TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. Topic PageNo,

1. Introduction 4
2. Ripples in A.C. 5
3. Voltage Regulation 5
4. Half Wave Rectifier 5-6
5. Full Wave Rectifier 6-9
6. Filter circuits 10-13
7. Summary 14
8. Bibliography 15

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 INTRODUCTION

This topic deals with different types of rectifiers and their working i.e. their construction,
principle of working and circuit diagram. It also deals with ripples and voltage regulation.In
this topic, information is also provided about different type of filter circuits and their impact
on the output of the rectifiers. This is my attempt to provide the maximum information in
least no of pages. I hope that after reading this article anyone will be able to explain the basic
concepts of different type of rectifiers and their working.

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RIPPLES IN AC-

The most common meaning of ripple in electrical science is the small unwanted residual
periodic variation of the direct current (dc) output of a power supply which has been derived
from an alternating current (ac) source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the
alternating waveform within the power supply.

As well as this time-varying phenomenon, there is a frequency domain ripple that arises in
some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In this case the periodic variation
is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against increasing frequency. The variation
may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning also, ripple is usually to be considered
an unwanted effect, its existence being a compromise between the amount of ripple and other
design parameters.

VOLTAGE REGULATION-

Ideally, the output of most power supplies should be a constant voltage. Unfortunately, this is
difficult to achieve. There are two factors that can cause the output voltage to change. First,
the ac line voltage is not constant. The so-called 115 volts ac can vary from about 105 volts
ac to 125 volts ac. This means that the peak ac voltage to which the rectifier responds can
vary from about 148 volts to 177 volts. The ac line voltage alone can be responsible for
nearly a 20 percent change in the dc output voltage. The second factor that can change the dc
output voltage is a change in the load resistance. In complex electronic equipment, the load
can change as circuits are switched in and out. In a television receiver, the load on a
particular power supply may depend on the brightness of the screen, the control settings, or
even the channel selected.

These variations in load resistance tend to change the applied dc voltage because the power
supply has a fixed internal resistance. If the load resistance decreases, the internal resistance
of the power supply drops more voltage. This causes a decrease in the voltage across the load.

Many circuits are designed to operate with a particular supply voltage. When the supply
voltage changes, the operation of the circuit may be adversely affected. Consequently, some
types of equipment must have power supplies that produce the same output voltage regardless
of changes in the load resistance or changes in the ac line voltage. This constant output
voltage may be achieved by adding a circuit called the VOLTAGE REGULATOR at the
output of the filter. There are many different types of regulators in use today and to discuss
all of them would be beyond the scope of this chapter.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER-

One of the non-linear behaviors that is sometimes required in analog circuits is

rectification. Rectification is a process of separating the positive and negative portions
of a waveform from each other and selecting from them what part of the signal to retain.
In the case of half-wave rectification, we can choose to keep one polarity while
discarding the other.

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 The circuit above accepts an incoming waveform and as usual with op amps,
inverts it. However, only the positive-going portions of the output waveform,
which correspond to the negative-going portions of the input signal, actually reach
the output. The direct feedback diode shunts any negative-going output back to the
"-" input directly, preventing it from being reproduced. The slight voltage drop
across the diode itself is blocked from the output by the second diode.

The second diode allows positive-going output voltage to reach the output.
Furthermore, since the output voltage is taken from beyond the output diode itself,
the op amp will necessarily compensate for any non-linear characteristics of the
diode itself. As a result, the output voltage is a true and accurate (but inverted)
reproduction of the negative portions of the input signal. Thus, this circuit operates
as a precision half-wave rectifier. If Rf is equal to Rin as is the usual case, the output
voltage will have the same amplitude as the input voltage.

If you want to keep the positive-going portion of the input signal instead of the
negative-going portion, simply reverse the two diodes. The result will be a
negative-going copy of the positive part of the input signal.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER-

A full-wave rectifier is a device that has two or more diodes arranged so that load current
flows in the same direction during each half cycle of the ac supply.

A diagram of a simple full-wave rectifier is shown in figure 4-5.

The transformer supplies the source voltage for two diode rectifiers, D1 and D2. This power
transformer has a center-tapped, high-voltage secondary winding that is divided into two
equal parts (W1 and W2). W1 provides the source voltage for D1, and W2 provides the
source voltage for D2. The connections to the diodes are arranged so that the diodes conduct
on alternate half cycles.

During one alternation of the secondary voltage, the polarities are as shown in view A. The
source for D2 is the voltage induced into the lower half of the secondary winding of the
transformer (W2). At the specific instant of time shown in the figure, the anode voltage on
D2 is negative, and D2 cannot conduct. Throughout the period of time during which the
anode of D2 is negative, the anode of D1 is positive. Since the anode of D1 is positive, it

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conducts, causing current to flow through the load resistor in the direction shown by the
arrow.

Figure 4-5A. - Full-wave rectifier. POSITIVE ALTERNATION

View B shows the next half cycle of secondary voltage. Now the polarities across W1 and
W2 are reversed. During this alternation, the anode of D1 is driven negative and D1 cannot
conduct. For the period of time that the anode of D1 is negative, the anode of D2 is positive,
permitting D2 to conduct. Notice that the anode current of D2 passes through the load resistor
in the same direction as the current of D1 did. In this circuit arrangement, a pulse of load
current flows during each alternation of the input cycle. Since both alternations of the input
voltage cycle are used, the circuit is called a Full Wave Rectifier.

Figure 4-5B. - Full-wave rectifier. NEGATIVE ALTERNATION

Now that you have a basic understanding of how a full-wave rectifier works, let's cover in
detail a practical full-wave rectifier and its waveforms.

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A Practical Full-Wave Rectifier

A practical full-wave rectifier circuit is shown in view A of figure 4-6. It uses two diodes (D1
and D2) and a center-tapped transformer (T1). When the center tap is grounded, the voltages
at the opposite ends of the secondary windings are 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
Thus, when the voltage at point A is positive with respect to ground, the voltage at point B is
negative with respect to ground. Let's examine the operation of the circuit during one
complete cycle.

Figure 4-6. - Practical full-wave rectifier.

During the first half cycle (indicated by the solid arrows), the anode of D1 is positive with
respect to ground and the anode of D2 is negative. As shown, current flows from ground
(centre tap), up through the load resistor (RL), through diode D1 to point A. In the
transformer, current flows from point A, through the upper winding, and back to ground
(centre tap). When D1 conducts, it acts like a closed switch so that the positive half cycle is
felt across the load (RL).

During the second half cycle (indicated by the dotted lines), the polarity of the applied
voltage has reversed. Now the anode of D2 is positive with respect to ground and the anode
of D1 is negative. Now only D2 can conduct. Current now flows, as shown, from ground
(centre tap), up through the load resistor (RL), through diode D2 to point B of T1. In the
transformer, current flows from point B up through the lower windings and back to ground
(centre tap). Notice that the current flows across the load resistor (RL) in the same direction
for both halves of the input cycle.

View B represents the output waveform from the full-wave rectifier. The waveform consists
of two pulses of current (or voltage) for each cycle of input voltage. The ripple frequency at
the output of the full-wave rectifier is therefore twice the line frequency.

The higher frequency at the output of a full-wave rectifier offers a distinct advantage:
Because of the higher ripple frequency, the output is closely approximate to pure dc. The
higher frequency also makes filtering much easier than it is for the output of the half-wave
rectifier.

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In terms of peak value, the average value of current and voltage at the output of the full-wave
rectifier is twice as great as that at the output of the half-wave rectifier. The relationship
between the peak value and the average value is illustrated in figure 4-7. Since the output
waveform is essentially a sine wave with both alternations at the same polarity, the average
current or voltage is 63.7 percent (or 0.637) of the peak current or voltage.

Figure 4-7. - Peak and average values for a full-wave rectifier.

As an equation:

Where:

Emax = the peak value of the load voltage pulse

Eavg = 0.637 X Emax (the average load voltage)

Imax = the peak value of the load current pulse

Iavg = 0.637 X Imax (the average load current)

Example: The total voltage across the high-voltage secondary of a transformer used to supply
a full-wave rectifier is 300 volts. Find the average load voltage (ignore the drop across the
diode).

Solution: Since the total secondary voltage (ES) is 300 volts, each diode is supplied one-half
of this value, or 150 volts. Because the secondary voltage is an rms value, the peak load
voltage is:

Emax = 1.414 X ES

Emax = 1.414 X 150

Emax = 212 volts

The average load voltage is:

Eavg = 0.637 X Emax

Eavg = 0.637 X 212

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Eavg = 135 volts

FILTER CIRCUITS- (theory of filter circuits)

Filters are used in almost every type of electronic device, but are possibly the least
understood part of the device. We all have a basic understanding of what a filter is, but now
we will study them in detail. Filter circuits are used to reduce the ripple of a rectifier output to
a minimum by keeping away DC component. The FWR is used to convert AC to DC but
even after rectification the output contains some of the AC component so the output is not
steady and has a pulsating character. The process of reducing the ripple of a rectifier output is
called filteration. A device which allows to pass DC component to the load and block the AC
component of the rectifier output is called the filter circuit. A filter circuit is installed between
the rectifier output and the load and consists of a suitable combination of inductors and
capacitors.

To begin with, lets go back to our old friend - water. We all understand what a water filter is.
It lets the stuff we want ( the water ) pass through it, but blocks the other flotsom and jetsom
that we don't want to drink, swim in, etc. Air filters and oil filters work in a similar manner.
They pass the good stuff, and block out the bad stuff. Well - filters in electronics work in the
same basic manner.

The basic filtering devices in case electric current are capacitor and coil.

The Capacitor:

The capacitor, in simplistic terms, passes AC and blocks DC. In short - this is the definition
of a filter but In reality - a capacitor is not quite so simplistic. Capacitors have a "TIME
CONSTANT". If we change the capacitance, we change the time constant. Well, there is a
specific relationship between time and frequency, where Frequency is the reciprocal of time (
T=1/ and F=1/T ). So if we change the value of the capacitor, we also change the frequency
of the circuit the capacitor is in!

To put that in other words - "Capacitors pass AC" is sort of a blanket statement, but not
completely true. A given capacitor will pass all frequencies above a certain frequency, and
block all signals below that frequency. So the capacitance value of a given circuit is chosen to
allow a certain range of frequencies to pass through. Let's give a few examples: The time

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constant formula for capacitors is "T=RC" or Time = Resistance x Capacitance. If we take a
circuit with a resistance of 10 Ohms, and a capacitance of 10uF, then the Time would be
0.0001 seconds. The Frequency would be 1/.0001, or 10,000 Cycles Per Second ( also called
Hertz ). So a 10 Ohm resistor and a 10uF capacitor would yield a circuit passing 10 KHz.

Now let us considera 25 pF capacitor and a100 ohm resistor. A 25 pF capacitor would be
25x10-12 power or 0.000000000025 Farads. Now we multiply that times 100 Ohms, and
come up with a time constant of 0.0000000025 seconds. We now take the reciprocal ( 1 /
0.0000000025 ) comes to 400000000 Cycles per Second (CPS/Hertz) or 400 MegaHertz
(MHz).

Now comes the tricky

part - where does it pass
those signals to? That
depends entirely on the
capacitor's placement in
the circuit. If the
capacitor is placed in
SERIES with the signal
flow - it will allow the
400 MHz signal to PASS
to the next stage.

If, however it is placed in Parallel to the signal flow - it will pass the 400 MHz signal to
ground - effectively BLOCKING the signal from passing to the next stage.

So the placement of the

capacitor is KEY in
whether the signal is
passed, or blocked. Note
that when the higher
frequencies are passed to
ground ( essentially
blocked from the normal
signal path ), the lower
frequencies are allowed to
go free, and hence are
passed to the rest of the
circuit.

If the capacitor is "High" on the schematic ( in series with the signal flow ), it is a High Pass

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Filter (passes high frequencies). If however, the capacitor is "Low" on the schematic ( in
parallel with the signal flow ), it is a Low Pass Filter (passes low frequencies). High Cap =
High Pass, Low Cap, Low Pass.

Note also that the "cut off" frequency can be changed in either of two ways - by changing the
value of the capacitor, or by changing the value of the resistor.

All that being said and done - let's examine a different scenereo. We said earlier that filters
can be made using capacitors OR COILS. What happens if we replace the capacitor with the
coil? Well, the first thing we encounter is a slightly different formula. Remember that coils
operate in almost a completely opposite manner than does a capacitor. It's like they are yin
and yang or something. The formula for the capacitor's time constant is T=RC. The formula
for the Coil's time constant is "T=R/L", and without going into all the math ( we hate math
don't we? ), we can simply assume ( and correctly so ) that the coil reacts almost opposite to
the way the capacitor does. What exactly do I mean by that?

When we put a coil in SERIES with the signal flow ( recall signal flow goes from left to right
), it passes low frequencies and blocks higher frequencies. When we put a coil in Parallel
with the signal flow, it passes those same low frequencies to ground, and blocks the higher
frequencies from ground.

∏ TYPE FILTER CIRCUIT-

If less ripple is desired under heavy-load conditions, a larger capacitor may be used, or a
more complex filter circuit may be built using two capacitors and an inductor. This is known
as ∏ type filter circuit:

If you choose to build such a filter circuit, be sure to use an iron-core inductor for maximum
inductance, and one with thick enough wire to safely handle the full rated current of power
supply. Inductors used for the purpose of filtering are sometimes referred to as chokes,
because they "choke" AC ripple voltage from getting to the load. If a suitable choke cannot
be obtained, the secondary winding of a step-down power transformer like the type used to
step 120 volts AC down to 12 or 6 volts AC in the low-voltage power supply may be used.

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L TYPE FILTER CIRCUIT-

The difference between L type and ∏ type filter circuit is that L type filter circuit contains
only one capacitor and one inductor but ∏ type filter circuit contains two capacitors and one
inductor.

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 SUMMARY
Thus we conclude that the rectifiers play an important role in our life. They enable us to use
the devices, which run on D.C., effectively and conveniently. The efficiency of a full wave
rectifier is high as compared to half wave rectifier. Also different types of filter circuits are
employed in order to get constant output voltage.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books referred-

1.Basic Electrical engineering

2.Electrical devices and circuit theory
3. VPM Intelligent Physics

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