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BSC Degree in Textile Design
1
st
Year

Surface Embroidery & Dyeing
& Printing Part-B


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INDEX

Unit IV ................................................................ 3
Lesson 1: Dyeing ................................................... 4
Lesson 2: Stages of Dyeing ................................. 15
Lesson 3: Methods of Dyeing ............................... 22

Unit V ............................................................... 30
Lesson 4: Printing ............................................... 31
Lesson 5: Other Methods of Printing ................... 42
Lesson 6: Colour Problems .................................. 52
Lesson 7: Colour Matching .................................. 61

Books for Further References .............................. 66


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Unit IV
Lesson 1: Dyeing
Lesson 2: Stages of Dying
Lesson 3: Methods of Dyeing












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Lesson 1: Dyeing

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Review
1.3 Seeing colour
1.4 Colourants
1.5 Sources of natural dyes
1.6 Natural dyes are classified into
1.7 Method of application of indigo dye

1.1 Introduction
The importance of colour in textile products cannot
be over-emphasized. Colour speaks louder than
words. Its appeal is universal and serves as a
common language. The textile industry is well
aware of the consumers desire for colour.

1.2 Historical Review
Dye styles and dyeing are as old as textiles
themselves and predate written history. Fabrics
dating from 3500 BC have been found in Thebes,
Egypt that still possess the remains of blue indigo
dyeing. Other fabrics found in the tombs of Egypt
have been dyed yellow, with a dye obtained from
safflower. Beautifully coloured fabrics have been
unearthed in China, Asia and Europe.
Before 1856 all dyes used were of vegetable or
animal origin. A bright red dye was obtained from


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an insect called cochineal. Purple colour was
produced by a tiny mollusk. The purple dye was
very expensive to produce because approximately
12,000 tiny mollusks were needed to obtain a
single gram of dye. Thus, the expression royal
purple or born to purple came into being as an
indication that only the wealthy could afford the
dye. Other ancient dyes include madder a red dye
from the roots of a plant, indigoblue from the
grams and yellow from the stigmata of flowers.
The year 1856 marked a turning point in the history
of dyes. Sir William H. Perkin while trying to make
artificial quinine from coal tar, accidentally
produced the first synthetic dye stuff mauve also
called Perkins mauve. This discovery launched the
modern dye stuff industry. Today, nearly all dyes
are chemically compounded and in most cases are
superior in every way to natural dyes.

1.3 Seeing colour
Colour is a visual sensation. It results from the
reflectance of certain visible light rays that strike
the retina and stimulate cells in the nerves of the
eye. The nerves send a message to the brain which
in turn produces the sensation of specific hue. Thus
we see colour.

When all the visible rays are reflected the object
appears white; if all the visible rays are absorbed
the object appears black. When one or more ray is
reflected, the viewer senses the colour of the
specific reflected ray. For example, if all the rays
are absorbed and only blue is reflected, the viewer
sees blue colour. The ability of an organic
compound to create this desired colour derives
from the presence of chemical groups called


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chromophores. The intensity and brilliance of the
colour depends on the presence of one or more
chemical groups called auxochromes. The
auxochrome also can give neater solubility to the
due and provides the chemical groups that form
associative bonds with the fibre.
1.4 Colourants
Colour can be added to the textile object by either
dyes or pigments.
Pigments are insoluble colour particles that are held
on to the surface of the fabric by a binding agent.
Their application is quick, simple and economical.
Any colour can be used on any fibre, because the
pigments are held on mechanically. Fabric problems
such as stiffening, crocking and fading may be
encountered. Ink is a term for pigments when they
are combined with other ingredients in a paste
form. Pigments are also added to the spinning
solution of manufactured fibres.
Dyes are organic compounds composed of a
chromophore and an auxochrome. Dye can also be
defined as a compound that can be fixed on a
substance in more or less permanent state and that
evokes the visual sensation of a specific colour.
Dyes are molecules that can be dissolved in water
or some other carrier so that they will penetrate
into the fibre. Any undissolved particles of dye
remain on the outside of the fibre, where they tend
to bleed and are sensitive to surface abrasion.
Dyes have great colour strength; a small amount of
dye will colour large quantities of fabric. Pigments
have much lower colour strength; much more
pigment is needed to colour an equal amount of
fabric. Most dyed bond chemically where as the
pigments are bond to the surface. Dyes can be


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used in either solutions or pastes. Dye pastes are
used for printing.
A fluorescent dye absorbs light at one wavelength
and re-emits that energy at another. These are
used in clothing to increase the wearers visibility at
night, in costumes and protective clothing to
produce intense glow in dark effects and in some
medical procedures.
A dye process describes the environment created
for the introduction of the dye by hot water, steam,
or dry heat. Chemical additives, such as salt or
acid, are used to regular penetration of dye into the
fibre.
Dye cards are used by dye manufacturers to
demonstrate the colours that selected dyes produce
on specific fibres. These cards help dye houses
meet designers colour specification. They may
include information regarding how a dye responds
to washing, exposure to light, or other factors that
cause the dye to bleed, shift hue or fade.
Dyes are classified by chemical composition or
method of application. Table 1 lists the major dye
classes along with some of their characteristics and
end uses.
No one dye is fast to everything and the dyes
within a class, are not equally fast.
A complete range of shades is not available in each
of the dye classes; for example, some dye classes
are weak in the greens.
The dyer chooses a dye or mixes several dyes to
achieve the colour desired based on the fiber
content, and use of the fabric and cost.
The dyer must apply the colour so that it
penetrates and is held in the fiber.


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Table I Classification of fiber dyes
S.No.
Dyes End Uses Characteristics
1.







2.










3.












4.




Acid
(anionic).
Complete
colour range



Azoic
(naphthol
and
rapidogens).
Complete
colour
range.
Moderate
cost.

Cationic
(basic)
Used with
mordant on
fibres other
than silk,
wool, and
acrylic.
Complete
colour
range.

Developed,
direct.
Complete
colour
range. Duller
Wool, silk,
nylon, modified
rayon. Modified
acrylic and
polyester.


Primarily cotton.
May be used on
manufactured
fibres such as
polyester.





Used on acrylic,
modified
polyester and
nylon, direct
prints on
acetate, and
discharge prints
on cotton.




Primarily
cellulose fibers.
Discharge
prints.

Bright colours.
Vary in
lightfastness. May
have poor
washfastness.


Good to excellent
lightfastness and
washfastness.
Bright shades.
Poor resistance to
crocking.




Fast colours on
acrylics. On
natural fibres, poor
fastness to light,
washing,
perspiration. Tend
to bleed and crock.





Good to excellent
lightfastness. Fair
washfastness.




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5.











6.











7.











colours than
acid or
basic.


Direct
(substantive
)
Commerciall
y significant
dye class.
Complete
colour
range.


Disperse
Commerciall
y significant
dye class.
Dye particles
disperse in
water. Good
colour
range.


Fluorescent
brighteners.
Specific type
for most
common
fibres.









Used on
cellulosic fibres.









Developed for
acetate, used on
most synthetic
fibres.







Used on textiles
and in
detergents.
Used to achieve
intensely bright
colours.









Good colorfastness
to light. May have
poor washfastness.








Fair to excellent
lightfastness and
washfastness.
Blues and violets
on acetate fume
fade.





Mask yellowing
and off-whiteness
that occur natural
or develop with
age and soil.







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9.










10.










11.










Mordant or
chrome
Fair colour
range. Duller
than acid
dye.


Natural or
vegetable.
Derived
from plant,
animal or
mineral
sources.
Earliest dyes
used.

Reactive or
fibre-
reactive.
Combines
chemically
with fibre.
Produces
bright
shades.

Sulfur
Insoluble in
water.
Complete
colour range
except for
red. Dull
colors.

Used on same
fibres as listed
for acid dyes.





Minor dye class;
used to dye
some apparel
and furnishings.
Primarily used
on natural
fibres.



Used on cotton,
other cellulosics,
wool, silk and
nylon.






Primarily for
heavyweight
cotton. Most
widely used
black dye.




Good to excellent
lightfastness and
washfastness. Dull
colours.




Fastness varies.
Limited colors and
availability.







Good lightfastness
and washfastness.
Sensitive to
chlorine bleach.






Poor to excellent
lightfastness and
washfastness.
Sensitive to
chlorine bleach.
Stored goods may
become tender.




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12.
Vat.
Insoluble in
water.
Incomplete
colour
range.
Primarily for
cotton work
clothes,
sportswear,
prints, drapery
fabrics. Some
use of
cotton/polyester
blends.
Good to excellent
lightfastness and
wash fastness.

1.5 Sources of natural dyes:
1. Red: The substance which gives a red dye is
called alizarin. The common source of alizarin
lies in the:
a) Roots of the madder plant, Rubia tinctoria
and its relative rubia munjista.
b) Roots of the plants of mordina species
known as al, ach and surangi.
c) Roots of oldenlandia umbellator commonly
known as chay.
2. Yellow:
a) Rhizomes of a well known condiment
turmeric (curcunia longa) yields a
substance called curcumin which gives a
sharp yellow colour.
b) Flowers of the myobalan tree known as
Harar.
c) Flowers of the safflower (carthamus
tintorious) yield a bright yellow dye most
suitable for silk.
3. Blue:
Leaves of the indigo plant ndigofera tinctoria.



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4. Green:
Achieved by coating blue over yellow dyed fabric.
5. Black:
Alizarin (red dye) is mixed with ion fillings and
mollases. This ferments and gives a dark shade of
blackish maroon.
Mordants: For a fabric to accept natural dyes.
Mordanting has to be done, or else the fabric is
unable to absorb dyes. Mordants are intermediary
substances which help the fabric to accept the dye
and ensure fast dyeing. It is derived from the latin
word mordere which means to bite. The mordant
bites the fibre in combination with the dye stuff to
fix the colour.
Mordants are metallic balts like aluminium, copper,
alum, chrome, salt, vinegar, caustic soda. By using
different salts with the same dye, one can achieve
different colours e.g. iron gives black with alizaine
and alum gives red.

1.6 Natural dyes are classified into:
1. Substantive dyes: These do not need a
mordant to fix the colour to the fabric e.g.
indigo.
2. Adjective dyes: Those that need a mordant
for fixation e.g. alizarin.

1.7 Method of application of indigo dye:
The leaves of the indigo plant are immersed in
water for 4-5 days. To this water, salt is added.
This gives a solution called indigo white. The fabric
is dipped in indigo white, which turns blue on
oxidation with the atmosphere. Repeated dipping


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into indigo white darkens the blue colour. This
dyeing is fast but tends to rub off on use.


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Review Questions:
1. When was the first synthetic dye discovered?
Who discovered it and what was it called?
2. What are chromophores and auxochromes?
3. What are pigments and what are dyes? How
would you differentiate between the two?
4. How are the dyes classified? Enlist the
names?
5. What are the sources of Natural Dyes? What
are mordants and how do they function?



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Lesson 2: Stages of Dyeing

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fibre Stage Dyeing
2.3 Yarn Dyeing
2.4 Piece Dyeing
2.5 Product Dyeing
2.6 Resist Dyeing

2.1 Introduction
Colour may be added to textiles during the fibre,
yarn, fabric or product stage depending on colour
affects desired and the quality or end use of the
fabric.
Better dye penetration is achieved with fibre dyeing
than with yarn dyeing; with yarn dyeing than with
piece dyeing; with piece dyeing than with product
dyeing.
Good dye penetration is easier to achieve in
products in which the dyeing liquid or liquor is free
to move between adjacent fibres. This freedom of
movement is easiest to achieve in loose fibres. This
is the reason that fiber dyeing products are better
dyeing fabric. The earlier the colour is added in the
fabric processing; less critical is the uniformity or
the levelness of the dye. For example in fibre
dyeing, two adjacent fibre need not be exactly the
same colour became minor colour difference will be


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masked when it is twisted into yarn. However, the
colour must be levelled in products that re sewn
before dyeing; because areas of regular or non-
uniform dyes will be apparent to a casual observer.
Dyeing can be done at any stage where as printing
can be done only at fabric stage.

2.2 Fibres stage dyeing
The colour is added to the fibre before the yarn is
fibre/spun.
Stock or fibre dyeing: is used when mottled or
heather effect is designed. Dye is added to loose
fibre before yarn spinning. Good dye penetration is
obtained but the process is heavily expensive.
(Mottled and heather are effects with mixed hues,
fig- 7 a)
Top dyeing gives result similar to stock dyeing and
is more commonly used. Tops, the loose ropes of
wool from couping, are would into balls, placed on
perforated spindles and enclosed ina tank. The dye
is pumped back and forth through wool. Mass
pigmentation is known as solution dyeing or
spun dyeing or dope dyeing or mass colouration or
producer coloured. It consists of adding coloured
pigments or dyes to the spinning solution before
the fibre is formed. Thus, coloured filaments re
extruded out of the spinneret, example olefins,
black polyester, and earliest for owning and
tarpaulins.
Gel dyeing is when the colour is added to the
acrylic filament while it is in the soft gel stage. This
occurs in the narrow time frame between filament
extrution and filament coagulation.


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2.3 Yarn Dyeing
When dyeing is done after the fibre has been spun
into yarn, it is described as yarn dyeing. There are
several methods of yarn dyeing. The purpose is to
have the dyestuff penetrate to the fibres in the core
of the yarn, this is similar to the penetration of the
fibres in stock dyeing. Cloth made of dyed yarns is
called yarn-dyed.
Yarn-dyed fabrics are usually deeper and richer in
colour. Yarn-dyed fabrics intended for laundering
must be quite colourfast, or bleeding could occur.
The primary reason for dyeing in the yarn form is
to create interesting checks, stripes, and plaids
with different-coloured yarns in the weaving
process. Chambray or example, are usually woven
with a coloured warp and white filling. Other
combinations of different-coloured yarns are
checked gingham, shepherds check, plaid,
seersucker, and heather mixtures.
(a) Skein (hank) dyeing
Yarn may be prepared in skein, or hank, form and
then dyed. The loose arrangement of the yarn
allows of excellent dye penetration. The skeins are
hung over and immersed in a dye bath in a large
container. Skein dyeing is the most costly method
of yarn dyeing. But the colour penetration is best
and the yarns retain a softer, loftier hand. Skein-
dyed yarn is used to considerable extent for suiting
and dress goods.
Package Dyeing: Yarn wound on spools cones, or
similar units and then dyed is referred to as
package-dyed yarns. The packages of yarn are
stacked on perforated rods in a rack and then
immersed in a tank wherein the dye is forced
outward from the rods under pressure through the
spools and then back through the packages toward
the centre to penetrate the entire yarn as


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thoroughly as possible. Most carded and combed
cotton that is used for knitted outerwear is
package-dyed.

(b) Space dyeing:
Yarn that is space-dyed is dyed at intervals along
its length. One procedure is the knit-deknit method
in which the yarn is knitted on either a circular or
flat-bed knitting machine set to produce the desired
size of loop. The knitted cloth is then dyed, and it is
subsequently deknitted. The dye penetrates the
loops of the yarn but since it does not readily
penetrate the areas of the yarn where it crosses
itself, alternating dyed and undyed spaces appear.
Variation in hue and heather effects are possible in
the fabric subsequently produced.
Another technique, the OPI Space Dye Applicator,
produces multicolored space-dyed yarns. It was
designed for use on knitting and carpet yarn.

(c) Warp-beam Dyeing:
This method is similar to package dyeing but is
more economical. Yarn is wound onto a perforated
warp beam, immersed in a tank and dyed under
pressure. It is used when fabrics are to be woven
with dyed warp yarns.

2.4 Piece dyeing
Most solid coloured fabrics are dyed after the fabric
has been constructed. This is the easiest and the
least expensive method for adding colour. Fabrics
can be dyed in a rope form or in an open width
(flat-Fabric) form. Open width is usually carried out
on continuous basis. The dye frames are the ones
on which the fabric is arranged in an open width


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form. Dye application, rinsing, final washing and
dyeing is carried out on these frames.
Piece dyed fabrics are usually a single colour. When
the fabric contain more than ore fibre, a pattern
can result from the different absorption rates of the
fibres.
Union dyeing indicates that a fabric containing 2 or
more fibre types has been dyed a single uniform
colour. Various dye stuffs are applicable only on a
certain fibre type. It is important to select the dyes
carefully for a blended fabric to ensure uniform
dyeing. Dyes can be applied simultaneously to the
fabric. However in some cases the dyes must be
introduced individually, each by its recommended
procedure.
Cross dyeing is piece dyeing of fabrics made of
different generic groups such as protein and
cellulose or by combining acid dyeable and basic
dyeable of the same generic group. For example a
fabric made of wood warp and cotton filling dyed
with a red acid and blue direct dye respectively will
give a red warp and blue weft.
Poly chromatic dyeing is a technique that produces
results resembling printing. There are 2 basic
techniques.
a) The flow-form method consists of running
streams of different coloured dye solutions
onto a moving fabric (flat) and then crossing
these with other colours. The fabric is moved
horizontally and vertically as it moves
through the machine. This increases the
design potential. The timing, amount of
colour extruded onto the fabric and fabric
movement all determine the resulting
pattern.
b) Dye weave process: The patterns are
developed by running streams of dyed


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solutions down an inclined planes onto the
moving fabric. Here too the amount of dye
and the movement of the fabric influence
both colour and design.
2.5 Product Dyeing:
The fabric is cut and sewn into a finished product
and then dyed. Great care must be taken in
handling the materials while dyeing. This is to
ensure a uniform colour through out the product.
Buttons, threads, trims in dye absorption between
the various product parts. Product dyeing important
in apparel and furnishing industries.
Tak dyeing
TAK is an acronym for a machine invented jointly
by a German rug manufacturer, Textile
Ausvustungs Gesellschaft, and a machinery
supplier, Edward Kuesters. Although it was
originally made to produce random colour patterns
on carpets, it can also be used for a wide variety of
fabrics, such as terrycloth, velvet, and various
upholstery materials.
The TAK dyeing process is a continuous technique
for randomly dropping or sprinkling dye liquor on a
fabric to produce multicoloured patterns. Streams
of dye run from a through under a doctor blade into
individual channels. The doctors blade oscillates
breaking up the streams into drops and scattering
them to a predetermined width. As the drops fall
towards the continuously moving open width fabric,
they hit protruding fingers, or drop cutters, which
more across the width of the fabric in a rotating
chain.
TAK dyeing can be done to grey goods or pre-dyed
material to achieve a desired background. The
pattern is dependent on (a) the speed of the dye


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application, (b) Speed of the fabric, (c) movement
of the doctors blade, (d) tilt of the drop cutter.

2.6 Resist Dyeing
Resist dyeing produces fabrics on which designs are
formed by blocking colour absorption during yarn
and piece dyeing.
Resist dyeing is one of the very old methods of
producing designs on fabrics. Here the yarns or
fabric are tied up with waterproof materials on
covered with substances like mud paste or thick
starch or wax on certain predesigned areas. On
dyeing these covered areas resist the dye and form
designs.
Batik is a hand process where hot wax is applied to
a fabric in the form of a design. When the wax has
set or hardened, the fabric is piece-dyed. The areas
covered with the wax resist the dye and thus form
the design.
Tie and Dye is a hand process in which the fabric
is tied in certain areas with threads or strings. This
is then dyed, and the strings are removed, leaving
certain areas undyed, thus forming a design.
Ikat is an ancient form of decorating fabrics by
resist dying. Here the yarns (warp and/or weft) are
tied at predesigned areas. The yarns are dyed, and
the ties are removed. These yarns are then woven
into fabric using a plain weave. The areas on the
yarns which resisted the dye, form designs on the
final fabric.




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Lesson 3: Methods of Dyeing

Structure:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Batch Dyeing
3.2.1 Beck, Reel, or Winch Dyeing
3.2.2 Jig Dyeing
3.2.3 Pad Dyeing
3.3 Package Dyeing
3.4 Combination Dyeing
3.4.1 Jet Dyeing
3.4.2 Paddle Machines, Rotary Drums or
Tumblers
3.4.3 Continuous Machines

3.1 Introduction
The method chosen for dyeing depends on the fibre
content, fabric weight, type of dye, and the degree
of penetration required in the finished product.
The methods used for dyeing tend to involve one of
the three ways of combining the dye bath with the
textile.
- The textile is circulated in the dye bath.
- The dye bath is circulated around the textile.
- The textile and the dye bath are circulated
together.


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3.2 Batch Dyeing
Batch dyeing is also known as exhaust dyeing. In
this process the textile is circulated through the dye
bath. Batch dyeing can be used for textiles in any
stage of production from fibre to product but tends
to be used for smaller lots or shorter yardages.
Batch dyeing has good flexibility in terms of colour
selection, and the cost is low, specially if done at
the product stage. Equipment used includes the
beck, pad and jig.

3.2.1 Beck, Reel, or Winch Dyeing
The oldest type of piece dyeing is beck, reel, or
winch dyeing (Figure 2). The fabric, in a loose rope
sewn together at the ends, is lifted in and out of
the dye bath by a reel. Most of the fabric is
immersed in the dye bath except for the few yards
around the reel. Penetration of dye into the fibre is
obtained by continued immersion of slack fibre or
goods rather than by pressure on the wet goods
under tension, as is done in some other processes.
This method is used on lightweight fabrics that
cannot withstand the tension of the other methods,
and on heavy goods, especially woolens.
In beck dyeing, a pressurized liquor ratio of 5:1 or
4:1 is used. Liquor ratio refers to the weight of
solution as compared with the weight of the textile
to be dyed. Thus, liquor ratios of 5:1 have five
times as much liquid as textile by weight. Beck
dyeing is generally used for fabric lengths ranging
from 50 to 100 meters in rope or full width forms.
It is simple, versatile, and low cost. Fabrics are
subjected to low warp tension and bulking of yarns
occurs. Beck dyeing uses large amounts of water,
chemicals, and energy. It also causes abrasion,
creasing, and distortion of some fabrics when dyed
in rope form.


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3.2.2 Jig Dyeing
Jig dyeing uses a stationary dye bath with two rolls
above the bath. The fabric is carried around the
rolls in open width and rolled back and forth
through the dye bath every 20 minutes or so. It is
on rollers for the remaining time. Level dyeing is a
challenge with this process. Acetate, rayon, and
nylon are usually jig-dyed (Figure. 3).
In jig dyeing, much larger runs of fabric at open
width are used; several thousand meters are
common. The way the fabric is moved in the
process creates great warp tension. Fabrics that
may crease in rope form are dyed in this manner,
such as carpet, some twills, and some satins.
3.2.3 Pad Dyeing
In pad dyeing, the fabric is run through the dye
bath in open width and then between squeeze or
nip rollers that force the dye into the fabric with
pressure (Figure 4). Because the pad box holds a
very small amount of dye bath or dye liquor, this is
an economical way to piece-dye. The cloth runs
through the machine at a rapid rate, 30 to 300
yards a minute. Pad-steam processes are common
methods of dyeing fabric.

3.3 Package Dyeing
In package dyeing, the dye bath is forced through
the textile. Normally, the textile is in the yarn stage
and the yarn is wound on a perforated core of
stainless steel, plastic, or paper and placed on a
perforated spindle in a pressurized machine. This
technique is also used for some fibre (Fig. 7b) and
fabric dyeing. In beam dyeing, the yarn or fabric is
wound on perforated beams. This method is
practical for fabrics whose warp is one colour and
filling another. In skein dyeing, the yarn skeins are


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hung in the machine and the dye circulates around
the hanging skeins. Package dyeing is used
primarily for bulky yarns such as acrylic and wool
for knits and carpet. Liquor ratios are high to
ensure uniformity of the dyeing, usually ranging
from 10:1 to 4:1 (depending on the process), dye-
fibre combination, and quality desired (Fig. 5).

3.4 Combination Dyeing
In combination dyeing, both the textile and the dye
bath are circulated. Techniques include jet dyeing,
paddle machines, rotary drums, tumblers, and
continuous dyeing.
3.4.1 Jet Dyeing
Jet dyeing is similar to beck dyeing. Here, the fabric
is processed as a continuous loop. The technique is
especially useful for delicate polyester fabrics; but,
depending on the machine, almost any weight,
structure, or fiber type can be used. It involves
vigorous agitation of the dye bath and the textile.
Because of its rapid speed (200 to 800 meters per
minute), fabric wrinkling is minimal. Low warp
tension helps develop bulk and fullness. High
temperatures result in rapid dyeing, increased
efficiency of dyes and chemicals, good fastness
characteristics, and lower use of energy. However,
equipment and maintenance costs are high,
foaming can be a problem, and some fabrics may
be abraded in the process.
3.4.2 Paddle Machines, Rotary Drums or
Tumblers
Paddle machines and rotary drums are used
primarily for product dyeing (Figure 6). Both the
dye bath and the product are circulated by a paddle
or by rotation of the drum. Tumblers are similar to
rotary drums except that they tilt forward for easier


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loading and unloading. Tumblers are used in
product dyeing and in abrasive or chemical washes.
3.4.3 Continuous Machines
Continuous machines, called ranges are used for
large fabric lots. Ranges include compartments for
wetting-out, dyeing, after treatment, washing, and
rinsing.
Both fabrics and yarns are dyed. Yarns are usually
warp yarns for denim; fabrics are often
cotton/polyester blends or carpeting. About 25
percent of all carpet is coloured in this way.
Continuous dyeing is efficient for long runs, but
colour tolerances may be relaxed for this method
because of the variables involved. This technique is
most commonly used in union dyeing of blends, but
it also is used in cross dyeing. In one-bath dyeing,
both dyes are present in one bath. One-bath
processes are used for disperse/ direct dye
combinations in many medium-dark shades. The
two-bath process is used for heavier-weight goods,
darker shades, or dyes that cannot be combined in
one bath. In this process, the dye is added from
two separate dye baths, one for each dye type.
The Thermosol process was developed for
polyester. It is a continuous method in which the
dye is padded onto the fabric and dry heat is used
to move the dye into the fibre and fix it there.
The long-chain method is continuous dyeing of
yarns. It usually involves indigo or a sulphur dye.
Yarn is immersed in the dye, squeezed to remove
excess dye, and skied (exposed to air) to oxidize
and develop the colour and fix the dye inside the
fibre. Consecutive dips and skying progressively
darken the shade until the desired colour is
reached. Indigo yarns may undergo as many as 16
separate dips to achieve a very dark navy blue. The
ranges normally run at 30 to 35 yards per minute.


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Fig.2 Winch dyeing

Fig. 3 Jig dyeing
Fig.4 Pad dyeing


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Fig.7a Stock or fiber dying

Stock dyeing machine Package dyeing machine
Fig.7b Fig.5
Fig.6


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Review Questions:
1. What are the different stages at which textiles
can be dyed? [Name only]
2. Write short notes on:
Top dyeing
Solution dyeing
Hank dyeing
Package dyeing
Union cross dyeing
3. Support with diagrams wherever possible.
4. What is polychromatic dyeing?
5. What is resist dyeing? Explain with examples.
6. Name & Explain with diagrams, the three
machines for fabric dyeing.
7. What is jet dyeing? What is Package dyeing
and what stage of dyeing textiles is it
commonly used.


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Unit V



Lesson 4: Printing
Lesson 5: Other Methods of Printing
Lesson 6: Colour Problems
Lesson 7: Colour Matching










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Lesson 4: Printing
Structure:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Traditional Styles of Printing
4.3 Direct Printing
4.3.1 Block Printing
4.3.2 Direct Roller Printing
4.3.3 Warp Printing
4.4 Discharge Printing
4.5 Resist Printing
4.5.1 Stencil Printing
4.5.2 Screen Printing

4.1 Introduction
Printing refers to localized coloured designs created
by surface modifications through the applications of
dyes.
The art of printing colour onto fabrics originated
thousands of years ago-right after cloth fabrication
itself. Primitive people decorated garments with
paints just as they decorated their own bodies with
paint. It was during the latter part of the 16
th

century that textile printing attained general
acceptance. Printing became a fine art in France
during the 18
th
century when Chrisitophe, Phillipe
Oberkampf opened his textile printing factory at
Jouy and began the production of the famous


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Toiles de Jouy considered to be one of the many
finest patterned fabrics in the world.
With the advent of computer-aided design (CAD)
and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) the
design and preprinting process has shifted from a
manual to a computer one. Using CAD, the textile
designer can experiment with changes in scales,
colour and repeats, different colour ways of one
print can be seen. This helps fabric designers keep
product development costs low. The various
methods of printing have been discussed in this
chapter.

4.2 Traditional Styles of Printing
1. Direct Style: The prepared dye pigment is
directly applied on the prepared fabric e.g.
Sanganer printing (block printing).
2. Resist Style: In order to resist the dye, the
design areas on the prepared cloth are
printed with impermeable substances like
wax, gum, rice paste, mud, resin or starch.
The fabric is then dyed. The printed areas
resist the dye to form designs e.g. Bhagru
printing.
3. Mordant Resist Styles: The fabric is
prepared and mordanted. The dye is painted
or printed on this fabric. The areas which
come in contact with the dye will show colour
and thus form the design.

Another way is to paint or print the mordant and
then immerse the fabric in the dye bath. The
printed areas will show colour and thus form the
design. E.g. Ajrakh and kalamkari.


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4.3 Direct Printing
Direct printing has been the most common method
of applying surface designs to fabric. Here colour is
applied directly to the fabric in a pattern and
location desired in the finished fabric. Block printing
is the oldest method of direct printing and roller
printing is the most common.

4.3.1 Block Printing:
Block printing is a hand process; it is probably the
oldest technique for decorating textiles. It is seldom
done commercially because it is expensive and
slow. A pattern is carved on a block. The block is
dipped in a shallow pan of dye paste and stamped
on the fabric (Figure 8). More than one colour print
is possible, but a separate block is needed for each
colour. Extra time and attention are needed to align
blocks correctly. Slight irregularities in colour
register or positioning are clues to block prints, but
these can be duplicated by other techniques.

4.3.2 Direct Roller Printing:
Direct-roller printing was developed in 1783, about
the time all textile operations were becoming
mechanized. Figure 9 shows the essential parts of
the printing machine. The fabric is drawn around a
metal or high-density foam cylinder during printing.
A different printing roller applies each colour. The
engraved printing roller is etched with the design.
There are as many different rollers as there are
colours in the fabric. Furnisher rollers are covered
with hard rubber or brushes made of nylon or hard-
rubber bristles. They revolve in a small colour
trough, pick up the dye paste, and deposit it on the
rollers. A doctor blade scrapes off excess colour so
that only the engraved portions of the roller are


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filled with dye when it comes in contact with the
fabric. The fabric to be printed, a rubberized
blanket, and a unfinished-back fabric pass between
the cylinder and the engraved rollers. The blanket
gives a good surface for sharp printing; the grey
goods protects the blanket and absorbs excess dye.

Rayon and knitted fabrics are usually lightly coated
with a gum sizing on the back to keep them from
stretching or swelling as they go through the
printing machine. After printing, the fabric is dried,
steamed, or treated to set the dye. The sizing may
cause water spotting during use or care.

Duplex printing is roller printing that prints a
pattern on both sides of the fabric. In duplex prints,
both sides of the fabric may be printed at the same
time. However, in the more common method, the
face and back are printed in two steps.

4.3.3 Warp Printing:
In warp printing, the warp yarns are printed prior
to weaving. This technique gives an interesting,
rather hazy pattern, softer than other prints. To
identify it, ravel adjacent sides. The design is in
colour only on the warp yarns. Filling yarns are
white or solid colour. Imitations have splotchy
colour on both warp and filling yarns. Warp printing
is usually done on taffeta, satin ribbons, or cotton
fabric, and on upholstery or drapery fabric (Figure
10). Since the practice is time consuming and
expensive, it is not common.



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4.4 Discharge Printing
Discharge Printing
Discharge printings are piece-dye fabrics in which
the design is made by removing colour from
selected areas of the fabric (Figure 11). Discharge
printing is usually done on dark backgrounds. The
fabric is first piece-dyed by any appropriate
method. A discharge paste containing chemicals to
remove the colour is printed on the fabric using
roller or screen techniques. Dyes that are not
harmed by the discharging chemicals can be mixed
with printing solution if colour is desired in the
discharge areas. The fabric is then steamed to
develop the design, as either a white or a coloured
area. Discharge printing is done because better dye
penetration is obtained with piece dyeing than with
printing, and it is difficult to get good dark colours
except by piece dyeing.
Discharge prints can be detected by examining the
back of the fabric. In the design area the
background colour may not be completely removed,
especially around the edges of the design.
background colours must be from dyes that can be
removed by strong alkalies. Unfortunately, the
discharge chemical or bleach may cause tendering
or weakening of the fabric in the areas where the
colour was discharged.


Fig.8 Block Printing
Carved wooden
block and sample of
printed fabric



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Fig.9
Direct roller printing

Fig.11 Discharge print versus direct
print
Fig.10 clarifies of design between woven
and raveled areas.


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4.5 Resist Printing
4.5.1 Stencil Printing:
In stencil printing, design areas are cut from sheets
of paper coated with oil, wax or varnish or from
thin sheets of metal. A separate stencil is prepared
for each colour. The stencils must be planned so
that they register or fit together properly to result
in a perfect print. The stencil is placed on a fabric
and colour is applied by hand with a brush or
sprayed.
Stencil work was slow and expensive and thus gave
rise to screen printing.

4.5.2 Screen Printing
- The screen is made by covering a frame with
a fine mesh fabric of silk, metal, nylon, or
polyester.
- This fabric mesh is then covered with a film.
- The design areas are cut out of the film,
leave the fine mesh open for the dye stuff to
pass through and print the fabric.
- A squeegee is used to move the dye across
the screen and force the colour through the
open areas on to the fabric.
- One screen is prepared for each colour.
- The size of the screen must be large enough
to include atleast one repeat pattern.
- All screens necessary for a design are
arranged to register or fit together accurately
for production of a complete design.
- Screen printing is desirable for the
production of large patterns and for fabrics


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that require considerable dye, such as uncut
pile.
Before the introduction of automatic screen
printing, the amount of yardage that could be
printed at one time was limited because of the
length of the printing table, the speed of the
operator and the number of colours and screens
used.
Now flat bed screen-printing machines and rotary
screen printers are used.

Flat Bed Screen Printing:
Flat-screen printing is done commercially for
yardages from 50 to 5000 yards and often is used
for designs larger than the circumference of the
rolls used for roller printing. Approximately 18
percent of print fabrics worldwide are flatbed
screen prints.
In the hand process, the fabric to be printed is
placed on a long table. Two people position the
screen on the fabric, apply the colour, move the
screen to a new position, and repeat the process
until all the fabric is printed with that colour. Then
they repeat the process until all the colours have
been applied.
In the automatic-screen process, the fabric to be
printed is placed on a conveyor belt. A series of flat
screens are positioned above the belt and are
lowered automatically. Careful positioning of the
screen is required to be sure print edges match. On
screen-printed yardage, small colour squares or
blocks along the selvage aid in print alignment and
help identify a screen print. Colour is applied, and
the fabric is moved automatically and fed
continuously into ovens to be dried.


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Differential printing describes screen printing on
carpets tuffed with yarns that have different dye
affinities.
Rotary Screen Printing:
A printing machine that utilizes seamless cylindrical
screens made of metal foil was originally developed
in Holland. This process is called rotary screen
printing. The machine employs a rotary screen for
each colour, as in flat screen printing. As the fabric
to be printed is fed under uniform tension into the
printer section of the machine, its back is usually
coated with an adhesive, which causes it to adhere
to a conveyor printing blanket. Some machines use
other means of gripping the cloth firmly in place.
The fabric passes under the rotating screens. These
screens have the printing paste inside them which
is automatically pumped from pressure tanks. A
squeegee in each rotary screen forces the paste
through the screen onto the fabric as it moves at
91 meters per minute. The cloth then passes onto a
drying over, cured to set the colour and then
washed.
-


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Rotary screen printing combines the
advantages of roller and flat screen printing.
- Rotary metal screens are light weight in
contrast to the heavy copper rolls, and they
cost less.
- They give colour depth similar or as good as
the flat screens.
- Intricate prints with up to twenty colours can
be obtained with a high degree of accuracy.
- Operate continuously.
Screen used in Rotary
Screen Printing


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Review Questions:
1. Define Printing and the traditional styles of
printing.
2. What is Direct Printing? Explain the different
types of Direct Printing in detail.
3. Explain Discharge Printing? What kind of
designs does it produce.
4. What is Screen Printing and what style of
printing does it follow. What are the points to
be kept in mind while making a Screen.
5. What is Rotary Screen Printing?


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Lesson 5: Other Methods of
Printing
Structure:
5.1 Ink Jet Printing
5.2 Heat-Transfer Printing
5.3 Photographic Printing
5.4 Electrostatic Printing
5.5 Foil Printing
5.6 Blotch Printing
5.7 Engineered Printing
5.8 Burnout Prints
5.9 Flock Printing
5.10 Recent developments in dyeing and
printing

5.1 Ink Jet Printing
In ink-jet (digital) printing, micro-drops of coloured
liquid ink are applied through tiny nozzles onto the
fabric surface at precise points. Computers control
the specific-colour ink jet, amount of ink, and
location of the micro-drops. Ink-jet printers operate
with four basic colours (yellow, magenta, cyan, and
black), which poses unique challenges in mixing
colours for textiles.
There are several types of ink-jet printers, including
continuous ink jet (CIJ) and drop on demand
(DOD). High numbers of separate, tiny nozzles are


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used for each colour. Development and refinement
of ink-jet printers for textiles is a slow process
because of the technical limitations for nozzles and
the different types of inks and pastes. Ink-jet
printers are used to print carpet and samples by
textile designers (Fig. 12) and limited commercial
or production yardage. Ink-jet printing is expected
to revolutionize small-lot printing. Proofing is the
printing of samples to check the pattern, colour,
and design. It allows the print facility to get
customer approval before preparing equipment for
commercial or full-scale production and significantly
speeds up the production process.
One of the biggest limitations is its incredibly slow
production speed (less than 2 yards per minute) as
compared with other commercial printing methods.
Image resolution and crispness can also be
problems with these prints. Limitations in fabric
width, fastness of the print inks and pastes, and
changes in fabric hand are also concerns with ink-
jet-printed fabrics.

5.2 Heat-Transfer Printing
During the 1960s a new method of printing was
introduced. Some called it by the name of the
company, that is, Sublistatic, whereas others talked
about transfer printing or sublimation printing. The
process is an adaptation of the old decalcomania
process and the technique used in transferring
embroidery patterns from paper to fabric.
The process utilizes a basic chemical principle
whereby certain substances can be made to pass
from a solid state directly to a vapour when heated
and return directly to a solid when cooled.
Basically, it is a two-stage process:


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1. A design is printed onto paper, using specially
formulated inks-dyes-that have been selected
for their sublimation properties and their
attraction to the fibers on which they are to
be printed.
2. The paper is fed into a machine, fabric to be
printed is fed into the machine, and the faces
of both are brought into contact in a heat
zone. The heat vapourizes the dye on the
paper, and the dye is absorbed by the fabric.

Recent modifications of the transfer process have
included wetting the fabric and paper prior to
contact. This is referred to as the wet transfer
printing or vapour phase transfer printing. This
modification enables the dyers to use other
dyestuffs; but, more important, it has made it
possible to produce quality transfer prints on nylon,
acrylic, and cellulosic fibre fabrics.
The success of transfer printing depends on the
proper selection of the dyes or inks for use on the
paper, the application of sufficient heat for
sublimation, and prompt cooling to help lock the
dye into the fibre. The process is used successfully
on fabrics made of fibres that can be dyed with
disperse dyes, a new class of dyes that have been
developed specifically for transfer printing, and
selected reactive dyes. The development of the new
group of dyes that are effective for transfer printing
has increased the type of fibres and fibre variants
that can be dyed successfully by this technique and
has, thus, increased its use considerably.
Transfer printing is rapid, economical, and
ecologically sound. There are reduced energy
needs, reduced use of natural resources, and a
reduction in pollution. All of this makes transfer
printing extremely attractive to the textile industry.


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In addition, it is used successfully on carpets and
on individual pieces used in apparel construction or
home furnishings as well as on the typical yardage
usually printed (Fig. 13).

5.3 Photographic Printing
Photographic prints are produced in a manner very
similar to that used in making photographs. The
fabric is treated with a light-reactive dye. A
negative is placed on the fabric, light is transmitted
through it, and the design is developed. After
stabilization, the fabric is thoroughly washed, and
the print becomes permanent. Either black-and-
white or full-colour prints can be made by this
process (Fig. 14).

5.4 Electrostatic Printing
Electrostatic printing is similar to electrostatic
flocking. A prepared screen is covered with
powdered dye mixed with a carrier that has
dielectric properties. The screen is positioned about
inch above the fabric. When passed through an
electric field, the dye powder is pulled onto the
material, where it is fixed by heat.

5.5 Foil Printing
In foil printing, a special adhesive is applied to the
fabric by a flatbed or rotary screen. The fabric is
dyed and partially cured. The foil combines a thin
polyester film with a heat-sensitive release coating,
a very thin layer of aluminium, and a clear or tinted
lacquer. The metallic foil is heated on a heat-
transfer press and foil bonds only where the
adhesive pattern exists on the fabric.


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5.6 Blotch Printing
In this direct printing technique the background
and the design are both printed onto a white fabric.
It is usually done in one operation. Any one of the
several methods such as block screen or voller
printing may be used. Blotch prints can be made to
stimulate the more costly discharge and resist
prints. However, since the latter or piece dyed and
therefore the face and back are same, the blotch
prints can be identified with the lighter back.

5.7 Engineered Prints
Engineered prints are prints which have two or
more distinct designs, each located in separate
areas of the fabric, and where each designed
section will become a specific part of the garment.
For example, a clothing designer wants to create a
blouse whose front and back are blue and white
polka dot, and whose sleeves are the same blue
and white colours, but in a stripe design. In this
instance, the clothing designer will work with the
textile designer to devise or engineer a print where
both the polka dot elements and stripe elements
are on the same bolt of cloth. The placement within
the print and yardage of each of the design
elements must be carefully worked out so that
optimum fabric utilization, without inordinate
waste, is achieved.

5.8 Burnout Prints
Burnout prints involve printing with a chemical
substance (e.g. sulphuric acid on cotton) which will
destroy the fibre in the pattern design print area.
Thus, a whole in the fabric results where the


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chemical contacted the fabric. Simulated eyelet
embroideries are made with a 2 or 3-roller print,
where one roller contains the fiber destroying
chemical, and the other roller(s) prints a pattern
simulating embroidery stitching.
These fabrics are used in low-cost summer blouses
and in cotton lingerie trim. The edges of the holes
in burn-out prints are subject to premature fraying.
These fabrics, therefore, are not very resistant to
prolonged wear.
Another type of burn-out print involves fabrics
which are made from blended yarns, core spun
yarns, or fabric mixtures of two or more types of
fibres. The burn-out print chemical will destroy one
fiber (the cellulosic) and leave the others
undamaged. Many unusual and interesting fabrics
are created with this method of printing.

5.9 Flock Printing
Flock printing is a type of printing in which tiny
particles of fiber (ranging from about 1/10 to 1/4
inch) are made to adhere to a fabric surface in
conformance to a particular design. The process
consists of first printing the design with an adhesive
rather than dye or pigment, and then exposing the
fibre flock to the fabric. The flock will be held to the
fabric surface only in those proportions where the
adhesive was first applied.
There are two methods of adhering the flock to the
adhesive-treated fabric surface: mechanical
flocking and electrostatic flocking. Each yields its
own distinct touch to the flock surface. In
mechanical flocking, the fibre flock is shifted onto
the fabric while the fabric is passing in open width
through a flocking chamber. Mechanical beaters
cause the fabric to vibrate. Most, but not all of the


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flock, becomes embedded in an upright position. In
electrostatic flocking, the flock particles are given
an electrostatic charge, which results in practically
all of the fibers being oriented in an upright position
when they adhere to the fabric. Electrostatic
flocking is slower and more costly than mechanical
flocking, but results in a more uniform and denser
flock.
The fibres used for flocking include practically all of
the man-made fibres. Rayon and nylon are the two
most popular. In most instances, the flock fiber is
dyed prior to its application to the fabric.
All the above mentioned methods of printing use
the direct printing technique.


Fig.12 Ink-Jet printed fabrics designed by J.R.
Campbell.


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Fig.13 Heat-transfer printing design on paper
transferred by heat to fabric; Design on paper
is lighter after printing.
Fig.14 Photographic Print

5.10 Recent developments in dyeing
and printing
Recent advances in commercial colouration include
a photosensitive dye in selected areas of a pattern
that change hue when exposed to ultraviolet light
or sunlight and returns to the original colour when


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removed from sunlight. When heat-sensitive dyes
are combined with another dye, body heat causes
dramatic colour change.
A system by Kanebo of Japan incorporates tiny
liquid crystals in surface coating. The crystals
change colour depending on temperature. This
coating is used on swimwear and trims; the high
cost of the system limits its application to other
products.
In a new process, a small amount of very tiny
metal particles (nano meters in size) can be used to
dye natural and synthetic fibers. The fabric is
soaked in a special solution, dried, then dipped in a
salt solution of the metal and dried chromium
produces a golden sheen while gold gives a purple
cast.
Computer monitoring of dyeing and printing
processes decreases the environmental impact as
manufacturers recognize the direct costs of
inefficient use of materials and energy and
incorporate closed-loop recycling of chemicals,
solvents, water, and energy. Dye chemists use
computers to calculate formulaes to match
swatches submitted by designers and monitor
dyeing or printing processes so colour is consistent.
Computers automatically register each colour in a
print so that edges match.






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Review Questions:
1. What is inkjet printing?
2. Explain transfer printing.
3. What is photographic printing?
4. Explain electrostic and foil printing.
5. What are the very recent developments in
dyeing and printing?
6. How have computers helped in the
development of printing techniques?
7. Write short notes on:
Engineered Prints
Blotch Prints
Flock Prints
Burnout Prints


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Lesson 6: Colour Problems

Structure:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Colour Problems in Dyed Fabrics
6.3 Common Defects in Printed Fabrics
6.4 Colour Fastness
6.4.1 Factors affecting colour fastness
6.5 Launder Ometer
6.6 Fade Ometer

6.1 Introduction
Good colour fastness is expected, but it is not
always achieved. Colourfastness refers to the way
the colours on dyed and printed fabrics behave
during regular use and care. When considering all
the variables connected with dyeing and printing
and the hostile environment in which fabrics are
used, it is amazing how good most coloured fabrics
are.
6.2 Colour Problems in Dyed Fabrics
1. Bleeding: is colour loss in water. In bleeding,
other fibers present in the wash load may pick
up the colour. This happens with a poor dye
fiber bond.
2. Crocking: colour loss from rubbing or abrasion.
This happens when the dye sits on the fiber.


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3. Migration: is shifting of colour to the
surrounding area or to an adjacent surface. For
example, the white area on a red and white shirt
takes a pinkish tinge. This happens when the
dye fiber bond is poor or the washing after the
dyeing is improper.
4. Fume-Fading: This is most common with fabrics
dyed with disperse dyes. The colour fades or
shifts hue when exposed to some atmospheric
pollutants.
5. Tendering: Certain vat and sulphur dyes tender
or destroy cotton fabric. Green, red, blue and
yellow vat dyes; black, yellow and orange
sulphur dyes are the chief offenders.
Manufacturers can correct it by materializing the
chemicals which cause tendering. The damage is
increased by moisture and sunlight, a problem
that is critical in droparies. Damage may not be
evident till laundering takes place after which
the slits and holes occur.
6. Frosting occurs when the colour appears faded
due to abrasion from certain areas of a garment
(cuffs, collars, pockets) after using it for a
certain time period. It usually occurs with blends
and with durable press garments that have been
union-dyed. During wear the surface is abraded
and becomes lighter in colour. Some resin
treated fabrics show this colour problem
because either the dye was applied with the
resin and did not penetrate sufficiently, or the
fabric was dyed after being resin treated, in
which there were not enough dye site available
to anchor the dye
7. Barre: is a horizontal shaded band running
across the width of the fabric. It may be caused
by the variation in size of the filling yarn and by


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differences in tension of either the filling or the
warp yarns of a woven fabric.
8. Off Shade: This refers to a odour that does not
exactly match the standard or prepared sample.
This may be due to faulty dye formulation or
application, or it may be due to variation in the
dye lot.
9. Shade bar is a horizontal band of different hue
running across the fabric. It may be caused by
or change of filling robbin in the loom or a loom
stop and start up.
10.Shading is a variation in colour tone either
horizontally or vertically. It is generally due to
uneven tension on the fabric, for example as
may sometimes happen in jig dyeing.
11.Stained fabric indicates a discolouration
caused by or foreign substance, dirt grease, oil,
or sizing residue on the fabric being dyed.
12.Stained (unclear) cross-dye may occur in a
cross-dyed fabric of white and a colour. The dye
of the colorued yarns may stain the white ones.
This is usually due to the poor dye selection and
fastness.
13.Streaked Fabric indicates either on stain or
uneven dyeing caused by folds in the fabric
during the dyeing process.



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6.3 Common Defects in Printed Fabrics
Since the printing of textiles is in many respects
similar to the dyeing of textiles, many of the
imperfections found in dyed fabrics are also found
in printed fabrics.
1. Off-grain prints: Off-grain prints are created by
incorrect finishing of the fabric. During the
routine finishing of cotton, the fabric is put on a
tenter frame after bleaching and scouring. The
tenter frame mechanically, straightens the
fabric, length and width wise in such a way that
the warps and wefts are at right angles to each
other. If this fails to happen the fabric is off
grain or skewed. If printing is done on such a
fabric it is called off grain print (Fig. 15).
2. Colour Drag: Colour of the print smears or
smudges from rubbing against an object before
it becomes dry.
3. Colour Splatter: The print paste instead of
being placed on the fabric is thrown or
splattered onto the fabric surface.
4. Fuzzy Pattern: The edges of patterns are not
sharp, clear lines, but are instead rather fuzzy
lines. Most frequently caused by improper
singeing or improperly thickened print paste.
5. Off-register: Printing rolls or screens are
improperly aligned so that pattern parts do not
meet properly. This imperfection is also called
out-of-fit or out-of-register.
6. Stop Mark: Colour streak across the fabric
resulting from the printing machine being
stopped during the printing process, and then
starting again.


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7. Tender Spots: In printed fabrics, one or more
colours of the print may cause weakened areas
where they were printed. Usually due to
excessive use of injurious chemicals in the print
paste. May also be found in the discharged area
of discharge prints.

Fig.15 Fabric Printed Offgrain

6.5 Colour Fastness
Colour fastness refers to the dyes and prints that
do not shift hue or fade when exposed to sunlight,
environmental factors and do not move onto other
fabrics or material during storage, processing, use,


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or care. Poor colour fastness can create problems in
production storage and use.
Dyes still cause problems for consumers despite the
tremendous improvement of dye stuffs and
colouring processes. Dissatisfaction may be the
result of
- improper fabric care
- inadequate labeling directions
- neglect on the part of the consumer to follow
instructions
- improper selection of dye or dye application.
6.4.1 Factors affecting colour fastness
1. Laundering: Laundering, of printed or dyed
fabrics is the major factor influencing their
colour fastness. The colour may bleed only at
the first wash or many subsequent washes. This
is because of the improper washing after dyeing
the fabric or improper selection of the dye stuff
or improper method of application of dye.
Fabrics that are not colour fast to laundering
should be washed separately or with like colour
fabrics or else the washed colour will get on to
other fabrics. Wash instructions on care labels
should be followed carefully.
Colour fastness to laundry is tested in
commercial testing laboratories by an
instrument called the launder- Ometer. Apart
from colour fastness to laundering procedures it
also evaluates colour fastness to laundry
additives and dry cleaning solvents (Fig. 16).
2. Sunlight: Sunlight is another major factor
influencing colour fastness specially in cotton
fabrics. Care label instructions Dry in Shade
should be carefully followed. Colours of curtains


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and draperies should be specially fast to sunlight
or sun fast. Laboratory tests for colour
fastness to sunlight are done with an instrument
called the FadPade-Ometer. This is used to
stimulate sunlight and its affect on colour
fastness (Fig. 17).
3. Crocking: Crocking means rubbing off of the
colour onto another fabric by friction. The
surface molecules which remain on the dyed
product after improper washing may result in
rubbing off to the other fabrics. It is noticed that
many times white undergarments get the colour
of the shirt or trouser due to crocking. Many
times the upholstery gets the colour by just
sitting on it. Laboratory tests are done by an
instrument called the crock meter.
4. Perspiration: Many times the colour gets faded
from the underarms and collars due to
perspiration. This specially happens in silk
fabrics. This happens due to the salts and acid
present in the perspiration (sweat). Laboratory
tests are done with an instrument called-
perspiration tester.
5. Ironing: Although ironing or pressing may
produce noticeable colour change, the fabric will
usually return to its normal colour after cooling,
specially when dry heat is used. Pressing with
steam or with a damp press cloth affects some
dyes. The consumer can check this satisfactorily
with an iron on an inside seam allowance.

6.5 Launder Ometer
A. Double walled steel chamber
B. Adaptors
C. Rotating Shaft


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D. Lid
E. Automatic Controls
F. Lid of Steel Cylinder Lined with Neoprene
G. Steel Cylinder (3 x 8)
H. Teflon Gasket

Fig. 16

6.6 Fade Ometer
A. Heat Resistant Chamber
B. 500 Watt Bulb


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C. Specimen Holder
D. Digital Watch
E. Automatic Control
F. Lid
G. Front Glass Covering
H. Back Heat Resistant Covering
I. Metal Strip
J. Clips to Hold Front and Back to Sandwich
Fabric

Fig. 17


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Lesson 7: Colour Matching


Colour theory describes a complex phenomenon
that combines the physics of light, the chemistry of
coloured objects, the biology of the eye, the
behavioural sciences in terms of what colours mean
to society or to individuals, and aesthetics the
appreciation of what one sees. Understanding these
interactions helps us understand why colour is hard
to perceive in low light, why colour matching is a
problem and why some colours are used in certain
settings.
Once the dyer has formulated a colour match and
achieves a satisfactory sampling, this becomes the
standard to which all future orders of the same
colours must conform. In actual practice, however,
each new batch (or dye lot) is slightly different in
shade from all other lots before or after. These
variations from lot-to-lot are caused by slight
differences in chemical concentrations or in
molecular fibre structure, or even slight differences
in the water used for dyeing.
Variations in shade may even occur within the
same batch or lot. The variations result from slight
differences in the greige goods being processed.
Our eyes are extremely sensitive to colour
variations. The variabilities that occur, though small
and in some instances even unmeasurable, cause
shade variations visible to our eyes.
There is a condition which sometimes occurs in
dyed fabrics where the colour has been formulated
to match an already existing colour (For example,
sleeve cuffs dyed to match the colour of a body


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shell fabric for a ski parka). When the two colours
match each other under one light condition, for
example daylight, but look different from each
other in a different light, for example indoor light
illumination, the condition is known as
metamerism. The term colour flare is used to
indicate a fabric which has changed colour from the
change of light source.
Metamerism may be caused when the dye
components for the shade being matched are
chemically different from the components which
were used for the original. Thus, it is highly unlikely
that metamerism would occur from dye lot to dye
lot of the same colour where all of the dyeings were
performed by the same dyer. One should watch out
for metamerism whenever two or more fabric
types, each dyed by different dyers, come together
as matched items.
It is especially important that the phenomenon of
metamerism be understood and considered in
apparel, such as coordinated sportswear, and
where matching colour trim is used, as in the ski
parka mentioned previously.
A box-type device known as a Colour Matching
Booth is widely used to text for metamerism. This
instrument can simulate natural daylight as well as
produce incandescent, fluorescent and ultraviolet
light. Colour matching booths are sometimes called
Macbeth Lamps, the name of the original such
device.
In the Bezold effect two or more colours merge
into one new colour. This effect is seen when small
scale prints or yarn dyed fabrics are viewed from a
distance. Each individual colour is not seen, but a
rather new colour that blends the individual colours
is seen. This effect was used by impressionist
painters and is used in colour inkjet printers.


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Colour measurement, the process of assigning
numerical values to colour, is done to facilitate
colour matching and shade sorting. Colour
measurement can be done with a trained human
eye or instruments that assess colour in three or
more dimensions e.g. colourimeter many different
instruments and systems are used in this process.
Colour matching describes the process of
developing a formula to reproduce a colour, such as
when designers submit a colour swatch or when
coordinating fabrics are desired.
Shade sorting, is grouping the fabrics by colour, is
done so that all fabrics of one colour purchased by
the manufacturer match. Thus, when fabric is
layered prior to cutting out product parts, there is
less concern that parts from different layers will not
match when sewn into a complete garment.
Computer colour control systems consist essentially
of a scanning spectrophotometer (which is capable
of analyzing the colour of an input sample) and a
digital computer, (in whose memory bank are
stored the colour characteristics, in computer
language, of the dyers dyestuff inventory). The
computer software enables the system to take the
spectrophotometer reading of the sample, scan the
computer memory, mathematically mix the dyes to
reproduce the original sample shade, and output
dye formulas for reproducing the colour of the
original sample. The computer can be commanded
to give a formulas which is the least metameric, or
lowest cost, or for any given fastness requirement
(best light fastness, for example). These
instruments enable dyers and printers to formulate
and control colour on a more consistent basis, and
at a considerably reduced cost.
Use of the computer assisted colour control
systems, under optimal use, enable dyers to


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accurately match and sort shades as well as
achieve near perfect lot-to-lot consistency of
colour. To buyers and merchandisers of mass
produced apparel it means, for example, the
possibility of ordering and displaying jackets
separately from skirts of the same line, and
allowing the consumer to choose each separately
according to their individual sizing.














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Review Questions:
1. What are the common problems and defects
with dyed fabrics (enlist)
2. What are frosting and streaked fabric?
3. What are the printing defects?
4. What is colour fastness and what are the
factors effecting colour fastness?
5. What are Launder Ometer and Fade Ometer
and what is their function?
6. What are metamerism and Bezold effect?
What is shade sorting?


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Books for Further
References
1. Crobman, Bernard P, 1983. Textiles Fiber to
Fabric, McGraw Hill International Edition.
2. Joseph Marjory L. 1980. Essentials of
Textiles, Holt, Rhinchart and Winston.
3. Pizzuto, Joseph J. 1990. Fiber Science, Fair
Child Publications.
4. Pannu Gurpreet, 1995. International
Standards for Testing Woven & Knitted
Fabrics, Dept. of Textiles Lady Irwin College,
Delhi University.