PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Learning is a process that depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in

behavior potential. Behavior potential designates the possible behavior of an individual,
not actual behavior. The main assumption behind all learning psychology is that the
effects of the environment, conditioning, reinforcement, etc. provide psychologists with
the best information from which to understand human behavior.
As opposed to short term changes in behavior potential (caused e.g. by fatigue learning
implies long term changes. As opposed to long term changes caused by aging and
development, learning implies changes related directly to experience.
Learning theories try to better understand how the learning process wor!s. "a#or
research traditions are behaviorism, cognitivism and self-regulated learning.
$eurosciences have provided important insights into learning, too, even when using
much simpler organisms than humans (aplysia. %istance learning, e-Learning, online
learning, blended learning and media psychology are dimensions of the psychology that
are emerging and where research and literature are important in the &'st century.
Learning is a change in behavior based on previous experience I! "a# invo$ve
processing di%%eren! !#pes o% in%or"a!ion Learning %unc!ions can be per%or"ed b#
di%%eren! brain learning processes& 'hich depend on !he "en!a$ capaci!ies (o% 'hich
are d#na"ic) o% $earning sub*ec!+agen!& !he !#pe o% ,no'$edge 'hich has !o be
ac-ui!!ed& as 'e$$ as on socio.cogni!ive and environ"en!a$ circu"s!ances
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The ability to learn is possessed by certain animals and some machines. (rogress over
time tends to follow learning curves.
)uman learning may occur as part of education or personal development. *t may be goal-
oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of
neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy.
Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many
animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in
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relatively intelligent animals
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. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious
awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which
habituation has been observed as early as -& wee!s into gestation, indicating that the
central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to
occur very early on in development.
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(lay has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. /hildren play,
experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact. 0ygots!y agrees that
play is pivotal for children1s development, since they ma!e meaning of their environment
through play.
2#pes o% $earning
Si"p$e non.associa!ive $earning
Habi!ua!ion
*n psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a
progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition stimulus. An
animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal
reduces subse2uent responses. 3ne example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a
stuffed owl (or similar predator is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as
though it were a real predator. 4oon the birds react less, showing habituation. *f another
stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced, the birds react to
it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus
that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place. )abituation has
been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large proto5oan Stentor
Coeruleus.
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Sensi!i3a!ion
4ensiti5ation is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive
amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al.,
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'776. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of
peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this
stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the
result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning
the person that the stimulation is harmful. 4ensiti5ation is thought to underlie both
adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Associa!ive $earning
Associative learning is the process by which an element is learned through association
with a separate, pre-occurring element. *t is also referred to as classical conditioning.
Operan! condi!ioning
3perant conditioning is the use of conse2uences to modify the occurrence and form of
behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from (avlovian conditioning in that
operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behavior. %iscrimination
learning is a ma#or form of operant conditioning. 3ne form of it is called 8rrorless
learning.
C$assica$ condi!ioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an
unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evo!es a reflexive response with another
previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evo!e the response. 9ollowing
conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other,
unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the :conditioned stimulus:. The response to the
conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example is (avlov and
his dogs. "eat powder naturally will ma!e a dog salivate when it is put into a dog1s
mouth; salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. "eat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (<4 and the salivation is the unconditioned response (<=. Then
(avlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time (avlov rang the bell,
the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their
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mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of the bell, and then food the
dogs learned that the bell was a signal that the food was about to come and began to
salivate #ust when the bell was rang. 3nce this occurs the bell becomes the conditioned
stimulus (/4 and the salivation to the bell is the conditioned response (/=.
I"prin!ing
*mprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any !ind of phase-
sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage that is
rapid and apparently independent of the conse2uences of behavior. *t was first used to
describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some
stimulus, which is therefore said to be :imprinted: onto the sub#ect.
Observa!iona$ $earning
The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one1s personal repetition
of an observed behaviour, such as a dance. )umans can copy three types of information
simultaneously> the demonstrator1s goals, actions and environmental outcomes (results,
see 8mulation (observational learning. Through copying these types of information,
(most infants will tune into their surrounding culture.
P$a#
(lay generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves
performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of
vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. /ats are !nown
to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching
prey. Besides inanimate ob#ects, animals may play with other members of their own
species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. (lay involves
a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the ris! of
in#ury and possibly infection. *t also consumes energy, so there must be significant
benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. (lay is generally seen in younger
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animals, suggesting a lin! with learning. )owever, it may also have other benefits not
associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.
Encu$!ura!ion
8nculturation is the process by which a person learns the re2uirements of their native
culture by which he or she is surrounded, and ac2uires values and behaviours that are
appropriate or necessary in that culture.
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The influences which as part of this process
limit, direct or shape the individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other
adults, and peers.
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*f successful, enculturation results in competence in the language,
values and rituals of the culture.
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(compare acculturation, where a person is within a
culture different to their normal culture, and learns the re2uirements of this different
culture.
4u$!i"edia $earning
The learning where learner uses multimedia learning environments ("ayer &@@'. This
type of learning relies on dual-coding theory ((aivio '7A'.
E.$earning and aug"en!ed $earning
8lectronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to *nternet-based
networ!ed computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning
is mobile learning (m-Learning, it uses different mobile telecommunication e2uipments,
such as cellular phones.
Bhen a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it1s called augmented learning.
By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be
dynamically tailored to the learner1s natural environment. Augmented digital content may
include text, images, video, audio (music and voice. By personali5ing instruction,
augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.
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Ro!e $earning
=ote learning is a techni2ue which avoids understanding the inner complexities and
inferences of the sub#ect that is being learned and instead focuses on memori5ing the
material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The
ma#or practice involved in rote learning techni2ues is learning by repetition, based on the
idea that one will be able to 2uic!ly recall the meaning of the material the more it is
repeated. =ote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion.
Although it has been critici5ed by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in
many situations.
In%or"a$ $earning
*nformal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example,
one would learn to loo! ahead while wal!ing because of the danger inherent in not
paying attention to where one is going. *t is learning from life, during a meal at table
with parents, (lay, exploring.
For"a$ $earning
9ormal learning is learning that ta!es place within a teacher-student relationship, such as
in a school system.
Non%or"a$ $earning
$onformal learning is organi5ed learning outside the formal learning system. 9or
example> learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging
viewpoints, in clubs or in (international youth organi5ations, wor!shops.
Non.%or"a$ $earning and co"bined approaches
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal
learning methods. The <$ and 8< recogni5e these different forms of learning (cf. lin!s
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below. *n some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems
if they get wor! done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist
international youth wor!shops and training courses, on the condition they prepare,
contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to ac2uire new
s!ills, a place to get experience in organi5ing, teaching, etc.
*n order to learn a s!ill, such as solving a =ubi!1s cube 2uic!ly, several factors come into
play at once>
%irections help one learn the patterns of solving a =ubi!1s cube
(racticing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with :muscle
memory: and therefore speed
Thin!ing critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed
up future attempts.
The =ubi!1s cube1s six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
3ccasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of s!ill.
2angen!ia$ $earning
Tangential learning is the process by which some portion of people will self-educate if a
topic is exposed to them in something that they already en#oy such as playing a musical
instrument.
5ia$ogic $earning
%ialogic learning is the type of learning based on dialogue. *ts conception is based on
contributions of diverse disciplines.
Cri!icis" o% !he concep! o% $earning in !radi!iona$
educa!ion
Learning is a process you do, not a process that is done to you. Traditional education
focuses on teaching, not learning. *t incorrectly assumes that for every ounce of teaching
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there is an ounce of learning by those who are taught. )owever, most of what we learn
before, during, and after attending schools is learned without it being taught to us. A child
learns such fundamental things as how to wal!, tal!, eat, dress, and so on without being
taught these things. Adults learn most of what they use at wor! or at leisure while at wor!
or leisure. "ost of what is taught in classroom settings is forgotten, and much or what is
remembered is irrelevant.
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5o"ains o% $earning
The three domains
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of learning are>
/ognitive - To recall, calculate, discuss, analy5e, problem solve, etc.
(sychomotor - To dance, swim, s!i, dive, drive a car, ride a bi!e, etc.
Affective - To li!e something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship,
These domains are not mutually exclusive. 9or example, in learning to play chess, the
person will have to learn the rules of the game (cognitive domain; but he also has to
learn how to set up the chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to properly hold and
move a chess piece (psychomotor. 9urthermore, later in the game the person may even
learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history
(affective domain.
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