 1937.
Citations
1. ^ Marksistlerin Mustafa Kemal'e bak&... (http://haber.sol.org.tr/devlet-ve-siyaset/marksistlerin-mustafa-kemale-
bakisi-haberi-35639) (in Turkish)
2. ^ Atatrk'n 'spanya i sava&nda General Franco'ya deste(i (http://www.turkcuturanci.com/turkcu/basbugumuz-
ataturk/ataturk%27un-ispanya-ic-savasinda-general-franco%27ya-destegi/?wap2) (in Turkish)
3. ^ Thomas. p. 628.
4. ^ Thomas. p. 619.
5. ^
a

b
"Spanish judge opens case into Franco's atrocities" (http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/16/europe/spain.php).
New York Times. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
6. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 41011. Beevor notes that around 150,000 had returned by 1939.
7. ^
a

b
Payne (1973). pp. 200203.
8. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 88.
9. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 8687.
10. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 260271.
11. ^ Julius Ruiz. El Terror Rojo (2011). pp. 200211.
12. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 1819.
13. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 13.
14. ^ Preston (2006). p. 21.
15. ^ Preston (2006). p. 22.
16. ^ Preston (2006). p. 24.
17. ^ Fraser (1979). pp. 3839.
18. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 2426.
19. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 15.
20. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 3233.
21. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 15.
22. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 16.
22. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 16.
23. ^ Beevor (2006) p. 20-22.
24. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 20.
25. ^ Beevor (2006) p. 23.
26. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 3839.
27. ^ Beevor(2006) p.26
28. ^ Preston (2006). p. 50.
29. ^ Preston (2006). p. 42.
30. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 22.
31. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 4548.
32. ^ Preston (2006). p. 53.
33. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 47.
34. ^ Preston (2006). p. 61.
35. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 6667.
36. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 6768.
37. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 6365.
38. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 62.
39. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 6970.
40. ^ Preston (2006). p. 70.
41. ^ Preston 92006). p. 83.
42. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 78.
43. ^
a

b

c
Preston (2006). p. 81.
44. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 8283.
45. ^ Payne (1973). p. 642.
46. ^ Preston (2006). p. 93.
47. ^
a

b

c

d
Preston (2006). p. 94.
48. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Preston (1983). pp. 410.
49. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 9495.
50. ^ Preston (2006). p. 95.
51. ^
a

b
Preston (2006). p. 96.
52. ^
a

b

c
Preston (2006). p. 98.
53. ^
a

b

c

d

e
Preston (2006). p. 99.
54. ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196198, 309.
55. ^ Thomas (1961). p. 126.
56. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 5556.
57. ^
a

b
Preston (2006). p. 102.
58. ^
a

b
Beevor (2006). p. 56.
59. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 5657.
60. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 5859.
61. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 59.
62. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 6061.
63. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 62.
64. ^ Chomsky (1969).
65. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 69.
65. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 69.
66. ^ Preston (2006). pp. 1023.
67. ^ Westwell (2004). p. 9.
68. ^
a

b
Howson (1998). p. 28.
69. ^ Westwell (2004). p. 10.
70. ^ Howson (1998). p. 20.
71. ^
a

b
Howson (1998). p. 21.
72. ^ Michael Alpert, La Guerra Civil espaola en el mar, Editorial Critica , ISBN 978-84-8432-975-6
73. ^ Howson (1998). pp. 2122.
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76. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 3033.
77. ^ Howson (1997). p. 2.
78. ^ Thomas (1987). pp. 8690.
79. ^ Orden, circular, creando un Comisariado general de Guerra con la misin que se indica [Order, circular, creating
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80. ^
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Howson (1998). pp.12.
81. ^ Werstein (1969) p. 44
82. ^ Payne (1973) p. 637.
83. ^ Coverdale (2002). p. 148.
84. ^ Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War, Harper 2006,p.79
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86. ^ Payne (2008). p. 13.
87. ^ Rooney, Nicola. "The role of the Catholic hierarchy in the rise to power of General Franco"
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88. ^ "Morocco tackles painful role in Spain's past (http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/01/15/us-morocco-spain-war-
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100. ^ Westwell (2004). p. 88.
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118. ^ Howson (1998). p. 125.
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197. ^ "The Roman salute characteristic of Italian fascism was rst adopted by the PNE and the JONS, later spreading to
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acceptance. The gesture of the raised st, so widespread among left-wing workers' groups, gave rise to more
regimented variations, such as the salute with the st on one's temple, characteristic of the German Rotfront, which
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210. ^
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213. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 94.
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216. ^ Preston (2007). p. 121.
217. ^ Jackson (1967). p. 377.
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219. ^ Santos et al. (1999). p. 229.
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228. ^
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229. ^ Seidman (2011). p. 205.
230. ^ Wieland (2002). p. 47.
231. ^ Westwell (2004). p. 31.
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233. ^
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235. ^ Antonio Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecucion religiosa en Espana 19361939 (Madrid: Biblioteca de
Autores Cristianos, 1961)
236. ^ Payne (1973). p. 649.
237. ^ Bowen (2006). p. 22.
238. ^ Ealham, Richards (2005). pp. 80, 168.
239. ^ Hubert Jedin; John Dolan (1981). History of the Church (http://books.google.com/books?
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240. ^
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c
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241. ^
a

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c
Beevor (2006). p. 85.
242. ^ Preston (2006).
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244. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 172173.
245. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 161.
246. ^
a

b

c
Beevor (2006). pp. 272273.
^
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b
Beevor (2006). p. 87.
247. ^
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248. ^
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249. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 40.
250. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1999). p. 151.
251. ^ Beevor (2006). p. 253.
252. ^ Arnaud Imatz, "La vraie mort de Garcia Lorca" 2009 40 NRH, 3134, pp. 3233.
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254. ^ Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Soa (http://www.museoreinasoa.es/en/collection/artwork/pueblo-espanol-
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conduce a una estrella (maqueta) (There Is a Way for the Spanish People That Leads to a Star [Maquette]).
255. ^ Museum of Modern Art (http://www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_id=2231).
256. ^ Pablo Picasso (http://www.pablopicasso.org/guernica.jsp).
257. ^
a

b
SUNY Oneota (http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/farberas/arth/arth200/guernica.html), Picassos Guernica.
258. ^
a

b
Stanley Meisler
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393-32987-9.
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24964-6.
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Werstein, Irving (1969). The Cruel Years: The Story of the Spanish Civil War. New York: Julian Messner.
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Further reading
Brou, Pierre (1988). The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain. Chicago: Haymarket. OCLC 1931859515
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1931859515).
Carr, Sir Raymond (2001). The Spanish Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspective. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
Deletant, Dennis (1999). Communist terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 19481965
(http://books.google.com/books?id=hRn56_qAwiYC). C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-386-8.
Doyle, Bob (2006). Brigadista: an Irishman's ght against fascism. Dublin: Currach Press. ISBN 1-85607-939-2.
OCLC 71752897 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71752897).
Francis, Hywel (2006). Miners against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War. Pontypool, Wales (NP4 7AG):
Warren and Pell.
Graham, Helen (2002). The Spanish republic at war, 19361939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-45932-X. OCLC 231983673 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/231983673).
Graham, Helen (1988), "The Spanish Socialist Party in Power and the Government of Juan Negrn, 19379"
(http://ehq.sagepub.com/content/18/2/175.citation), European History Quarterly 18 (2): 175206,
doi:10.1177/026569148801800203 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F026569148801800203).
Ibarruri, Dolores (1976). They Shall Not Pass: the Autobiography of La Pasionaria (translated from El Unico
Camino). New York: International Publishers. ISBN 0-7178-0468-2. OCLC 9369478
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9369478).
Jellinek, Frank (1938). The Civil War in Spain. London: Victor Gollanz (Left Book Club).
Kowalsky, Daniel (2004). La Union Sovietica y la Guerra Civil Espanola. Barcelona: Critica. ISBN 84-8432-490-7.
OCLC 255243139 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/255243139).
Low, Mary; Juan Bre (1979 reissue of 1937). Red Spanish Notebook. San Francisco: City Lights Books (originally
by Martin Secker & Warburg). ISBN 0-87286-132-5. OCLC 4832126 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4832126).
Paz, Abel (2011). The Story of the Iron Column: Militant Anarchism in the Spanish Civil War. Oakland, CA: AK
Press. ISBN 978-1-84935-064-8.
Monteath, Peter (1994). The Spanish Civil War in literature, lm, and art: an international Bibliography of
secondary literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29262-0.
Prez de Urbel, Justo (1993). Catholic Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939, trans. by Michael F. Ingrams.
Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press. ISBN 0-935952-96-9
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Relations of Members
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Condecoraciones
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Franco a Benito
Mussolini y a Adolf
Hitler
Puzzo, Dante Anthony (1962). Spain and the Great Powers, 19361941. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press
(originally Columbia University Press, N.Y.). ISBN 0-8369-6868-9. OCLC 308726
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/308726).
Southworth, Herbert Rutledge (1963). El mito de la cruzada de Franco [The Myth of Francos crusade] (in Spanish).
Paris: Ruedo Ibrico. ISBN 84-8346-574-4.
Wheeler, George; Jack Jones (foreword) (2003). Leach, David, ed. To Make the People Smile Again: a Memoir of the
Spanish Civil War. Newcastle upon Tyne: Zymurgy Publishing. ISBN 1-903506-07-7. OCLC 231998540
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/231998540).
Wilson, Ann (1986). Images of the Civil War. London: Allen & Unwin.
External links
Hilton, Ronald, Spain, 193136, From Monarchy to Civil War,
An Eyewitness Account
(http://historicaltexta36rchive.com/books.php?
op=viewbook&bookid=11), Historical text A36rchive.
Low, Mary; Bre, Juan, Red Spanish Book
(http://www.benjamin-peret.org/benjamin-
peret/bibliotheque/carnets-de-la-guerre-d_espagne.html),
Benjamin Peret. A testimony by two surrealists and trotskytes]
Lunn, Arnold (1937), Spanish Rehearsal.
Peers, Allison (1936), The Spanish Tragedy.
Weisbord, Albert; Weisbord, Vera, A collection of essays
(http://www.weisbord.org/) with about a dozen essays written
during and about the Spanish Civil War.
Magazines and journals published during the war
(http://magazinesandwar.com/) (online exhibit), The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Revistas y guerra [Magazines & war] (http://www.revistasyguerra.com/) (in Spanish), Urbana-
Champaign: The University of Illinois.
Roy, Pinaki (January 2013), "Escritores Apasionados del Combate: English and American Novelists
of the Spanish Civil War", Labyrinth 4 (1): 4453, ISSN 0976-0814
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0976-0814).
La Cucaracha, The Spanish Civil War Diary (http://www.lacucaracha.info/scw/diary/), a detailed
chronicle of the events of the war
Spanish Civil War and Revolution (http://libcom.org/library/spanish-civil-war-19361939) (text
archive), The libcom library.
"Southworth Spanish Civil War Collection"
(http://libraries.ucsd.edu/locations/mscl/collections/southworth-spanish-civil-war-collection.html),
Mandeville Special Collection Library (books and other literature), University of California, San
Diego.
"Trabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes of organised labour"
(http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/explorefurther/digital/scw), a digitised collection of
more than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives of the British Trades Union Congress held in
the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
Spanish Civil War History Project (http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?s39) at the University of South Florida
(http://lib.usf.edu)
Images and lms
Spain in Revolt, newsreel documentary (Video Stream) (Part 1 (http://blip.tv/le/413638/), 2
(http://blip.tv/le/413689/))
Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters
(http://www.vads.ahds.ac.uk/collections/IWMSCW.html) hosted online by Visual Arts Data Service
(VADS) (http://vads.ahds.ac.uk/index.php)
Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD's Southworth collection
(http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/visfront/vizindex.html)
Civil War Documentaries made by the CNT (http://www.tvhastings.org/documents/home.html)
Spanish Civil War and Revolution image gallery (http://www.libcom.org/gallery/v/history/we/spanish-
civil-war-images/) photographs and posters from the conict
Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War (http://www.zi.ku.dk/personal/drnash/model/spain/index.html)
Battle of Rio Segre Photographs (http://museum.icp.org/mexican_suitcase/gallery_capa.html) Capa,
Robert (1938) International Center of Photography.
Academics and governments
A History of the Spanish Civil War (http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/SpanCW.html), excerpted from a
U.S. government country study.
Dutch Involvement in the Spanish Civil War (http://www.columbia.edu/cu/history/pdf/chr_vol1.pdf).
Columbia Historical Review.
"The Spanish Civil War causes and legacy"
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030403.shtml) on BBC Radio 4's In Our
Time featuring Paul Preston, Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent
Other
Original war reports (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/The_Spanish_Civil_War/)
from The Times
The Anarcho-Statists of Spain (http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/spain.htm), a
different view of the anarchists in the Spanish Civil War, George Mason University
Spanish Civil War information (http://www.spartacus-educational.com/Spanish-Civil-War.htm) from
Spartacus Educational
American Jews in Spanish Civil War
(https://web.archive.org/web/20051208010127/www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/sugar12.
html) at the Wayback Machine (archived December 8, 2005), by Martin Sugarman
The Spanish Revolution, 193639 (http://recollectionbooks.com/anow/history/spain/) articles and
links, from Anarchy Now!
The Revolutionary Institutions: The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias
(http://www.negations.net/?p=88), by Juan Garca Oliver
Warships of the Spanish Civil War (http://www.kbismarck.com/mgl/spanishcivwar.htm)
No Pasarn! Speech Dolores Ibrruri's famous rousing address for the defense of the Second
Republic
New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War (http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/node/13669)
Full text in translation of the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937
(http://lxoa.wordpress.com/2011/06/11/joint-letter-of-the-spanish-bishops-to-the-bishops-of-the-
whole-world-concerning-the-war-in-spain-july-1st-1937/), a pastoral letter of the Spanish bishops
which justied Franco's uprising
Archives
Robert E. Burke Collection. (http://digital.lib.washington.edu/ndingaids/view?
docId=BurkeRobertE2874_4128.xml) 18921994. 60.43 cubic feet (68 boxes plus two oversize
folders and one oversize vertical le). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of
Washington Libraries Special Collections. (http://lib.washington.edu/specialcollections/laws) Contains
materials collected by Burke on the Spanish Civil War.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_Civil_War&oldid=626495943"
Categories: Spanish Civil War Carlism Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe
1930s conicts 1930s in Spain Francoist Spain Wars involving Spain
Wars involving the states and peoples of Europe Revolution-based civil wars
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