Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv
Integrating CFD and building simulation
M. Bartak
a
, I. Beausoleil-Morrison
b
, J.A. Clarke
c,
, J. Denev
d
, F. Drkal
a
, M. Lain
a
,
I.A. Macdonald
c
, A. Melikov
e
, Z. Popiolek
f
, P. Stankov
d
a
Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
b
CETC, Natural Resources Canada, Canada
c
ESRU, University of Strathclyde, Scotland, UK
d
Technical University of Soa, Bulgaria
e
CIE Energy, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
f
Silesian Technical University at Gliwice, Poland
Abstract
To provide practitioners with the means to tackle problems related to poor indoor environments, building simulation and computational
uid dynamics can usefully be integrated within a single computational framework.
This paper describes the outcomes from a research project sponsored by the European Commission, which furthered the CFD modelling
aspects of the ESP-r system. The paper summarises the form of the CFD model, describes the method used to integrate the thermal and
ow domains and reports the outcome from an empirical validation exercise. ? 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Building performance simulation; Computational uid dynamics; Integrated modelling; Empirical validation
1. Introduction
Within building energy simulation two modelling ap-
proaches are extant: zonal networks and computational uid
dynamics.
Within the former method, as implemented within the
ESP-r system [1], the building and its air handling plant are
treated as a collection of nodes representing rooms (or parts
of rooms), equipment connection points, ambient conditions
etc. Inter-nodal connections are then dened to represent
components such as cracks, doors, windows, fans, ducts and
pumps. Each component is assigned a model that gives its
mass ow rate as a function of the prevailing pressure dif-
ference. Consideration of the conservation of mass at each
node leads to a set of non-linear equations that can be inte-
grated over time to characterise the ow domain.
Although well adapted for building energy application,
the nodal network method is limited when it comes to
consideration of indoor comfort and air quality: because
momentum eects are neglected, intra-room air movement
cannot be studied; and, as a result of the low resolution, local

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: joe@esru.strath.ac.uk (J.A. Clarke).
surface convection heat transfer is poorly represented. To
overcome these limitations, it is necessary to conate CFD
and building simulation. This paper describes the approach
taken within the ESP-r system [2] and reports on the re-
sults from an empirical validation exercise utilising a testing
facility established at the Technical University in Prague.
2. CFD modelling
ESP-rs CFD model comprises seven coupled partial dif-
ferential equations. The velocity distribution of the room
ow is obtained from the three momentum equations corre-
sponding to the three spatial axes. The continuity equation
is modied to become a pressure correction equation which
is then employed to obtain the pressure distribution by uti-
lizing the well-known SIMPLEC algorithm [3]. Turbulence
is accounted for by the standard version of the kc turbu-
lence model [4] together with appropriate treatments for the
conditions at solid boundaries (as described later). A sep-
arate transport equation for temperature distribution in the
room is then introduced and is coupled with the velocity
eld by means of the Boussinesq approximation. To enable
equation solution, the room is subdivided into orthogonal
0360-1323/02/$ - see front matter ? 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
PII: S0360- 1323( 02) 00045- 8
866 M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871
control volumestypically between 30,000 and 100,000 in
numberand the above-mentioned variables obtained nu-
merically for each volume.
The basic mathematical model has been rened in order
to account for a number of practical problems relating to
room indoor air quality and thermal comfort. A concentra-
tion equation, governing the distribution of water vapour in
the room, has been added to determine the spatial variation
of relative humidity as a function of any specied humid-
ity source. A further concentration equation has been estab-
lished to represent the distribution of carbon dioxide and is
able to model occupant respiration under dierent metabolic
rates.
The freshness of the air at each grid is obtained through a
local mean age of air parameter which denes the average
time required for air to reach a given point after it enters
the room [5]. The corresponding equation is derived from a
method proposed by Sandberg and Sjoberg [6] and Davidson
and Olsson [7]. In its nal form it is given by
c
cx

ju0

j
o
l
+
j
t
o
t

c0
cx

+
c
cy

jv0

j
o
l
+
j
t
o
t

c0
cy

+
c
cz

jw0

j
o
l
+
j
t
o
t

c0
cz

= 1,
where 0 is the local mean age of air, u, v and w are the
velocity components, j the air density, j, j
t
the physical
and turbulent viscosity, and o
l
, o
t
the laminar and turbulent
Schmidt numbers.
Since it is important to accurately calculate the tempera-
ture gradient in stratied ows arising, for example, in rooms
with displacement ventilation, and because the basic math-
ematical model has diculty in correctly accounting for the
interaction between buoyancy and turbulence, the general-
ized gradient diusion hypothesis (GGDH) model is used
as introduced by Daly and Harlow [8]. This requires the in-
troduction of a new production term for buoyancy, P
b
, of
the turbulent kinetic energy, k:
P
b
=
1
1 + 273.15
0.15 q
k
c

j
t

cu
cz
+
cw
cx

c1
cx
+ j
t

cv
cz
+
cw
cy

c1
cy
+

2j
t
cw
cz

2
3
jk

c1
cz

,
where q is the gravity acceleration acting along the :-axis
and 1 the air temperature (

C).
3. Integrating CFD and building simulation
The solvers for the building thermal, HVAC, network
air ow and CFD equations act co-operatively in the man-
ner illustrated in Fig. 1. To ensure that the CFD turbu-
lence model is appropriately congured at each time-step, a
conation controller [9] is introduced in order to improve
the simulation accuracy [10]. At the start of a time-step,
the zero-equation turbulence model developed by Chen and
Xu [11] is employed in investigative mode to determine
the likely ow regimes at each surface. The eddy viscosity
distribution to result is then used to initialise the k and c
elds and a second simulation performed for the time-step.
This process repeats at each computational time-step.
The nature of the ow at each surface is evaluated from
the local Grashof (Gr) and Reynolds (Re) Numbers as de-
termined from the investigative simulation. The Grashof
Number (the ratio of the buoyancy and viscous forces) indi-
cates how buoyant the ow is adjacent to the surface, while
the Reynolds Number (the ratio of the inertial and viscous
forces) indicates how forced is the ow. The following con-
ditions are relevant:
Gr}Re
2
1: forced convection eects overwhelm free
convection;
Gr}Re
2
1: free convection eects dominate;
Gr Re
2
: both forced and free convection eects are
signicant.
Based on the outcome from the above condition test at each
surface in the CFD model, the following procedure is in-
voked.
Where buoyancy forces are insignicant overall, the
buoyancy term in the :-momentum equation is dropped to
improve solution convergence.
For a surface where free convection predominates, the
log-law wall functions are replaced by functions developed
by Yuan et al. [12] and a Dirichlet
1
boundary condition im-
posed where the surface is vertical; otherwise a convection
coecient correlation is prescribed and a Neumann (see
footnote 1) boundary condition imposed (this means that
the thermal domain will inuence the ow domain but not
the reverse).
For a surface where convection is mixed, the log-law wall
functions are replaced by a prescribed convection coecient
and a Robin (see footnote 1) boundary condition imposed.
For a surface where forced convection predominates, the
ratio of the eddy viscosity to the molecular viscosity (j
t
}j),
as determined fromthe investigative simulation, is examined
to determine how turbulent the ow is locally:
j
t
}j 630: the ow is weakly turbulent; the log-law wall
functions are replaced by a prescribed convection coe-
cient and a Neumann boundary condition is imposed;
j
t
}j 30: the log-law wall functions are retained and a
Dirichlet boundary condition is imposed.
The iterative solution of the ow equations is initiated for
the current time-step. For surfaces where h
c
correlations are
1
Dirichlet conditionxed temperature 0 =0
s
; Neumann condition
xed heat ux k(c0}cn) = q; Robin conditionheat ux proportional to
the local heat transfer k(c0}cn) = h
c
(0 0
s
).
M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871 867
Fig. 1. Iterative solution of nested domain equations.
active, these are shared with the building model so that the
surface heat ux is imposed on the CFD solution. Where
such correlations are not active, the CFD-derived convection
coecients are inserted into the building models surface
energy balance equations.
Where an air ow network is active, the network node
representing the room is removed and new network con-
nections are added to eect a coupling with the appropriate
domain cell(s) [13,14] as shown in Fig. 2. A special device
has been established to ensure the accurate representation of
both mass and momentum exchange between domain cells
and network ow components of dissimilar size [15]. The
appropriate network connections area is increased or re-
duced to achieve a match with the corresponding domain
cell(s) and then the associated velocity is adjusted to main-
tain the correct ow rate. Within the solution process, the
adjusted velocity is imposed as a boundary condition to sat-
isfy the ow rate and then it is readjusted in the momentum
equation to give the correct momentum. From the viewpoint
of the ow network, the air exchanges with the CFD domain
are treated as sources or sinks of mass at appropriate points
within the ow network solution.
The foregoing procedure is embedded within the synchro-
nised solution process for the building, HVAC, network ow
and CFD equation-sets (Fig. 1). Note that the frequency of
invocation of these solvers may dier. For example, in order
to reduce the computational burden, the building-side solver
can be invoked less frequently than the HVAC solver. Note
868 M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871
Fig. 2. Coupling network ow and CFD models.
also that iteration may be invoked to resolve problematic
couplings between domains.
It is also possible to operate on the basis of partially
matched schemes. For example, the building model might
comprise of several zones, with only a subset addressed by
CFD. At the same time, a ow network may be linked to one
or more CFD domains, have nodes in common with some,
but not all, of the other zones comprising the building model
and have extra nodes to represent zones and}or plant compo-
nents that are outwith the modelled building portion. Each
part of such a model would then operate on the basis of best
available information (e.g. a zone with no matched air ow
model would utilise its user-specied inltration}ventilation
rates).
4. Empirical validation
To test the new CFD model as installed within ESP-r,
a laboratory facility was designed and built. The test room
allows control of its boundaries via surface mounted heat-
ing and cooling panels and by encapsulating it within an
outer room whose environmental condition can be sepa-
rately controlled. Finally, the size and}or position of the
room inlet}outlet openings can be modied and the inlet air
condition varied via a dedicated HVAC system.
A series of experiments were conducted correspond-
ing to isothermal mixing ventilation and non-isothermal
displacement ventilation and the following data
collected:
1. the distribution of the local mean age of air (isothermal
case);
2. the air temperature distribution (non-isothermal case);
3. room comfort parameters (non-isothermal case).
The distribution of the local mean age of air param-
eter was measured using the tracer-gas concentration
decay method, while the vertical air temperature pro-
les were measured with multi-point probes using NTC
thermistors. The mean air velocity, the standard de-
viation of velocity uctuations, the turbulence inten-
sity and the draught rating were all measured by a
multi-channel low velocity anemometer. Details on
the experimental set-up have been reported elsewhere
[1618].
4.1. LMA test result
Two 3D CFD models with a coarse (1089 control vol-
umes) and a ne grid (24,300 control volumes) were com-
pared with the experimental data. Fig. 3 shows the results.
As can be seen, the predictions are up to 20% higher than
the measurements: a result that is consistent with results
obtained by some researchers (e.g. [19]) and better than
those obtained by others (e.g. [7]). Possible reasons for
the discrepancy include the so-called repeatability deviation
(6.5%), the experimental accuracy (5%), the uncertainty in
determining the volume of the test room (5%) and the use
of mean velocities within the CFD model in place of instan-
taneous values.
The ne and course grids produce comparable results,
with the former, as expected, being closer to the experimen-
tal data. That said, the results from the coarse grid gave suf-
cient accuracy for the case studied (mixing ventilation, a
single air supply}extract and isothermal conditions).
4.2. Buoyancy test result
This test assessed the results corresponding to the use of
the standard and improved forms of the kc model when
M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871 869
Fig. 3. Comparisons between predicted and measured local mean age of air.
Fig. 4. Comparisons between predicted and measured temperature proles.
applied to buoyant ows. The improved kc model was
based on the generalized gradient diusion hypothesis. The
results from 3D computations are compared with the mea-
sured vertical temperature proles as shown in Fig. 4.
The numerical results show good agreement except for
locations close to the oor where the adiabatic condition
was not maintainable within the experimental set-up. For
all other locations the agreement is within the measurement
uncertainty (0.5

C). The improved kc model performed

better than the standard model in terms of both convergence
speed and the prediction of the temperature distribution.
4.3. Comfort test result
Measurements were performed using a Dantec multi-
channel low velocity anemometer. The comparison with
predictions is given in Table 1. The air mean velocity and
temperatures show good agreement for all measured points,
with any dierences being within the measurement accu-
racy (0.03 m}s and 0.5

C, respectively). The standard

deviation of velocity uctuations and turbulence intensity
show disagreement at locations where the anemometer is
outwith its recommended range of operation (i.e. where the
mean velocity falls below 0.05 m}s). At these points, the
anemometer uncertainty is high, while the numerical model
is likely to overestimate the turbulence kinetic energy yield-
ing values of turbulence intensity that are too high. On the
other hand, at low mean velocities there will be no discom-
fort sensation (the draught rating is dened to be zero for
mean velocities below 0.05 m}s). At the locations where the
mean velocities are higher then 0.05 m}s (here close to the
oor), the agreement between the measured and simulated
870 M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871
Table 1
Predicted vs. measured parameters related to comfort
Parameter Measured Predicted
Measurement position: X = 1.340 m, Y = 1.8 m
h (m) 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.1 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.1
w (m}s) 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.57 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.54
STD (m}s) 0.007 0.005 0.012 0.109 0.044 0.051 0.058 0.100
TI (%) 19.3 17.4 28.8 19.1 92.2 161.2 157.3 18.5
1 (

C) 23.7 23.6 23.4 20.0 24.0 23.9 23.8 20.2

DR (%) 0 0 0 66.8 0 0 0 60.5
Measurement position: X = 2.818 m, Y = 1.8 m
h (m) 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.1 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.1
w (m}s) 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.30 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.27
STD (m}s) 0.003 0.003 0.011 0.091 0.052 0.061 0.075 0.086
TI (%) 9.5 9.7 21.8 30.3 159.5 180.7 280.5 32.3
1 (

C) 23.8 23.6 23.0 21.2 23.9 23.8 23.4 21.7

DR (%) 0 0 0 35.1 0 0 0 30.0
h = height; w = mean velocity; STD = standard deviation of velocity uctuations; TI = turbulence intensity; 1 = temperature; DR = draught rating.
data is good after the measurement uncertainty is taken into
account [20].
The rened ESP-r system was also tested by comparing
predictions with physical measurements within an apartment
building located within a multi-storey block of ats in the
urban area of Gliwice in Poland. The apartment employed
a natural ventilating system via individual ducts connecting
each at with outlets on the roof. A system of four indepen-
dent electric heaters was used to heat the at. Power con-
sumption and indoor air temperatures were monitored along
with the local climate parameters (barometric pressure, out-
door air temperature, wind speed}direction and solar radia-
tion).
In order to determine the air change rate, the tracer gas
concentration decay method was employed. The air change
rates were measured 15 times under two dierent air tight-
ness condition: for tight windows and for leaky windows.
During the experiment, the weather spanned a wide range
of conditions.
Comparison of the simulation results with the energy con-
sumption measurements showed good agreement in relation
to global heat demand and inltration: the relative error in
the former case not exceeding 14%. For the air inltration
prediction there was also a good agreement with the mea-
surements. Details are given in [21].
5. Output possibilities
On the basis of the multi-variate outputs from an inte-
grated simulation, the spatial and temporal variation of in-
door air quality and thermal discomfort may be assessed
according to relevant standards (e.g. ASHRAE 62-1989,
prENV 1752, ISO EN 7730 and ANSI}ASHRAE 55-1992).
Such assessments might typically be based on indicators
such as
the variation in vertical air temperature between oor and
head height;
the absolute temperature of the oor;
radiant temperature asymmetry;
unsatisfactory ventilation rate;
unsatisfactory CO
2
level;
local draught rating index assessed from the coupled in-
uence of air speed, air temperature and turbulence inten-
sity distribution;
additional air speed required to o-set an elevated tem-
perature;
thermal comfort assessment based on PMV, PPD and ef-
fective temperature indices;
local mean age of air.
Fig. 5 shows some typical CFD outputs showing the dis-
tribution of velocity, temperature, draught rating and air
mean age for dierent 2D room slices. Taken together, such
performance indicators allow indoor environments to be as-
sessed in terms of the spatial and temporal variation of the
quality and comfort.
6. Conclusions
The CFD module of the ESP-r integrated modelling pack-
age has been rened as part of a collaborative research
project funded by the European Commission with inputs
from related projects. These renements were concerned
with the treatment of complex geometries, blockages (fur-
nishings, equipment etc), buoyancy, ventilation openings,
surface heat transfer and the assessment of the spatial and
temporal variation of thermal comfort and indoor air quality.
M. Bartak et al. / Building and Environment 37 (2002) 865871 871
Fig. 5. Some typical CFD outputs.
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to the European Commission for
their invaluable support.
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