Hydrodynamic

Hydrodynamic
Introduction
1
Pictures fromand based on the books :
Ship Dynamics for Mariners (IC Clark, The Nautical Institute)
Ship resistance & flow (SNAME 2010)
Viscous Fluid Flow (Franck White)
Fluid characteristic
Definition of a fluid : A continuous, amorphous substance whose
molecules move freely past one another and that has the
tendency to assume the shape of its container; a liquid or gas.
Properties :
Isotropy : same characteristics whatever the considered
direction direction
Mobility : it will take the shape of a tank
Viscosity : is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is
being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress
Compressibility : the density depends on the temperature and
the pressure (for water, we consider its independent of the
pressure
2
Forces on a fluid
Gravity : volume force
Pressure : force per surface
Friction : interaction between particles and surface
Inertia : proportional to acceleration
Capillarity Capillarity
Surface tension
Chemical forces
Magneto hydrodynamic force
3
In general,
smaller than
the other 4.
Pressure
Definition
A pressure is :
- a force per unit area
- given in Pascal (Pa N/m)
- scalar value (scalar field) meaning independant of direction
n
dS
P
F
p
= P.dS.n
Unit Pa is not scaled for pressures induced by water,
in practice kilopascal (1 kPa = 10
3
Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 10
6
Pa) are used
P
PdS
1
PdS
2
PdS
3
PdS
4
Pressure
Different units
1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm= 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm
2
= 9.807 N/cm
2
= 9.807 10
4
N/m
2
1 kgf/cm
2
= 9.807 N/cm
2
= 9.807 10
4
N/m
2
= 9.807 10
4
Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
1 atm= 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm
2
= 14.223 psi
Pressure
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate
gage pressure, P
gage
= P
abs
- P
atm
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressure, P
vac
=P
atm
- P
abs
Pressure
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the
container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
given fluid. given fluid.
Pressure
Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure on diver at 100 ft?
100 ft
1
Danger of emergency ascent?
100 ft
2
If you hold your breath on ascent,
your lung volume would increase by a
factor of 4, which would result in
embolism and/or death.
Statical pressure on a boat
The pressure forces are perpendicular to the plate.
The statical pressure is quite easy to calculate.
9
Dynamic pressure
The static pressure is a kind of
potential energy per unit volume.
If we make a small hole, because of
this pressure, there will be a jet.
Potential energy will be changed
into kinetic energy into kinetic energy
It give the dynamic pressure : g h =
V
10
Bernoulli
Daniel Bernoulli (Groningen, 8
February 1700 Basel, 8 March
1782) was a Dutch-Swiss
mathematician and was one of the
many prominent mathematicians
in the Bernoulli family. He is in the Bernoulli family. He is
particularly remembered for his
applications of mathematics to
mechanics, especially fluid
mechanics, and for his pioneering
work in probability and statistics.
(from wikipedia)
11
Bernoulli
Bernoullis theoremshows the conservation of energy.
12
It can be written :
g h + V + p = constant
Bernoulli
Lets consider this pipe.
Liquid incompressible,
so same volumetric flow
rate : A
1
V
1
=A
2
V
2
13
g h
1
+ V
1
+ p
1
= g h
2
+ V
2
+ p
2
Because same
pressure
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
=
A A
h g
V
Bernoulli : the pitot tube
The pitot tube measure
the pressure (static
and dynamic) with
one opening and the
static pressure with
the other one. the other one.
14
) ( 2
s t
p p
V

=
Bernoulli equation
Validity
The Bernoulli equation is an
approximate relation
between pressure, velocity,
and elevation which is valid in
regions of steady and regions of steady and
incompressible flow where
net frictional forces are
negligible
Equation is useful in flow
regions outside of boundary
layers and wakes, where the
fluid motion is governed by
the combined effects of
pressure and gravity forces
Bernoulli around a ship
Around the hull, the
flow is modified as in
the previous tube.
There are 3 zones (high,
low and high
pressure), wave pressure), wave
Two stagnation point :
pressure =1/2 V
16
Too simple.
No friction considered
Surface tension
Due to molecular forces
Try to reduce the surface for the
volume (thats why the drops are
spherical).
In still water, force to open the sea In still water, force to open the sea
= force to close no effect.
In rough water, the spray : it costs
energy
17
Viscosity
Due to intermolecular attractive forces
When we move the upper plate, there is a resistance force.
Viscosity is define as the ratio
So the frictional force : F = A V / S
S V
A F
so
rate Strain
stress Shear
/
/
=
18
Viscosity
The classical formulation is (for 2D) :
Behaviour of the fluids :
Fortunately, water is a
y
u
=
newtonian fluid
Unit of Ns/m or kg/(ms)
19
Laminar flow
All the particle trajectories
are parallel.
The energy is transfered by
the viscosity. the viscosity.
Resistance proportionnal to
the speed of the flow.
20
Turbulent flow
If the speed increases or if the surface length becomes too big, it
will be instable.
Turbulent
Particles move in all
21
Particles move in all
direction and the
Kinetic energy is directly
transfered.
Resistance proportionnal to the
square of the flow speed.
Viscosity
Turbulent flow and boundary layer
Laminar flow always turns turbulent
The boundary layer is the region where viscosity must be considered
Region where energy is dissipated : resistance called form drag
Out of the boundary layer Bernoullis law can be applied
Turbulent flow
At the beginning,
laminar.
After, turbulent.
It occur in the boundary
layer (zone in which
viscosity is viscosity is
considered).
23
At the end of the plank, the wake.
Bernoullis law doesnt apply as energy is being dissipated in
turbulence. The streamline doesnt fully converge increase
of resistance : formdrag.
Reynolds
Osborne Reynolds (23 August
1842 21 February 1912) was
a prominent innovator in the
understanding of fluid
dynamics. Separately, his
studies of heat transfer studies of heat transfer
between solids and fluids
brought improvements in
boiler and condenser design.
24
Reynolds number
O. Reynolds worked on the
transition of laminar to
turbulent flow in pipe.
He concluded that the transition

VD VD
= = Re
He concluded that the transition
is function of the ratio inertia
force / viscosity force.
25

is the dynamic viscosity
is the kinematic viscosity
Reynolds number for a ship
The length to consider is no more the diameter. We consider the
hull length.
The critical Re (for
transition) is from
0.4x10
6
to 10
6
(even
10
7
), function of the
26
10
7
), function of the
hull and the
roughness.
For sea water, =1.87x10
-3
at 0C and 0.97x10
-3
Ns/m at 25C.
So, with =1.4x10
-3
and =1025 kg/m, Re=112x10
7
Transition point is around 0.2 % of the length.
Foil
A flow on a profile produces a
lift and a drag forces.
Great to make the aircraft flying but also for the ships :
27
Great to make the aircraft flying but also for the ships :
Foil
The force is created by the asymmetrical flow.
Its the combination of a symmetrical flow (no lift)
And the circulation
Difference of pressure proportionnal to V
28
Foil
The drag costs energy and the lift is what we want.
If the profile is symmetrical and no angle of attack no lift
If the profile is asymmetrical or angle of attack lift
29
Foil
Along the profile, the separation occurs at the end of the
profile.
So, there is a wake.
If the angle of attack is to big, the seperation point will be
more in the beginning of the profile stall
30
Foil
What does the lift depend on?
31
So :
- The angle of the rudder
should be limited.
- The rudder area of a fast
boat will be smaller.
- The force will increase
linearily with the area.
Cavitation
2 problems : the lifting force can not increase (the difference
of pressure is limited).
The bubbles appear but collapse when the pressure
decreasedamage
It can be a problemfor propellers
32
Cavitation
If the difference of pressure is to big, the water will boil
(changes state fromliquid to water vapour)
The vapour pressure should counteract the surface tension.
33
Resistance : the separate components
Hull still water resistance
Frictional or Residuary Frictional or
skin resistance
Formdrag
Residuary
resistance
Wave
making
Eddy
making
Appendages
Air
resistance
34
Resistance : skin friction
Skin friction and residuary resistance are not linked.
Skin friction is function only of the speed, the viscosity, the
wetted area and the length of the hull.
So, it depends on Re and the wetted area
Tests were done with plates in towing tanks (so no residuary Tests were done with plates in towing tanks (so no residuary
resistance) and curve fitting has been doen.
35
Resistance : skin friction
We often work with coefficient of resistance.
Its a way to have adimensional value.
S V
R
C
f
f
2
1
=
So, following the ITTC conference of 57 :
36
S V
2
2
1
( )
2
10
2 Re log
075 . 0
=
f
C
Eddy making resistance
If the change of flow direction is too severe (>20), it will fail
to follow the contour
Separation and creation of eddy making resistance
Increase of resistance and, here, problemfor steering
37
Separation occurs later when turbulent boundary layer (water
fills more easily the available space)
For eddy making resistance, it is better to have turbulent flow
It can also appear in the fore part, if the waterline is too convex. It can also appear in the fore part, if the waterline is too convex.
38
When a ship is relatively slow moving for its length : 2 main components
of resistance :
- Friction
- Eddy making resistance if bad shape
Spherical to reduce the wetted area
Aft part very narrow to redure eddy making resistance
Large bow because slow speed, so no wave
Cods head and mackerel tail (1585)
To increase the deadweight, adding
at the midship section
39
Lord Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin,
(26 June 1824 17 December 1907)
was a mathematical physicist and
engineer.
At the University of Glasgow he did
important work in the mathematical important work in the mathematical
analysis of electricity and
formulation of the first and second
Laws of Thermodynamics, and did
much to unify the emerging
discipline of physics in its modern
form. Lord Kelvin is widely known
for realising that there was a lower
limit to temperature, absolute zero.
40
Kelvin wave pattern
Pattern of waves following a
ship
41
Kelvin wave pattern of a moving
disturbance
Group velocity of a wave is
the velocity with which the
overall shape of the wave's
amplitudes
The phase velocity of a The phase velocity of a
wave is the rate at which
the phase of the wave
propagates in space
Here, group velocity=0.5
phase velocity
42
disturbance
Speed of the wave phase Cw =V sin Q
Speed of the wave group Cg =0.5 V sin Q
43
disturbance : two kinds of waves
Transverse waves: same phase velocity, perpendicular to the
motion
Divergent waves : slower phase speeds, angle which
decreases for waves of lower phase speed. (includes a whole
spectrumof waves) spectrumof waves)
44
Kelvin waves : submarine
During the 2
nd
world war, the waves created by the periscope
made themvisible
45
Kelvin waves for a ship
On a ship, creation of such wave system on points where we
have change of pressure gradient. On a ship : 2 points
High pressure centre at about 5% aft of the bow where the
streamlines start to converge causing pressure to reduce
downstream, so the waves originates as crests
Low pressure at ~5% forward the stern, divergence of
streamline, pressure increases troughs streamline, pressure increases troughs
46
Interference
Because wavelengths depend on the speed and 2 systems of waves
are created Interference between the waves
Speed of wave:
2
g
V =
Half l:
Number of half l:
Because 180 difference of phase: odd N : constructive interference
even N : destructive
47
g
V
2
5 . 0

=
2
9 . 0
5 . 0
9 . 0
V
L g L
N
PP PP

= =
Trend in wave making
48
Wave resistance
Fr = 0.38 is the limit for displacement ship
(Friction resistance has to be added)
Above that, the bow wave increases.
To reduce the wave resistance, the waterline should be as
smooth as possible.
But contradiction with the goal of merchant ship which is to
increase the deadweight concave shape
Contradiction with seakeeping performance (concave ships
have more buoyancy reserve).
49
Bulbous bow
Goal of the bulbous bow: to create a wave, which will make
destructive interference
Problem: it is done for certain speeds. At different speed, we
may have constructive interference
Other advantage: add forward buoyancy waterplane may
be finer
50
Appendage resistance
Rudder, stabilisers fins, propeller, etc increase the resistance
Not placed for towing tank test
(too many variable)
They have their own Fr and Re
51
Air resistance
In air resistance, we consider frictional and
eddy making resistance
In calmconditions : ~4% In calmconditions : ~4%
When wind, it can increase considerably
52
Formdrag
Frictional resistance is considered equal to the resistance of a
flat plate with the same wetted area
But, if we make test at low Froude (so wave making resistance But, if we make test at low Froude (so wave making resistance
can be considered as negligible), the total resistance is not
the frictional resistance. There is an additional residuary
resistance : the formdrag
Formdrag is siginificant for wider boat
53
Formdrag
It is due to the boundary layer which is thicker when the
beamto length ratio increase.
Bernoulli flow is forced to undergo a greater acceleration,
which make the boundary layer thickness.
The stern pressure is lower, so the wake is bigger. The stern pressure is lower, so the wake is bigger.
54
Towing tank
Why?
CFD is not yet very accurate to estimate the power of a boat.
Statistical laws are limited
Is it possible to use the results? Is it possible to use the results?
Yes, with some conditions
55
Towing tank
3 kinds of forces are involved :
Inertial force (ma)
Gravitationnal force (mg)
proportional to r U l
proportional to g lr
Gravitationnal force (mg)
Viscous force
56
proportional to U l
If the ratio of these forces are
the same, the flow will be
similar
Towing tank
gl
U
l g
l U
Gravity
Inertia
2
3
2 2
= =
Ul
Ul
l U
Viscous
Inertia
= =
2 2
gl
U
Fr =

Ul Ul
= = Re
57
Ul Viscous
Viscous
Inertia
Gravity
Inertia
Viscous
Gravity
1
|
|
\
|
=

So, it means that if the Re and
the Fr numbers are the
same, the flows will be
similar.
Same Fr and Re numbers
=
M
S
l
l
S
S
M
S M
S M
S M
U
gl
gl
U U
gl
U
gl
U
Fr Fr = = = =
The scale
58
S
S M
gl
gl gl
2
3
Re Re

S
S
M
S
M
S M
S
S S
M
M M
S M
l
l
U
U l U l U
= = = =
Great, we can have similar flows
We just need to respect the two relations above.
No problem, lets replace the water by a liquid with another
viscosity, there is just 2 100 000 l to put and if we change the scale, we will replace it again, its easy
Towing tank test
Following Froude, friction and residuary
coefficient are independent.
( ) ( ) ) ( Re Re, Fr C C Fr C
R F T
+ =
So, if we can obtain the friction resistance, we
can calculate the total resistance with respect
of Froude number.
59
Towing tank test
Froudes method :
Performthe resistance tests with the model.
So, we have R
( ) ( ) ) ( Re Re, Fr C C Fr C
R F T
+ =
So, we have R
TM
We know that :
And that for the model and the
ship
60
M M M
TM
TM
S V
R
C
2
2 1
=
R F T
C C C + =
Towing tank test (2)
Following ITTC 57 :
(we can calculate it for the model and the ship
Calculate C
RM
Thanks to Froude similitude :
( )
2
10
2 log
075 . 0
=
Rn
C
F
FM TM RM
C C C =
Thanks to Froude similitude :
We make the same procedure by the other
side
61
RS RM
C C =
Towing tank test (3)
Following ITTC 57 :
for the ship
Calculate C
TS
(the last termis the roughness allowance :0.0004)
( )
2
10
2 log
075 . 0
=
S
FS
Rn
C
F FS RS TS
C C C C + + =
(the last termis the roughness allowance :0.0004)
Finally :
So, we can calculate the power :
62
S S S TS TS
S V C R =
2
S TS E
V R P =
Towing tank test (ITTC-78)
Some differences with the 57th method. The
decomposition is in a viscous resistance, which includes
the formeffect on friction and pressure and wave
resistance.
Assumption is :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) F C C k Fn C + + = + Re 1 Re
Assumption is :
Compute C
FM
Calculate the formfactor k
63
M M M
TM
TM
S V
R
C
2
2 1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n w F T
F C C k Fn C + + = + Re 1 Re
0
Towing tank test (ITTC-78)(2)
Calculate C
WM
Remark : the wave resistance is smaller than the
residuary resistance for Froude method
Compute the roughness allowance (according to
Bowden): 1
| |
Bowden):
Where kMAA is the roughness in microns according to the
MAA method. ITTC recommend 150 microns.
Determine the air resistance coefficient:
Where AT is the frontal area of the ship above the waterline
64
S
A
C
T
AA
= 001 . 0
3
3
1
10 64 . 0 105

|
|
|
\
|
\
|
=
L
k
C
MAA
f
Towing tank test (ITTC-78)(3)
Calculate the total resistance coefficient C
WM
Calculate the total resistance coefficient as before.
( )
AA F WS FS TS
C C C C k C + + + + = 1
Calculate the effective power as before also.
65
Formfactor
It includes the ratio of the viscous resistance and the
resistance of the equivalent flat plate.
So, it includes the formeffect.
Empirical formula (Watanabe):
Another way is to calculate it at low Fr (<0.15) (Cw=0)
but small forces, so problems on measurement
66
T
B
B
L
C
k
B
2
6 . 25 095 . 0
|
\
|
+ =
Formfactor
Method of Prohaska : assumption: wave resistance
coefficient is proportional to the 4th power of the Fr.
So:
Or:
( )
4
1
1 Fn k C k C
F T
+ + =
( )
T
Fn
k k
C
4
1 + + =
If the assumption in the wave resistance is correct:
67
( )
F F
T
C
k k
C
1
1 + + =
Displacement and planing
The wavelength fromthe wave pattern
increases with the speed
Picture from Architecture Navale, D. Presles and D. Paulet
Displacement and planing (2)
When the wave become longer than the ship
length, the ship should pass its own wave
Planing
Displacement
ship
Force : buoyancy
only
Planing ship
Semi-Planing
ship
Force :
hydrodynamic lift
Force : buoyancy
and hydrodynamic
lift
To pass fromdisplacement to planing, the ship needs a adequate
hull and the power.
To calculate the limit speed : easy with the speed of the wave and
is equal to Fr=0.38
If the hull is not done for, the ship will never planed but the speed If the hull is not done for, the ship will never planed but the speed
will never increase more than the limit speed
Copyright DN&T
The resistance curves can be different, but globally, they ressemble
to the following ones:
Displacement
ship
Planing ship
Limit speed
Resistance curve of serie 60
1000
1200
1400
Friction
Residuary
Total
0
200
400
600
800
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
k
N
)
Speed (m/s)
Planing
A part of the flow goes forward : spray
Hard chine is better.
The weight has to be lower
Planing hull is common for pleasure
craft (in some case, not enough
buoyancy)
Picture from Ship dynamics for mariners, I.C. Clark, http://www.realitymod.com and wikipedia
The wake
Because the viscosity, the ship carries away
water.
It is called the wake.
The wake affects the flow near the propeller,
and it has a consequence on the propeller and it has a consequence on the propeller
efficiency
The flow is not uniform and the wake depend
on the distance to the hull and the shape.
Pictures fromhttp://www.qm2.org.uk
The wake (2)
It is expressed as a ratio of the ship speed which is lost
in the wake
Container carrier
with 2 propeller
Supertanker
with 2 propeller
(with Vs the speed of the ship
and Va the propeller advance
trough the water)
Pictures fromHelices marines, Max Aucher
s
a s
V
V V
w

=
Cargo with a single screw
Super tanker with a
single propeller
Shallow water
The Bernoulli pressure distribution distorts the waterline.
It will be more pronounced if the depth is small.
Between the river bottomand the hull, water is accelerated,
creating a depression reduction of the under keel
clearance, called the squat. clearance, called the squat.
It depends on :
Static pressure, so it will increase in proportion of V/g
The sectional area of the water flow (blockage factor)
The block coefficient (the flow will be more restricted in case of high
Cb
77
Squat
Squat is NOT an augmentation of the draft.
It is the total reduction in under keel clearance.
(water level also goes down)
78
Squat
Blockage factor :
So,
Squat can be like :
( )
0 1
5 . 0 W W D
d B
S
+
=
S=
Ships immersed midship sectional area
Sectional area of the unobstructed canal
Squat can be like :
79
( )
m
B
n
C K S K
g
V
K S
3 2
2
1
=
Squat in narrow channels
Following A. D. Watt :
B
C S
g
V
s Squat =
2
2
2 . 2
With
And V the speed in m/s (and g=9.81 m/s)
80
S C
S
A A
A
S
=
2
Squat in narrow channels
Following Dr C. B. Barrass:
With
B
k
C S
V
s Squat =
81 . 0
08 . 2
20
S
A
S =
With
And V
k
the speed in knots
Attention: these formulas are available in a
narrow channel
81
S
S
A
A
S =
Comparison of the method
Speed : 8 kts
Sectional area Ac = 0.5 (40+60) x 12 = 60 m
Sectional area As = 8 x 20 m
Block coefficient : 0.8
Following Watt :
S Squat 8 . 0
160 514 . 0 8
2 . 2
=
Following Watt :
Following Barrass :
82
m S Squat
S Squat
1 . 1
8 . 0
160 600
160
81 . 9
514 . 0 8
2 . 2
=
=
m S Squat
S Squat
04 . 1
8 . 0
600
160
20
8
81 . 0
08 . 2
=
\
|
=
Squat in open shallow water
The previous formulas were available for narrow channel, but
in shallow water, the squat phenomenon is also present.
Dr I. Dand proposed a formula :
B k
C
D
d
V S Squat =
2
95
1
With : V
k
speed in knots, d deep water draft, D water depth
and C
B
the block coefficient
83
B k
C
D
V S Squat =
95
Squat in open shallow water
Barrass proposed an empirical formula. His philosophy was to
consider a width of influence, function of the beamof the
ship.
Width of influence :
Open water blockage factor S
Open water squat
84
) (
04 . 7
85 . 0
m
C
B
F
B
B
=
Effect of squat on trimand list
Distorsion of waterline may change the fore and aft position
of the center of buyoancy.
If a vessels centre of buyancy is forward of midship (the bow
is fuller than the stern)head trimming moment is fuller than the stern)head trimming moment
Faster flow on the fore part, so more succion head
trimming moment
Acceleration on the propeller stern trimming moment
85
Squat over a shoal
If the water depth is small: constant squat
But if the vessel sails over a shoal ?
86
Squat and heel
What about the heel?
87
Other effects of squat
Frictional resistance is increased, wave making resistance also
the ship slows down
This increase of resistance loads more the propeller more
slip and the propeller revolution tend to decrease
Proximity of the seabed greater vibration Proximity of the seabed greater vibration
Increase of turbulence and vibration under the stern if soft
sediment, water can be discoloured.
Higher bow wave
Response to helmaction slower
Motions (rolling, pitching) tend to be dampened by the
cushioning effect of the seabed
88
Wave making resistance in shallow
water
Waves depend on the water depth (when water depth is
reduced to less than ~40% of the wavelength, its influenced
by the seabed).
Phase and group speed decreases
First, the waves with longer wavelength are modified : higher First, the waves with longer wavelength are modified : higher
and longer
89
l(deep water)=
l(12m water)=
m
g
V
64
2
2
=
m
D
g
V
101
2
tanh
2
2
=
|
\
|
+

Waves in shallow water
Waves are longer when depth decreases
So, angle of 19.28 is no more available
It will increase when the speed increases and the depth
decreases.
90
Limit speed : kind of wall in front of the ship: as sound wall
After this limit, resistance decreases
91
This effect was discovered accidentally in British canals, around
1844 when barges were towed by horses.
A horse took fright and ran with the barge.
The prominent bow wave suddenly disappeared and the speed
was much more bigger. was much more bigger.
It was because :
Canals were artificially built with a depth around 1 m (critical speed 3 m/s)
Barges: long and narrow
Barges towed fromashore, so no squat by the propeller
92
Steering a ship
To change the boat's course :
A kind of centripetal force is produced to
maintain the boat's circular motion.
Picture fromShip Dynamics for Mariners, I.C. Clark
Circular motion
Let's consider weight attached by a rope, turning along a point C
Between 2 successive positions, the velocity change of
orientation.
So there is a acceleration perpendicular to the velocity
If acceleration --> force If acceleration --> force
This is the centrifugal force
Action of a
ship's rudder
Turning circles
With the delivery of a
ship, some data have to
be provided.
For example, the turning
circles.
To provide for different
speeds, wind, draft, seas,
water depths,)
It can be more than double
in very shallow water
Effect on the propeller
When a ship turn, resistance of the hull and
drag fromthe rudder increase Ship velocity
decreases decreases
For its rpm, the slip is higher increase of
charge on the propeller
It can lead to the maximum power of the
engine, if the system tries to maintain the
rpm.
Transverse thrust
Because of the wake (flow velocity on the top of the
propeller is lower than the flow velocity on the
bottom), the flow angle is less effective and may lead
to stall of the upper blade, in one turning direction.
Turning radius may be different on port or starboard
Pivot point
Giration of the ship is combined with drift.
The rotation is around a point in front of
centre of gravity called the dynamic pivot
point P2 point P2
Pivot point (2)
Giration radius froma point fromstem to
stern will decrease up to the Dynamic Pivot
Point and increase up to the stern
An example of value : An example of value :
Typical full helmturning radius of 2 L
Dynamic pivot point 0.35 L
Drift angle of G : 10
The only point with no drift is Dynamic Pivot
Point
Force and acceleration
The force at the stern provides to the ship transversal and
rotational acceleration
Transversal acceleration depends on the mass and the
transversal forces
Rotational acceleration depends on the moment and the mass Rotational acceleration depends on the moment and the mass
inertia
Force and acceleration (2)
Inertia represents the distribution of the mass along the ship,
around the centre of gravity.
So, lateral acceleration :
...
2
3 3
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
+ + + =
R M R M R M MR I
] / [
2
s m
F
R
So, lateral acceleration :
And rotational acceleration :
] / [
2
s m
M
F
R
] / [
2
s rad
I
F X
R R
Static pivot point P1
Dynamic pivot point P2 occurs when
the ship is in movement.
It is possible to turn a vessel which is
stationary. stationary.
How? By giving short burst against the
rudder
It depends on the moment of the
force and inertia
Pivoting point P1 is different fromthe
Dynamic Pivot Point
M X
I
GP
R
=
1
Static pivot point P1 (2)
If mass is concentrated to the center of gravity : very small GP1 (as in
sailing yacht).
If Cb is low, it means that weight will be more concentrated near the
center of gravity, and inversely
Static pivot point P1 (3)
Once the ship starts to turn, there will be resistance from
water flow, which will limit the rotation speed.
This speed depends on the immersed hull surface and its
distribution.
Stern trimwill have an effect of the GP1: Stern trimwill have an effect of the GP1:
A stern trimmeans that G move backward
Inertia change with the square of the distance
Xr change with the distance
P1 will move forward
Balance of forces
Due to the fact that the viscous loss increases
along the length on the hull, the aft part of
the hull is less effective to generate a
difference of pressure, so the hydrodynamic
forces acts through a point A, wich is forward forces acts through a point A, wich is forward
of midship.
So, it create a moment which assists the
rotation.
Balance of forces (2)
Because of drift,
angle of attack
of the rudder
decreases. .
So the turning So the turning
moment will be
transferred from
the rudder to
the main hull
force
Directional stability
A ship is said directionally stable if, once the
action with the rudder is finished, the ship will be
in a steady condition again.
If hydrodynamic moment is too small (A is too
close to G), directional stability will be too big close to G), directional stability will be too big
(helm will be heavy and ship will be less
manoeuvrable)
If the distance between A and G is too big, it will
turn easily but may be slower to be steady again.
Risk of over-steering (if the over-reaction makes a
bigger movement in the other side)
Directional stability (2)
If the hydrodynamic hull force is far enough to provide the
centripetal force and the turning moment, the ship has a
neutral direction stability, and turn around the Neutral Point
N0. (Lets remark that the point moves in function of the rate
of turn). of turn).
Directional stability (3)
There is no more force on the rudder, because the flow has no
angle of attack with the rudder.
(But there is a needed force to swing the bow)
Directional instability
Directionally unstable if the centre of hydrodynamic force on
the hull A is forward the neutral point N0.
The turning moment is increased, with hydrodynamic force
and centripetal force not changed.
It will rotate faster on itself than around the turning circle, as It will rotate faster on itself than around the turning circle, as
car skidding
Directional instability (2)
An increasing number of ships is directionaly unstable under
some conditions of trim.
They can be steered thanks to small alternating rudder
movement.
It depends on the rate of turn, so some ships may be unstable It depends on the rate of turn, so some ships may be unstable
at some conditions and then, become stable.
Directional instability (3)
As for car, it is possible the drive by skidding, it just has to be
taken into account when sailing...
The trajectory will be different, and should be anticipated in
channel or canal.
Factors affecting directional stability
Unfortunately, the points A (centre of
hydrodynamic force) and N0 (neutral steering
point) are not fixed for a vessel.
N0 depends on the centripetal force relative N0 depends on the centripetal force relative
to the turning moment required of a given
rate of turn.
A depends on the flow condition of the
immersed part of the hull and the distribution
of surface area.
Factors affecting directional stability :trim
The trimaffects the distribution of lateral
area.
More stable Less stable
Factors affecting directional stability :
block coefficient
Ships with a very high block coefficient have a
bigger wake, with reduces the effectiveness of
the aft part of the hull in the hydrodynamic
force. force.
A is more foreward than N0 Unstable at
small rudder angle.
Balance of the rudder
On the rudder, with the flow
hydrodynamic force
The position, the magnitude, the
orientation depend on the flow and angle
of attack of attack
In function of the position of the stock, the
moment on the stock is different.
Balance is the ratio area in front of the
stock/total area (here : area a/(area a +
area b))
Often around 20%
Types of rudders
Types of rudders (2)
Unbalanced rudder : no more
used in modern ship. High
torsion in the stock stronger
steering system need steering system need
Spade rudder : balance is
possible. Smaller torsion in the
stock, but higher bending
moment
Types of rudders (3)
Normal framed rudder :
balanced, so smaller torsion.
Because of the lower support,
less bending moment. But
more wetted area and more wetted area and
structure.
Mariner rudder : because of
horn, stresses are lower.
How to calculate the rudder area
In general, following Dave Gerr (Boat
mechanical systems handbook) : 2% of the
lateral area for planing hull and 3 to 4% for
displacement motor boat. displacement motor boat.
Following Gillmer and Johnson (and Det
Norske Veritas) :
(
(
\
|
+ =
2
25 1
100 L
B Ld
area Min
High efficiency rudder (1)
Fish-tail rudder : equipped of a kind of
deflector on the trailing edge. Increase the
lateral force. Allow higher angle (more than
35) 35)
Picture fromBoat mechanical system handbook, DaveGerr
Rotating cylinder rudder : the rotating cylinder
accelerates the flow lift. More lateral force
Articulated rudder : increase the lateral force
at smaller helm angle
Picture fromShip Dynamics for Mariners, I.C. Clark and Boat mechanical system handbook, DaveGerr
Way to improve manoeuvrability
Vertical axis or cycloidal propeller
Active rudder
Auxiliary thrusters
Twin screw, twin rudder Twin screw, twin rudder
Azi-pods
Voith-Schneider propeller : vertical blades
turning around themselve and around an axis
The force can be oriented in each direction.
Very useful for tug boat, inland ferry, etc
Picture fromVoith-Schneider
Active rudder
During the 70s
Source : http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/of97-512/htmldocs/ship/pics/rudder.gif and Ship
Dynamics for Mariners, I.C. Clark
Auxiliary thrusters
2 types : tunnel thruster and azimutal thruster
Very easy to manuvre
Auxiliary thrusters (2)
Advantage : simpler, so cheaper,
but only lateral thrust
Advantage : force can be
oriented in all directions allow
the ship to be powered in case of
main engine failure
Picture fromhttp://www.vethpropulsion.com and
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pourquoi_pas_bow_thrusters.jpg
Twin screw, twin rudder
Possible to spin
Higher effect if the engines are far (for
example, on a catamaran)
Azi-pods
Electric engine on a pod, which can turn
completely
Rudder is no more needed
Picture fromShip Dynamics for Mariners, I.C. Clark and http://boards.cruisecritic.com/showthread.php?t=1810532

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