CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basics of Heat treatment
1.1.1 Hardening processes
The general purpose of heat treatment process is to vary the hardness of the metal
or to produce a structure or a surface that facilitates the progress of subsequent
manufacturing operations (Payson, P., 1943) or the proper fimctioning of the product.
Hardening
Hardening consists of heating of metallic materials to hardening temperature,
holding at that temperature, followed by rapid cooling such as quenching in water, oil or
salt baths. The high hardness developed by this process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying rapid cooling. The term rapid cooling simply does not
mean that cooling rate is higher than that adopted in annealing and normalizing. What it
really means is that cooling rate is equal to or more than the critical cooling rate of the
given material. Rapid cooling results in the transformation of austenite at considerably
low temperatures transformation into non-equilibrium products. The product of low
temperature transformation of austenite is martensite, which is hard microconstituent of
steel (Schimizu, N. and Tamura, I., 1978).
Brayans, R.G., et al., (1969) analyzed the mechanism of phase transformation in
crystalline solids and observed that the hardening temperature depends on chemical
composition. For plain carbon steels, it depends on carbon content alone. Hypoeutectoid
steels are heated to about 30-50C above the upper critical temperature, whereas
eutectoid and hypereutectoid steels are heated to about 30-50C above the lower critical
temperature. The phases, Ferrite and pearlite transform into austenite at hardening
temperature for hypoeutectoid steels. This austenite transforms to marteniste on rapid
quenching from hardening temperature. The presence of martensite accounts for high
hardness of quenched steel. If hypoeutectoid steel is heated to a hardening temperature
equivalent to that for hypereutectoid steel, the structure will consist of ferrite and
austenite. This will transform to femte and martensite on quenching. Femte, a very soft
phase, lowers the hardness of hardened steel considerably. Thus, the very purpose of
hardening, i.e. attainment of improved mechanical properties is lost. This is also known
as incomplete hardening, and is not usually employed in practice. The preferred
hardening temperature for hypereutectoid steel lies between the lower critical temperature
(A,) and the upper critical temperature (Lm). The advantage gained from hardening
temperature in this range is two-fold. The first is related to the presence of cementite in
hardened steel. The cementite in a martensitic matrix accounts for several desirable
properties. Wear resistance is one of them. The fact that both martensite and cementite
are hard constituents their presence is responsible for high wear resistance of the resulting
microstructure. Cementite is harder than martensite and so wear resistance of the two-
phase microstructure is better than what is achieved by martensite alone. The second
advantage of this hardening temperature is the attainment of fme martensite in the final
structure. In fact, heating of hypereutectoid steel above the upper critical temperature
(km) for hardening is detrimental because such a high temperature will result in
coarsening of austenitic grains and decarburization at the surface. Coarse austenite will
transform to coarse acicular marteniste (microstructure) which has poor mechanical
properties. Decarburized surface responds poorly to hardening treatment. In addition to
these factors, quenching from such a high temperature will introduce severe internal
stresses in the hardened steel.
Quenching media
When hardening tools and machine components, the heat treater generally aims at
obtaining a martensitic structure, at least in the surface layers of the steel. Hence, the rate
of cooling must be controlled so that the formation of femte, pearlite or bainite is
avoided. For cooling the hot metals, the various quenchants used are water, oil, air, salt
baths, mixtures of water and oil (emulsions) and polymer quenching media.
During the quenching of steel in liquid media, the whole operation may be split
up into three stages, viz. the vapour-blanket stage, the boiling stage, and the convection
stage, as shown in Figure 1. l(Christian, J.W., 1975).
CONVECTION I
Figure 1.1 Three stages of the cooling curve
During the vapour-blanket, stage a thin vapour film form, which is, heat
insulating and thus prevents heat abstraction. Therefore, the curve has rather flat
appearance in this range.
During the boiling stage, there is high rate of heat abstracting which in part is due
to the energy consumed by the vapour formation and in part to the vigorous agitation.
During the convection stage, the heat abstraction takes place more slowly and the
curve is flat once again.
Tempering
Jaffe, L.D. and Buffurn, D.C., (1965) investigated the Upper Temper
Embrittlement of Ni-Cr-Steel and found that, when steel is hardened to a martensitic
structure the toughness is rather low. On tempering, i.e. heating it to some temperature
between 160C and 650C, the toughness increases considerably.
Austempering is special heat treatment process in which austenite is transformed
into bainite. Similar to austempering, Martempering involves heating the steel to the
austenitizing temperature, followed by quenching in a constant temperature bath
maintained above M, point. The usual temperature of the bath lies between 180C and
250C. Steel is held in the bath till the temperature throughout the section becomes
uniform and is equal to the bath temperature. As soon as this temperature is attained,
steel is withdrawn and cooled in air. The cooling rate should be sufficiently high and
holding time considerably short to prevent transformation of austenite to pearlite or to
bainite. Martensite is formed in the second stage, namely during cooling in air.
Sub-zero treatment
The resultant microstructure of klly hardened steel should consist of martensite.
In practice, it is very difficult to have a completely martensitic structure by hardening
treatment. Some amount of austenite is generally present in the hardened steel. This
austenite existing along with the marteniste is referred to as retained austenite.
Conventional metallography does not reveal the presence of retained austenite till it
exceeds 20 percent. The presence of retained austenite greatly reduces mechanical
properties and such steels do not develop maximum hardness even after cooling at rates
higher than the critical cooling rate. The amount of retained austenite depends largely on
the chemical composition of steel. For plain carbon steels, the amount of retained
austenite increases with the rise in carbon contents (Suryanarayana, A.V.K., 1979). The
problem of retained austenite is more complex in alloy steels. Most of the alloying
elements increase the content of retained austenite.
Hardness can be improved in hardened steels containing retained austenite by a
process known as sub-zero treatment or cold treatment. Retained austenite is converted
into martensite by this treatment. This conversion of retained austenite into martensite
results in increased hardness, wear resistance and dimensional stability of steel. When
hardened steel is left with retained austenite, it is likely to get transformed into martensite
during subsequent thermal cycling. Such transformation leads to unpredictable
dimensional changes. Hence, for dimensional stability, it is necessary to eliminate
retained austenite as far as possible. This can be done through sub-zero treatment. The
process consists of cooling steel to sub-zero temperature, which should be lower than the
Mf temperature of the steel. Mf temperature for most steels lies between -30C and -
70C. During the process, considerable amount of internal stresses are developed in the
steel, and hence tempering is done immediately after the sub-zero treatment. This
treatment also helps to temper martensite, which is formed by decomposition of retained
austenite during sub-zero treatment. This treatment has been found to be less effective if
performed on steels, which have been kept at room temperature for several hours or
mildly heated, say up to 100 or 150C, after the hardening treatment. The reason for this
is that the stability of austenite is increased considerably by these two processes. The
austenite so stabilized does not transform to marteniste completely. Therefore, sub-zero
treatment must be performed just after the hardening treatment. Mechanical refrigeration
units, dry ice, and some liquefied gases such as liquid nitrogen can be used for cooling
steels to sub-zero temperatures (Rajan, T.V., et al., 1998).
This treatment is employed for high carbon and high alloy steels used for making
tools, bearings, measuring gauges and components requiring high impact and fatigue
strength coupled with dimensional stability. Case hardened steels, which have a tendency
to retain austenite, are also subjected to such treatment.
1.1.2 Surface heat treatment
There are situations in which the requirement is such that the outer surface should
be hard and wear resistant and the inner core more ductile and tougher.
Such a
combination of properties ensures that the component has sufficient wear resistance to
give long service life and at the same time has sufficient toughness to withstand shock
loads. Such combination can basically achieved by case hardening process (Child, H.C.,
1980).
Case hardening treatments are basically classified into two groups. The first
group is known as thennochemical treatment because the surface composition of the steel
is changed by difhsion of carbon and some times by other elements.
Examples: Carburizing-Pack carburizing, Liquid Carburizing and Gas Carburizing
Vacuum carburizing, Post-Carburizing, Cyaniding and carbonirtriding, Nitriding, Plasma
Nitriding, Salt bath nitrocarburizing, Boronizing, Chromizing and Toyota Diffusion
Process
The second one is called thermo-mechanical treatment, which involves phase
transformation, by rapid heating and cooling of the outer surface.
Examples: Flame hardening, Induction hardening Electron beam hardening and laser
hardening
Thermo-chemical surface hardening
Carburizing
Carburizing is the most widely used process for surface hardening of steels. In
this process carbon is difhsed into steel by heating above the transformation temperature
and holding the steel in contact with a carbonaceous material which may be a solid
medium, liquid or a gas. Under such condition, carbon is absorbed in solid solution in
austenite. As the solubility of carbon is more in the austenitic state than in fenitic state,
fully austenitic steel is essential for carburizing (Colegate, G.T., 1951). Carburizing can
be divided into Pack carburizing, Liquid Carburizing and Gas Carburizing. Among them
Gas Carburizing is the most widely used industrial heat treatment process.
Gas carburizing is a process in which the surface of the component is saturated
with carbon in a gaseous atmosphere containing carbon. To accomplish this, first the
components are heated in a gas tight furnace in a neutral atmosphere to a predetermined
temperature in the range of 870 to 940 OC. Then the furnace is flooded with a suitable
gas such as Propane, Butane, Kerosene etc. Finally, the components are held at this
temperature to allow diffusion of carbon into the case. After the carburizing treatment is
over the components are quenched to get the required hardness, wear resistance and
fatigue resistance on the surface, supported by a tougher core. A striking feature of gas
carburizing process is that in this process the original toughness and the ductility
remains unaffected even after the heat treatment.
Cyaniding
In cyaniding, the surface layer of steel is hardened by addition of both carbon and
nitrogen. Cyaniding is carried out in a liquid bath of NaCN. In this process, parts to be
heat treated are immersed in a liquid bath (800 - 960 OC) of NaCN with the concentration
varying between 25% and 90%. Measured amount of air is passed through the molten
bath. NaCN reacts with the oxygen in the air and is oxidized. Carbon and Nitrogen so
formed in atomic form diffuse into the steel and give thin wear resistance layer. Usually
this process requires 30-gominutes for completion. Case depth ranging from 0.5 to 2mm
can be achieved. This process is not suitable for hardening those parts, which are
subjected to shock, fatigue and impact because nitrogen addition has adverse effects on
such properties of steels (Waterfall, F.D., 1949).
Carbo-nitriding
Carbo-nitriding is carried at lower temperatures (800 - 870 OC) in a gas mixture
consisting of a carburizing gas and Ammonia. A typical gas mixture contains about 15%
NH3 5% CH4, and 80% neutral carrier gas. Carbon and nitrogen are diffused at the same
time into the surface of the steel in the austenitic ferritic conditions and gives case
thickness of the order of 0.05 to 0.75mm. After Carbo-nitriding, quenching is done in oil
to a avoid cracking.
Plasma-nitriding
Plasma nitriding is also known as an Ion nitriding process. In this process the
steel components to be heat treated is kept at 450 OC in vacuum at a negative potential of
the order of 1000 ohms with respect to chamber. Then an appropriate mixture of nitrogen
and Hydrogen is passed at a pressure of 0.22 to 8m bar. As a result, plasma formation of
these gases takes place. Korotchenko, V., and Bell, T., 1978, showed that in Plasma
Nitriding the time required for achieving the case depth of 4pm is about 20 hours at
450C.
Boronizing
Boronizing is the one of the recent methods of surface hardening. Both pack and
gaseous techniques can be applied using Boronizing. In the case of pack Boronizing, The
Components are packed in heat resistant boxes with mixtures of granules or paste of
boron carbide with addition of activators at 900 - 1000 OC. Boron diffuses inwards and
iron borides layers are formed. On the outer surface FeB phase forms, while in the
interior Fe2B phase is formed. FeB phase is more brittle and it is not desirable. Higher
temperatures, longer treatment times and high alloy steels favours the formation of FeB
Phase. The treatment time requires for a case depth of 0.15mm is 6hours at about 900
"C. The significance of this process is the treatment temperature, which is very high and
hence hardening of components before Boronizing is not required (Graf Von
Matuschka, A,, 1975).
Chromizing
Chromizing is used for surface hardening of both carbon and tool steels. The
components to be chromized are packed with fine chromium powder and additives. A
typical Chromizing mixture consists of 60% Cr, 0.2%Ammoium Iodide and 39% Kaolin
powder. Diffusion of chromium takes place at 900-1020 OC and chromium carbide is
formed at the outer surface of the steel. The treatment time needed for achieving a case
depth of 0.02 - 0.04mm is 12 hours. Hardness of chromium carbide layer is about
1500VHN (Raghavan, V., 1984).
Toyota Diffusion process
In this surface hardening process, which produces the hardest surface, the
hardness achieved is of the order of 3000 - 4000VHN. In Toyota Diffusion process, the
component is kept in salt bath of proprietary composition based on borax. The carbide
forming elements are added in the form of Ferro alloys. The process is carried out at
about 1050C. After salt bath treatment, the components are quenched and tempered.
This process of surface hardening is very appropriate for die and tool steels (Rajan, T.V.,
et al., 1998).
Thermo mechanical surface hardening
Flame hardening
Flame hardening is the simplest form of surface hardening heat treatment. This
process consists of heating the large work piece, such as crankshaft, axles, large gear,
cam or any other complicated cross section by an oxy-acetylene or oxy-fuel blowpipe
followed by spraying of jet of water as coolant. Hardness in flame-hardened steel is due
to martenisitic and lower bianitic structure. The carbon content required for flame
hardening steels varies from 0.3% -0.6%. High carbon steels can also be hardened by
this process, but greater care is required to avoid cracking. This process can achieve
normally, a case depth of upto 3mm. There are four different methods, which are used in
general for flame hardening: i) Stationary, ii) Progressive iii) Spinning iv) Progressive-
Spinning.
There is a little scaling, decarburization or distortion in flame hardening. Since
the heating and cooling are very fast, the core remains unaffected (Davies, D.E., 1966).
Induction hardening Process
Generally this process is used to surface harden crankshaft, camshaft, gears, crank
pins and axles. In this process, heating of the components is achieved by electromagnetic
induction. A conductor (coil) carries an alternating current of high frequency, which is
then induced in the enclosed steel part within the magnetic field of the coil. As a result,
induction heating takes place. The heat so generated affects only the outer surface of the
steel components due to skin effect. The component is heated usually for a few seconds
only, and then it is quenched immediately by the jet of cold water. Due to quenching
martensitic structure is formed which makes the outer surface hard and wear resistance.
The hardening temperature ranges from 760 to 930C. According to the Carbon content
and alloy addition, the temperature is fixed (Lakhtin, Yu.M., 1979).
Electron beam hardening
Electron beam hardening is a short surface hardening procedure for
martenisitically hardeneable ferrous materials. So this process is used for hardening
those components, which cannot be induction, hardened because of associated distortion.
Automatic transmission clutch cams (SAE 5060 Steels) are hardened by this process.
The work piece is kept in vacuum at 0.06m bar pressure. Electron beam is focused on the
work piece to heat the surface. In the beginning, energy input is kept high. With time,
power input is reduced as the component gets heated up. This is done to avoid melting.
Normally case depth upto 1.5mm can be achieved by this method (Brooks, C.R., 1996).
Laser surface hardening
Laser surface hardening of ferrous materials is an established process used to
enhance the mechanical properties of highly stressed machine parts such as gears and
bearings. Laser beams are used since these have very high intensity, but they may melt
the work piece when they are used at such a high intensity. Therefore, a lens is used to
reduce the intensity by producing a defocused spot from 1 to 25 mm wide. Ashby and
Easterling, (1984) demonstrated that a laser beam of 1kW produces a circular spot
whose diameter may vary from 0.5- to 0.25mm. Industrial lasers upto 20kW are now
available. Case depth of about 1.3mm is obtained by self quenching. The microstructure
of laser heated steel consists of bianite and ferrite at the surface of the heated spot and
pearlite and fenite in the interior.
Salt bath hardening
Salt bath heat treating methods are uniform, quick, efficient, economical and
environmentally responsible. Salt bath are used in a wide variety of commercial heat
treating operations. Parts that are heated in molten salt bath are heated by conduction.
The molten salt bath provides a ready source of heat as required. Although materials
being heated come in contact with heat through their surfaces, the core of a part rises in
temperature at approximately the same rate as its surface. Heat is quickly drawn to the
core fiom the surface and salt bath provide heat at an equal rate over the total part. Salt
bath hardening consists of four stages namely Preheating, Austenitizing, Quenching and
Drawing (Grossmann, A,, and Bain, E.C., 1964).
1.1.3 Gas carburizing
During the last few decades, carburizing by means of gas has become the most
popular method of case hardening. The furnaces are very dependable and relatively
simple to operate. Since hydrocarbons enter into the process, several reactions take place
simultaneously. In addition to the reaction
2com C+ C02 ...l.l
there is also the methane reaction
-2%
CH4 - C+ 2H2
... 1.2
and the water-gas reaction
a
CO+H2 '- C+H20 ... 1.3
The composition of the furnace gas can be determined by analysis and hence the
carbon potential may be determined. The moisture content of the gas has a great
influence on the carbon potential as indicated by reaction (eq. 1.3) and may be measured
by simply determining the dew point of the gas. The dew point is that temperature at
which the water droplets (dew) are deposited from the gas (saturation).
Harris, F.E., (1943) described a method of calculating the carbon potential from
the composition of the gas. There are a number of methods in existence for the
continuous measurement and control of the carbon potential. One such method is based
on infrared rays, which are used to register the concentration of C02 in the gas. This
value gives a measure of the CO concentration, which, in turn, relates to the carbon
potential. By means of a special measuring unit, the resulting impulse can be converted
direct to a numerical value of the carbon potential. The control may also be carried out
my measuring the resistance of a steel wire, which is calibrated for different carbon
concentrations. The resistance measured is proportional to the carbon concentration.
Indirect measurement of the carbon content can take place by means of an oxygen probe.
When gas carburizing is being employed, a primary requirement is the availability
of furnaces sufficiently gas tight to prevent air ingress, since this would interfere with the
process.
In principle, there are four different ways of producing the gas, viz.:
Dripping carburizing liquid into the furnace. This liquid generally contains ethyl
alcohol and white spirit or only isopropyl alcohol. It drops on to a plate inside the
hrnace where it is dispersed and vaporized. By this method, it is possible to
employ a liquid that produces a carrier gas having a relatively low carbon
potential. This potential can then be adjusted by dripping a more active liquid
into the furnace. In practice, however, only one liquid is used and the carbon
potential is adjusted by varying the volume of liquid added.
Admission of gas from a gas-producing unit. The gas is produced by endothermic
combustion. The raw gas, usually propane, is mixed with air in carefully
balanced proportions and burnt in the gas-producing unit to produce a carrier gas
with a carbon potential of 0.35% - 0.50%. Before it enters the furnace, the carrier
gas is given an extra addition of propane, thereby adjusting the carbon potential to
the required level, which is usually around 0.8%.
Direct admission of gas and air into the furnace. The gas actually doing the
carburization is produced in the furnace chamber by the reaction between the gas
and air, which are admitted in balanced amounts.
Carburizing in a vacuum furnace. Only hydrocarbons are admitted into the
furnace fi-om which air is evacuated. Since no oxygen takes part into the reaction,
there is no internal oxidation. The process can take place at a temperature higher
than that normally used, thus allowing the carburization to proceed more quickly
(Western, H.W., 1972 and Grosch, et al., 1981).
Depth of hardnesspenetration (Case depth)
The depth of hardness penetration depends on the carbon content of the
carburized layer. Provided only martensite is formed in the case on quenching, the depth
of case hardening would be equivalent to a depth of carbon penetration down to 0.40% C.
This would agree well for small parts but as the section dimensions increase, the rate of
cooling decreases and hence the conditions necessary for the formation of martensite are
changed. This implies that steel components of different sizes but which have the same
depth of carbon penetration obtain a casehardening depth that is dependent on the
dimensions of the piece (Beurnelburg, W., 1964).
Surface hardness
The carbon dissolved in the austenite is the decisive factor determining surface
hardness. When the carbon concentration at the surface of conventional alloy case-
hardening steels exceeds 0.70%, the M, temperature falls steeply, the amount of retained
austenite after quenching increases and the hardness decreases. If the surface layer of the
steel contains the appropriate concentration of carbon for maximum hardness, the
quenching temperature is of minor importance to the hardness provided that the grain size
is not altered. By varying the quenching temperature of an 'over-carburized' steel it is
possible to control the amount of carbon going into solution and hence the amount of
retained austenite which, in turn, affects the hardness (Robinson, G.H., 1957).
Fatigue strength of case-hardened steel
By and large, the increase in fatigue strength brought about by case hardening is
proportional to the hardness increase in the surface zone. It is also dependent on the
compressive stresses in this zone. The maximum fatigue strength value is obtained when
the carbon is about 0.6%. Most fatigue strength investigations of case-hardening steels
show that optimum properties are obtained when the surface carbon content is 0.6-0.8%
and the surface hardness at least 700HV (Diesburg, D.E., et a1.,1978).
ASM (Metals Handbook: Heat Treating, 1981) suggested the following general
heat-treatment recommendations for casehardening steels. The treatment is designed to
give a surface hardness of atleast 60 HRC or 7 10 HV after quenching.
Carburizing in solid compound (pack carburizing) - Temperature: 900-925OC
When direct quenching is employed, a carburizing temperature of 900C is
recommended. If a casehardening depth of more than 1.25 mm is aimed at, it might be a
good practice to perform the traditional practice of a double quench, i.e. a first quench
from about 880C and then a final quench. During the first heating for quenching, the
carbon concentration is reduced by diffusion. In addition, it breaks up and dissolves the
carbide network that usually forms when pack carburizing is used to give a deep carbon
penetration.
Depth of Case hardening in mm
< 0.50
0.50 - 1.25
< 1.25
Method of hardening
Direct Quench
Single quench from 800 to 820C
Double quench
Carburidcing in a salt bath (liquid bath carburizing)-Temperature: 850-900C
Depth of Case hardening in mrn Method of hardening
I Direct - Quench I
For direct quenching, a carburizing temperature of 8 50-870C is recommended; for
0.50 - 1.00
double quenching, 900C may be used.
Requench fAm 800 to 820C
(Double quench)
Carburizing in gas (Gas carb urizing)-Temperature: 900-940C
The carburization is carried out to the required depth of case hardening and to a
surface carbon concentration of 0.70-0.80%. When the process is completed, the
temperature in the h a c e is lowered to 83QC and the part is quenched in a suitable
medium.
Case-hardened steels are tempered at temperatures generally around 1 60-220C.
Temperatures below 160C should not be used, particularly if a grinding operation is to
follow, since grinding cracks develop very easily. The hardness falls quite rapidly when
the steel is tempered between 160C and 200C. If a hardness of 60HRC is required, the
tempering temperature should not be higher than 1 80C (TheIning, 1984).
1.1.4 Induction hardening
When electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is created
round it. If the conductor consists of a coil, a magnetic field is established inside the coil.
This field persists even if a metal ba is inserted into the coil, as shown in Figure 1.2. If
the magnetic flux is created by a high-frequency alternating current, it gives rise to eddy
currents in the surface of the metal bar, which consequently becomes heated (Figurel.3).
In iron, hysteresis losses also contribute to some extent to the temperature rise upto to the
Curie point (768'C), above which iron is non-magnetic (Semiatin S.L., and Stutz, D .E.,
1986)
The depth of penetration of the heat is governed mainly by the power and
frequency employed. The normal power input is 0.1 - 2kw/cm2 of the heated surface.
The relationship between depth of penetration and frequency can be calculated
approximately by using the following simplified expressions, which are valid for the
temperature rise in steel upto the hardening temperature:
= 20/ f cold state (20C)
dh= 5001 fhot state (800C)
Where, d, and dh = depth of penetration in mm, suffices, c and h represents the
cold and hot state conditions.
f- frequency in cycles per sec (Hz)
Owing to heat conduction in the material during heating, the overall depth of
penetration is larger. It is possible to calculate the additional penetration due to heat
conduction from the following expression.
dl = 0.2 t
where dl = depth of penetration in mm
t = time in seconds
Figure 1.2 Path of magnetic flux through a metal bar inserted in a coil
through which an electric current is flowing
1 0
Figure 1.3 Path of the electrical current in the coil and metal bar during
Induction hardening
The total depth of penetration is obviously c& ordh+ dl, It should be stressed that
these expressions give only a rough estimate of the depth of penetration and they have
been included here only to show the fbndamental effects of frequency and time
(Osborn, H.B., 1955).
Working coils and fixtures
The coils, also known as inductors, also got heated by the electric current and by
thermal radiation fiom the heated steel. The coils are often made from copper tubing and
are cooled during operation by internal water flow. Figure 1.4 shows three basic types of
working coils designed for external and internal heating, and for heating of a flat surface.
The internal diameter of the copper tube is matched to suit generator power
output. For the power output normally required, around 50kW, tubing with an internal
diameter of around 5mm is used. The coils are usually wound with a distance of 2-5mm
between turns and with roughly the same spacing between the coil and the workpiece.
By varying this distance, it is possible to influence the rate of heating to a very large
extent.
Parts that are to be hardened must be held in a fixture of some sort so that they are
correctly located in the inductor. Small components must be f ml y held so that they are
not displaced by the magnetic filed. A metallic fixture that comes near the coil may
become heated by the induced current. To avoid this fixture and centre washers are
normally made from an insulating and heat-resistant material such as 'sindango' or a
heat-resistant plastic (KatsuyuM Matsui, et al., 1998).
External Internal Surface
Figure 1.4 Types of coil used for Induction hardening
The influence of various factors on hardness and depth of hardening
The carbon content has a decisive influence on hardness after hardening. As the
carbon content increases, upto to about 0.80% the hardenability also increases,
particularly when in combination with other alloying elements. Both the hardening
temperature and holding time are decisive factors that govern the hardness and depth of
hardening. For induction hardening with conditions otherwise remaining, the same the
depth of hardening i s governed by the fkquency of the inductive current. Since the
hardening temperature, heating time and holding time can be controlled relatively easily
dwing induction hardening, it is possible with this method to determine in advance the
required hardness depth with a relatively high degree of certainty by using calculated and
empirical values (Rudnev.V., and Demidovich, V., 1997).
The hardening temperatures employed for induction hardening are normally some
50C higher than those used for conventional hardening. The holding times are
extremely short. In many cases, there is no holding time, i.e. cooling starts directly when
the desired temperature has been reached. Temperatures are normally controlled by
means of optical pyrometers (Siedel, W., and Netz, W., 1982).
The pressure of the cooling medium and the angle of incidence of the jet as well
as its width are of paramount importance to the intensity of cooling. Hence, these factors
influence the depth of hardening and the hardening itself. Kegel and Pennekamp (1974)
arrived at the following recommendations based on experiments and theoretical
calculations of the coefficient of heat transfer through the vapour film:
Pressure 1-3 bas
Angle of incidence 20-30'
Width of slit 0.8 -1.2 mm, preferably 0.9 -1.0 mm
Usually the spray nozzle contains a number of holes, the diameters of which are
taken as equivalent to the slit width of the above recommendations.
1.1.5 Material Testing and Inspection
Testing of material is one o f the important and essential steps for judging
suitability for engineering applications after heat treatment. Most of the properties of
interest are mechanical properties since heat treatment essentially alters mechanical
properties. This section i s confined to the testing o f mechanical properties; non-
destructive methods of testing materials have also been included, as they constitute an
important aspect of testing heat treated components (Testing of Materials ASTM, 1970:
Raval, B.M., 1995). Many tests and testing methods are in use now-a-days.
Vickers Hardness Test
Vickers hardness test is also referred to as Vickers Diamond Pyramid test. The
indenter used in this test is a square base diamond pyramid. The included angle between
opposite faces of the pyramid is 136". The loads generally employed in this test vary
fiom ikg to 120kg, depending on the hardness of the material under test. Therefore, at
varying loads, the same indenter can be used for the measurement of hardness of a
number of metals and alloys. Due to the accuracy associated with this test, it is generally
used for research and high precision work.
Microhardness testing can be defined as indentation hardness testing it involves
forcing a diamond indenter of specific geometry into the surface of the test material at
loads ranging from 1 to 1000kgf (Andrew, et al., 1995).
In Vickers microhardness testing, the hardness value is determined by measuring
the size of the resulting indentation by using a microscope and established formula.
The microhardness test uses preciously shaped diamond indenter and various load
ranges to determine the hardness variety of the material. The specific application for
microhardness includes.
1 Measuring hardness of precision work-pieces that are too small to be
measured by conventional macroscopic hardness testing methods.
2 Monitoring of carburizing or nitriding operations, this i s usually accomplished
by hardness surveys taken on cross sections of test pieces that accompanied
the work-pieces through production operations.
3 Measuring hardness of individual micro constituents and hardness close to
edges, thus detecting undesirable surface conditions such as grinding bum and
decarburization.
Figure 1.5 Diamond pyramid indenter used for the Vickers Hardness
test and resulting indentation in the work- piece
The Vickers indenter is a highly polished, pointed, square-b ased pyramidal
diamond with face angles of 136' C (Figure 1.5). With the Vickers indenter, the depth of
indentation is about one seventh of the diagonal length. The Vickers hardness number
(VHN) is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter to t he surface area of the
indentation;
VHN=2Psin ( 0 / 2 ) l ~ *
Where,
P - Applied load, (kg9
D - Mean diagonal o f the indentation, (mm) and
0 - Angle between opposite faces of the diamond, 136'
Rockwell hardness test
This test differs from both the Brine11 and Vickers tests in the sense that here the
depth of penetration, and not the surface area, is used as the parameter for arriving at the
hardness value. It works on the principle that the depth of penetration varies with the
hardness of material. The higher the hardness, smaller will be depth of penetration and
vice versa. In this depth of penetration is not measured. Instead of that, the hardness
values can be read directly on a dial attached to the tester. Accuracy that can be
achieved by this test is not comparable to either Brine11 or Vickers hardness test.
However, the test is very popular in day-today industrial practice.
There are two basic
reasons for this: Firstly, it is a fast process and, secondly, very small indentation is made
on the surface. Therefore, even finished parts can be subjected to this test.
Non-destructive Testing methods
A number of situations are encountered in day-to-day industrial practice where it
becomes necessary to study the flaws in metallic components without destroying them.
Under such circumstances, recourse is taken to non-destructive testing (NDT) technique.
This technique makes the use of the component more reliable, safe and economical,
Non-destructive testing has two important roles to play: (i) From these investigations, the
presence of defects is established; (ii) it is also useful in estimating the nature and extent
of defects and amving at a conclusion about accepting or rejecting the product for service
(Dieter, G.E., 1986). Non-destructive tests also help in measuring the defect size and
distribution, which plays a crucial role in taking the final decision on accepting or
rejecting the component. A number of non-destructive tests are available now a days to
detect the flaws in metallic components. Some of these tests are Magnetic Particle
Inspection, Liquid Penetration Inspection, Radiographic Inspection, Ultrasonic Inspection
and Eddy Current Inspection. Magnetic Particle inspection and Liquid Penetration
Inspection are used to detect only surface defects. Radiographic and Ultrasonic
Inspection Techniques are useful for studying both the surface and internal defects. Eddy
current Inspection is not as commonly used as the other Non-Destructive Testes.
Inspection
Inspection can be defined in several ways. Simply, it can be defined as a tool to
judge the quality of a product. According to Lansburgh, R.H., and Spriegal, W.R.,
(1940), cGInspection is the process of measuring the quality of a product or service in
terns of established standards". Kimball, D.S., (1933) defined the term inspection by
stating, "Inspection is the art of comparing materials, products or performances with
established standards". Alford, L.P., and Beatty, H.R., (1951), defined it as the art of
applying tests, preferably by the aid of measuring appliances to observe whether a given
item of a product is within the specified limits of variability.
Inspection is an important step in any production unit as it decides whether the
material or the product under consideration is suitable for use. It separates accepted fiom
rejected items. Therefore, inspection checks entry of defective items from further
processing, resulting in the saving of material, time and money. Also, it protects he
interests of the producer and customer: It helps the producer by improving reputation and
competitive strength, and assists the customer by ensunhg supply of quality items. It
should be clearly understood that inspection does not include any corrective action.
Inspection in Heat treatment
Inspection in heat treatment can be divided into three classes, namely, preheat
treatment inspection, post-heat treatment inspection, and inspection during heat
treatment. Various characteristics to be inspected in each class are as follows:
(i) Pre-heat Treatment inspection
Size
Chemical composition
Macro and micro structure
Q Austeniticgrainsize
Hardenability
Tensile strength, percentage elongation and reduction in area
* Non-metallic inclusions
Surface flaws
(ii) Inspection during heat treatment
* Heat treatment temperature
Q
Heat treatment time (heating time, soaking time and sometimes
cooling time)
r
Properties of gas in case of controlled atmosphere process
Properties of solid, liquid or gaseous materials used in case of
hardening
(Cafburizing, nitriding and Carbonitriding) processes. Properties of
quenchants, if in use.
Post-heat treatment Inspection (iii)
The characteristics to be inspected are almost the ~ame as the ones
included in pre-heat treatment inspection.
Residual stresses in materials
Introduction
All the heat treatment processes introduce residual stresses due to non-uniform
changes induced by the process within the body. These stresses influence the mechanical
properties like fatigue strength, depending on their nature, magnitude and distribution
across the body. There is basically no material or situation free of these stresses. Hence,
the general interest today is the recognition and measurement of these residual stresses.
The X-ray diffraction method is used to determine the residual strains present in
the surface of the material. This method is non-destructive in nature. This is based on
the measurement of changes in lattice spacing. Such relative changes of the distance
between lattice planes are called lattice strains. In the X-ray method, an X-ray beam,
which leaves the material unscathed, is irradiated on the specimen's surface and the
lattice strain is calculated from the difiiaction peak shift.
Principle of X-ray diffraction method
X-ray diffraction method employs Bragg's law to estimate residual strains present
in the atomic planes. In this method, a monochromatic X-ray beam of sufficient intensity
is made incident on the atomic planes. The reflected beam from successive planes of
atoms is observed Bragg's law defines the condition for diffraction through the following
equation.
A =2d sin 0 . . (1.5)
Where,
A - Wavelength of incident X - Rays
8 - Angle between incident or reflected beam and reflecting planes
d - Interplanar spacing and
n - Orderofreflection(n=l,2,3 ...)
The Equation (1.5) shows that, if the wavelength of X-rays i s known, the
interplanar spacing'd' can be determined by measuring the angle 9 . In presence of
residual stresses, the d-spacing changes and this in turn results in shift in X-ray
diffraction peaks. Therefore, this shift in diffraction peaks is a measure of residual
stresses. Figure 1.6 Shows the configuration generally followed for residual stresses
measurements PI, P2 and P3 refer to three orthogonal directions relative to the sample
under investigation and 4, L2 and L3 describe the laboratory or measurement same of
reference.
The angles yl and Q define the relationship between Pi and Li axes describes the
angle between the specimen surface normal (P3) and the direction of strain being
measured (L3); 6 denotes the angle between one of the principal stress axes (PI) and the
projection of the measured strain direction (L3) on to the specimen surface. In the widely
used "sin2 y Method, diffraction measurements are made at several tilt angles y . For
the general case of two measurements at y =0 and y =(II i (Figure 1.7), Noyan and
Cohen, (1986) have given the following equation for the surface residual stress a + .
Figure 1.6 Axial system for residual
Figure 1.7 sampling of different grains in
stress measurements
the specimen by incident
X-ray beam at (a) y =0 and (b)
=W i
1 + v sin" d # ~ *
Where,
d
- Interplanar spacing in the described by the angles 4 and y
d 4
= 0 - Stress free interplanar spacing value
E -- Young's modulus of the material and
v -- Poisson's ratio.
The tern E / (sin2 y ) ( I + v ) is constant and is defined as K. Using the linear
relationship given in Equationl.6 for surface residual stress, the lattice strain A d/d
plotted against sin2 y would produce a straight line whose gradient is a function of a
#, v and E.
Then, m* = 6 ~ 4 ~ / 6 sin2 y
a 4 = m*/{(l+v)/E}
Where,
m* - Gradient of a least squares straight line fit through the data points and
&q5y=Adld
Depending on the incident beam energy and the material under study, the
information on surface residual stresses with in a depth of 10 - 30 pm is possible. For
example, in the case of Cr, Ka , and X-rays the depth of penetration in steel is of the
order of 15 to 20 pm.
1.2 Literature Review
The growing demand for materials having low specific weight, high strength,
stifhess, toughness, wear resistance and ability to operate at elevated temperatures has
led to the development o f newer materials. These newer high performance materials are
used in various engineering applications like automobiles, aeroplanes, space vehicles etc.
Modern production methods are available to process these materials more efficiently.
However, most of the engineering properties of metals and alloys are related to their
metallurgical structure.
Mechanical properties of the metals can be changed by varying the relative
proportions of micro constituents. In practice, change in micro constituents is achieved
by subjecting the material to heat treatment process. Thi s process consists of heating a
metal or alloy to a specific predetermined temperature, holding at this temperature for
required time, and finally cooling from this temperature. All these operations are carried
out in solid state. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to repeat these operations to impart
some characteristics. Therefore, heat treatment may be defmed as heating md cooling
operation(s) upplied to metals and alloys in solid state so as to obtain the desired
properties.
Steel is the most important metallic material used in Industry. This is because of
the versatility of its engineering properties suitable for different working conditions or
applications. In one application it can be more ductile and suitable for any forming
operation. In another application the same steel can be very hard and wear resistant. In
yet another application, it may be having harder outer skin and tougher inner core. This
versatility is possible because of its amenability as far as its mechanical and physical
properties are concerned through different heat treatment processes that the steel can be
subjected to (Thelning, 1984).
Heat treatment is an integral part of the manufacturing cycles of ferrous and Non-
ferrous products. It is a highly energy intensive process having strong bearing on the
final product quality and it influences the productivity of a plant. The Primary objectives
of Industrial heating and heat treatment processes are to enhance the formability of
materials for shaping operations or to provide desired mechanical properties to the end
product. Enhancement of formability is achieved by heating the components to higher
temperature where material can be easily shaped. Whereas, the tailoring o f mechanical
properties involves phase transformations, microstructural changes or surface
modifications. Since, these heat treatment operations impart desired mechanical
properties to materials they have a strong influence on the final product quality
(Malhotra and Satyam Sahay, 2002).
Satyam Sahay and Arun Kumar (2002) reported that the high temperature
requirement and the sluggish kinetics of solid state transformation render heat treatment
operations highly energy intensive and they become productivity bottlenecks.
Due to
their effect on the key plant performance and quality parameters, it is essential to
optimize heat treatment operation for maximum efficiency and minimum cost.
Suitable thermal or mechanical treatments will produce extensive rearrangement
of atoms in metals and alloys and corresponding marked variations in Physical, Chemical
and Mechanical Properties.
Other processes where phase transformations occur are casting, welding and
machining etc. Phase transformation can be classified in many different ways.
Christiane (1975) classifies them into homogenous and heterogeneous transformations.
The former involves rearrangement in the structure of the materials taking place
simultaneously in all parts of the solid, while the latter involves structural changes which
are more localized. Alternatively, they could be classified into isothermal and non-
isothermal transformations.
Rajan, et al., (1994) described heat txeatrnent of metals as an important operation
in the final fabrication process of many engineering components. During heat treatment,
metals can be subjected to thermal cycling. The effects of thermal cycling differ from
one metal to another. Heat treatment could result in,
i) Improved Ductility
ii) Decreased internal stresses
iii) Refined grain size
iv)
Increased hardness or Changes in Chemical composition of metal surface as in the
case hardening.
Other beneficial effects of heat treatment include improvement in the
machinability, alteration in the magnetic properties, modification of electrical
conductivity, improvement in toughness and development o f recrystallised structure in
cold worked metal.
Avner (1982), described that there are number of factors of paramount
importance which are to be considered when heat treating a metal or alloy. Some of them
are the temperature upto which the metal i s heated, the length of time that the metal is
held at the elevated temperature, rate of cooling, and the atmosphere surrounding the
metal when it is heated. Heat treatment temperature, holding time, rate of heating and
cooling are some of the parameters which affect the heat treatment processes and are
commonly referred to as heat treatment process variables. The required magnitudes of
these variables depend on the chemical composition, size and shape of the object and the
final properties desired in the metal.
Numerous industrial applications require a hard wear resistance surface called the
case and a relatively soft and tough inside called the core. Five principal methods of case
hardening exist. They are Carburizing, Nitriding, Cyaniding or Carbonitriding, Flame
hardening and Induction hardening.
Among the more important of these treatments are heat treatment processes such
as Induction hardening and Case carburizing which rely on phase transformation to
produce desired changes in mechanical properties (Wang, et al., 1993).
Induction surface hardened low alloyed medium carbon steels are widely used
for critical automotive and machining applications such as propulsion shafts, crankshafts
and steering knuckles, which require high fatigue resistance. Kristoffersen and
Vomacaka (2001) studied the influence of process variables on Induction hardening and
concluded that fatigue behaviour of induction hardened components depends to a great
extent on the correct combination of hardening depth and the magnitude and distribution
of residual compressive stresses in the surface layer.
In order to reduce the manufacturing costs interns of material consumption and
elimination of the number of processing steps, the effect of induction hardening
parameters on the fatigue behaviour should also be considered at the design stage itself.
In present competitive industrial scenario, there is a tremendous need for saving
time, energy and cost without sacrificing the quality of the product processed. That
underlines the importance of optimizing the induction hardening process parameters to
have designed properties of materials for various applications.
Gas carburizing is the oldest and one of the cheapest methods of case hardening in
which the surface of the component is saturated with carbon in a gaseous atmosphere
containing carbon.
Anand M Deshpande et a1.,(2003) analyzed the optimization of carburization
profile for minimizing the process cost and reported that Gas carburizing is a complex
process in itself as a number of variables affect the success of the process and quality of
the components. An industrial survey indicates that there is a rejection of 10-12% of case
hardened components due to various defects like crack formation, over hardening, change
in size and shape etc, and the extent of rejection can be kept at a minimum by closely
monitoring the process and installing proper quality control measures. In the case of
surface treatment processes this is possible by controlling the process variables. If the
process variables are optimized fkom the point of view of the obtainable material
characteristics, it will be a good measure. Thus, determination ofprocess variables lies
in the proper selection and introduction of suitable limit design concept at the earliest
stage of the process and product development cycle that will result in the quality and
improved productivity.
As reported by Woodward, et al., (1999) Quenching is an integral part of
industrial heat treatment for steels and it provides a means by which the mechanical
properties of a steel part can be controlled. During quenching, the steel is typically
cooled from above the austenizing temperature by liquid spray (Induction hardening) or
immersion in a liquid bath (Gas carburizing).
Grossmann & Bain (1964) described that depending on the temperature field
development within the material, different types of phase transformations occur, which
result in a variety of microstructures, residual deformations and hardnesses and residual
stress distribution. This involves phase transformation by rapid heating and cooling of
the outer surface.
The demerits involved in induction hardening are as follows:
*3 Dimensional changes and localized volume changes which may require
reworking.
* : * Quench crack.
9 Excessive grain growth in the region just below the hardened surface produces
stresses induced by phase transfonnation and thennal stresses. These stresses
cause shape and size distortion in the components.
The distortions in the components are troublesome to the manufacturers. If the
distortion is controlled within the design tolerance limit, the post hardening processes and
rejections can be eliminated. This will result in cost saving and increase in productivity.
Modeling of induction hardening to predict the volume fraction of martensite in
the treated component is a complex issue which involves numerically solving the
Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic field around component, coupled with the
modeling of the thermal process for the component using heat transfer principles. The
system is inevitably highly nonlinear because of temperature dependent material
properties of the component (Nemkov, V.S., and Goldstein, R., 1999). In the past, more
attention of numerical simulation had been paid to modeling, taking into account only
certain aspects of the induction hardening problem. Little effort has been taken to model
the integrated process from heating to final hardening. Numerical simulation of the
magnetic field provided valuable analysis for the magnetic vector potential which was a
very important parameter for eddy current and Joule heat determination. Simulation of
induction heating had been carried out and provided models for solving coupled
electromagnetic/thermal analysis.
Koistinen and Marburger law (1959) and Avrami (1936 and 1940)
developed mathematical models for quenching and phase transformation processes and
determined the volume fraction of micro-constituents formed in the quench cooling
process. However, few studies have been found in predicting the hardness distribution
using either mathematical modeling or simulation.
Jiankun Yuan et al., (2003) has developed an integrated FEA based modeling
system with the capacity to simulate the electromagnetic field induced heating process,
austenite state holding processes and severe quenching processes. It is also possible,
from the above model, to find out the volume fraction of micro constituents such as
martensite formed in the quenching process, and final hardness distribution pattern in
workpiece. However, this model cannot be used in obtaining continuous cooling curves
with temperature time transformation diagrams in induction hardening applications.
Hence, in this thesis as an extension of Jiankun Yuan et aL, model; an equation has been
developed to predict the volume fraction of martensite.
A Regression model has also been
developed to estimate the Hardness in HR4. Experimental validations have been done toprove
the suitabiliq of these models in predicting the characteristics of the heat treatmentprocess.
Metallic materials must have different mechanical properties in accordance with
the area of application. Surface hardness is the most important mechanical property for
working conditions like frictional and twist moment transfer. The working conditions
determine the grade of hardness and the depth of hardness required on the work
materials. Most important characteristics for the material hardening are hardness value,
which depends on chemical composition and variation of hardness, which depends on
hardening conditions (Bodart and Touzani, 1998 and 2001; Kayacan, 1991).
Wear resistivity of material, fatigue life, impact resistivity and compressive
strength, and resistance of twist force are increased by the increasing surface hardness
value. Martensitic surface hardening method is an important method for increasing these
properties (Kayacan, 1991).
Martensitic surface hardening method can be classified as Induction hardening,
flame hardening, electron beam and laser beam hardening. Upto now dominant variables
in the martensitic surface hardening methods have been identified by various studies
(Chen and Shen, 1999; Sphepeyakovskii, 1987; Shary and Osborn, 1974; Iozinskii,
1969).
Hardness depth control is very complex in the Induction hardening process, for
many variables affect hardness depth obtainable. Because of the non linearties involved
in Induction Surface Hardening process, it is very difficult to obtain the hardness depth to
the exact values (Mehmet Cengiz Kayacan and Oguz Colak 2003).
In spite of the extensive studies that have been carried out so far, controlling the
correct depth of hardness in induction hardening process remains difficult.
Several
methods are being applied to obtain the correct value of required hardness thickness.
Relationship among the influential variables can be obtained in optimum value using
intelligent techniques.
Unlike induction hardening process, which is used for treating medium carbon
steels, Gas carburizing is applied to low carbon steels. The process of Gas carburizing
and post carburizing of steel constitutes three separate steps as given below:
0
Austenitizing (over a temperature of 900C).
*
Quenching in oil to obtain the martensitic structure of steel.
Tempering for restoring the good mechanical characteristics to the work piece.
The final quality of a material depends on the correct combination of case depth
and level of hardness without any thermal damage. Mitra (2004), demonstrated a cost
model based optimization of carburizing operation and used Furnace Temperature,
Carbon potential, Quenching time, tempering temperature, Preheating and tempering time
as the influential variables.
Fabrizio Dughiero and Mara Battistetti (1997) did the optimization procedures
in the Design of continuous Induction hardening and tempering installation for magnetic
steel bars.
Power Potential, Scan speed, Quench flow rate, and Frequency are the critical
variables which affect the Hardness, Case-depth and desirable mechanical and
metallurgical properties of the material of the component. At this point, it has to be noted
that there are two important questions in the Gas carburising and Induction hardening of
steels.
What are the microstructural, hardness, deformation and case depth produced
under a given set of operating conditions? and
What are the operating conditions required to obtain a specified micro structure,
maximum hardness and maximum case depth?
The answers to these questions are closely related, which necessitate the study of
micro structures, microhardness and macro hardness and case depth.
In the present Research work, the Rack and pinion assembly used in the Power
steering of automobiles has been taken up as samples for experimentation. Rack is a
medium carbon alloy steel. Selective surface hardening is done only on the teeth portion
by Induction hardening process. Pinion is a low carbon alloy steel and it is case hardened
by Gas carburising process.
The dimensional changes in the components which have been either induction
hardened or Gas Carburized proved costly and troublesome to the manufactures as they
adversely affect the performance of the mentioned components in terms of life, trouble
free operation and noise of operation. As reported by Dong-hui, Xu and Zhen -Bang
Kuang (1996), there exists a definite link between distortion and the initiation of fatigue
failure.
In Induction hardening, the term 'distortion' usually describes the dimensional
changes brought about by releasing of internal stresses. This occurs in a component after
heat treatment. Several investigators have found it convenient to divide the total
distortion into two classes of dimensional change. The first of these is usually called
'volume change' or 'inherent distortion' and is said to be the result of the dilation due to
transformation. The second type of dimensional change is usually called warpage or
change in shape and is said to be associated with the thermal stresses produced by non-
uniformity of heating or cooling.
The main problems in the Gas carburized components (pinion) are shape and size
distortion. Shape distortion can be reduced by proper stress relieving between machining
as they are mostly due to residual stresses, whereas, size distortion is due to structural
transformations in steel. When austenite transforms into martensite there is an expansion
in volume. While tempering, there is a contraction due to formation of carbides.
The
presence of retained austenite and its change during
tempering introduces complex
overall changes in size. (Shen - Chih Lee and Weio-Youe Ho, 1989).
Many investigations indicate that the following are some of the reasons for
distortion.
i) Rapid heating.
ii)
Methods of stacking or fixcuring of parts while heatreating.
iii) Increase in grain growth with increase in case depth.
iv) Severity of quenching.
Only a few isolated attempts have so far been reported on experimental analysis
of the thermal distortion developed in the components like Rack and Pinion. At this
juncture, it appears that the practical optimization and strategy and reliable
mathematical models are still needed to analyze and control thermal distortion, which
happens in Gas carburising and Induction hardeningprocesses.
The present work addresses the gap in the studies that exist in obtaining the
quality heat treated components.
Cause and effect analysis for Induction hardening and Gas carburising have been
carried out and Shewerts' diagram has been constructed to identify the influential process
variables that may affect the quality of the components.
Taguchi's mixed level series design of experiments approach (Gas Carburising)
and 3 -Level Factorial Design of experiment approach (Induction hardening) have been
used to accomplish the objective. The statistical tools such as Response Graph approach,
S/N ratio approach and Regression analysis used in the analysis of Control of distortion.
Residual stress has considerable effect on the properties of the materials such as
stress corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of steel after surface hardening (Liu et al.,
1988). Prediction of residual stress has become significant in optimizing heat treatment
processes. Components which are shaped by machining and other mechanical operations
do contain residual stresses. It is well known that the presence of residual stresses in a
component can lead to various problems such as distortion, cracking, reduction in fatigue
life, and increased susceptibility to stress corrosion. In processing operations such as
machining and cold working, the forces acting on the work piece cause non-uniform
plastic deformation leading to the formation of residual stresses.
Processes such as
welding, flame heating and heat treatment involve non uniform heating and cooling.
They can lead to residual stresses on account of thermal expansion and contraction and
additionally in some cases, on account of the volume changes arising from
microstructural transformations (Horger, 1950).
There is very little information available in the literature pertaining to the analysis
of residual stresses during heat treatment processes. Weiner and Huddleston (1959)
developed equations for the computation of stress states in solid and hollow cylinders
subjected to transient temperature distribution. The equations, however, involved
constants of integration and the axial stress rate, the determination of which in general,
seemed difficult. A solution was provided for a particular formal problem, namely, a
solid cylinder in which the stresses were due solely to a phase transformation occurring at
a fixed temperature.
The analytical approach by Tanaka (1975) for residual stress in quenched
cylinders was based on a finite element programme and the stress distribution was
obtained by assuming that Young's Modulus and Poison's ratio were independent of
temperature. The results of his experiment showed good agreement with the predictions
by which the theoretical compressive residual stresses were indicated near the surface.
Rathbun and Coffin (1975) presented some experimental evidences in which
compressive stresses of the order of 2 6 0 ~ ~ l m ~ occurred on the surface of a stainless
steel specimens of the shape of a flat circular disc.
Gas carburising and induction hardening can generate compressive residual stress
in the surface layer of a component. Having compressive residual stresses is an effective
method for extending the fatigue life of the work piece (Dong -Hui Xu and Zhen-Bang
Kuang, 1996). The improvement in fatigue behaviour depends on the magnitude and
distribution of the residual compressive stress in the hardened layer. The attainment of
the correct combination of hardening thickness and the residual stress requires the
proper control of hardened thickness and initial yield stress. X-ray diffkaction
technique, which is using Bragg's Law, has been used to estimate the residual stresses in
the present study. To explore the relation between process variables and the residual
stress developed, phase transformation study has been carried out in SEM and residual
stresses have been measured using residual stress analyzer.
The main aim of the investigation has been the prediction of desired operating
conditions to avoid thermal and metallurgical defects in Gas Carburising and Induction
hardening. The process variables are the limiting factors. The above said problem
encouraged to investigate the following to obtain distortion free engineering
components, like Rack and pinion, afer they are subjected to surface hardening
process.
i)
Gas Carburising process variables optimization using Taguchi's Mixed Level
,
series of Experiment.
ii)
Induction hardening process variables optimization using 3-Level Full
Factorial Design of Experiment.
iii) Phase transformation study in Induction hardening using mathematical
modeling and validation through experiments.
iv) Thermal and metallurgical effects associated with Case Hardened
components.
v)
The distribution and pattern of Residual stresses in Case hardened
components.
1.3 Limit design concept
Introduction
Since the late, 1940's 6. Taguchi has introduced several new SQC concepts,
which have proven to be valuable tools in the subject of quality improvement. Taguchi
has differentiated the quality into three stages as System Design, Parameter Design and
Tolerance Design. The Parameter Design stage is also called Robust Design. Its main
aim is to reduce costs and improve quality. The quality of a product normally depends on
the parameters that govern the behavior of the process for manufacture it. This is
achieved through deriving optimum parameters setting using statistical techniques and
experiments. Taguchi has suggested a new approach for the design of experiments,
which identifies the nature of parameters, by conducting minimum number of
experiments, which is extensively applicable in Research and Development sectors and
manufacturing industries (Genichi Taguchi, 1987).In this study an effort has been made
to optimize the gas carburizing process variables using Taguchi's approach.
Definition
The study of most important variables affecting quality characteristics and a plan
for conducting such experiments is called the Design of Experiments.
Need for planned experimentation
In a highly competitive market, most enlightened companies recognized the need
for continuous improvement to their products and services as a key success factor to
maintain market leadership. The challenge therefore for any organizations is to find out
the methodology to achieve design optimization for quality, cost and delivery.
The basis for the engineering design activity is the Knowledge of scientific
phenomena and past engineering experiences with similar product design and
manufacturing processes. However, when a new product has to be developed a lot of
new decisions have to be made with regard to product profile, critical parameters of the
product design, to various manufacturing processes to be adopted etc. There may be so
many interactive forces that may impact the decision, that it seems to be an
overwhelming task to figure out a simple, economic safe course of action.
~ h e s d situations are common in industry; they affect all departments across the
organization and at all levels. In these cases, it is necessary to experiment to make a
planned change, determine the effect of the change, and use this information to make a
decision about accepting or rejecting the new alternative considered. It is the quality of
this decision, which can be improved upon when proper test strategies are utilized.
In general, planned experiment is necessary to distinguish between critical factors
and non-critical factors as well as to identify the optimum level of the critical factors so
as to pave the way for significantly improved performance. It also enables to predict the
extent of improvements possible over the existing performance.
Terminologies used in Design of Experiments
Response
It is the output of interest to be optimized i.e., Maximized, Minimized, Targeted,
etc.
Factors
A factor is one of the things (Variable) being studied in the experiment. A factor
may be Quantitative or Qualitative.
Level
Levels of a factor are values of the factor being examined in the experiments.
Interaction
It is defined as the joint effect of two or more factors. We consider two factor
interactions only in Industrial experiments.
Treatment combination
A Treatment combination is one set of levels for the factors in a given
Experimental run.
Experimental Design
The analysis of any data is dictated by the manner in which data are collected.
Design of experiment is then a plan for collection of data on response(s) when the chosen
factors are varied in a prescribed manner. The three basic principles of experimental
design are:
i)
Replication - Repetition of the basic experiment.
ii)
Randomization - The allocation of the experimental material and the order in
which the individual runs are to be performed are randomly determined.
iii) Blocking - When known sources of extraneous and unwanted variation can be
identified, blocking technique is used in such ways that eliminate their influence and
provide a more sensitive test of significance for the variables under study.
Types of experiments
One factorial at a time
These are experiments when in each experiment only one factor is changed fiom
one level to another level, keeping all the other factors unchanged.
Full Factorial experiments
This is an experiment method where all factors are tried for all combinations of
their levels.
Fractional factorial experiments
As the name indicates, instead of doing fill factorial, partial factorial is done.
This essentially means a reduction in the number of experiments.
Experimental Design Procedure
Experiments are carried out by researchers or engineers in all fields of study to
compare the effects of several conditions or to discover something new. If an experiment
is to be performed most efficiently, then a scientific approach to planning it must be
considered. The statistical design of experiments is the process of planning experiments
so that appropriate data will be collected, the minimum number of experiments will be
performed to acquire the necessary technical information, and suitable statistical methods
will be used to analyze the collected data (Figure 1.8).
Taguchi's Method and steps in designing experimental layout
G. Taguchi (1959) of Japan, by developing the associated concept of linear
graph, was able to device numerous variants based on the Orthogonal Array (OA) design,
which can easily be applied by an engineer or a scientist without acquiring advanced
statistical knowledge for working out the design and analysis of even complicated
experiments (Ross J. Philip, 1989).
These methods have the advantage of being highly flexible and readily enable
allocation of different levels of factors, even when these levels are not the same in
number for all the factors studied. The beauty of these methods lies in cutting to the bare
minimum the size of experimentation, at the same time, yielding results with high
precision, thus, by a mere 27 experiments, we may be able to evaluate all the main effects
along with one technologically relevant first order interaction through the OA DESIGN,
as against 59,049 experiments needed by a full factorial design for 10 factors each at
three levels (Rout, B.K., 2003).
Figure 1.8 Outline of experimental design procedure
--
Selection of Performing the
experimental design experiments
Statement of the
problem
1
(i)
List down the Response, Factors & levels along with the desired interactions.
-A,
I I
(ii)
Find the Degrees of Freedom for each factor and for each interaction.
Recommendation
and follow-up
(iii)
Compute the Total Degrees of Freedom (TDF).
V
Choice of
response
il
(iv)
The minimum number of Trials (MNE) is equal to the Total Degrees of
Freedom Plus one (TDF + 1).
Planning of
Understanding of
present situation
subsequent
experiments
Choice of factors
and levels
Confirmation test /-
*
Data analysis Analysis of results and
conclusions
/-
(v)
Choose the nearest orthogonal array series like L4, L8, L16 or L9, L27, etc.
(vi)
Draw the required Linear Graph (LG).
(vii)
Number the linear Graph by starting with the Number 1 for Factor A and
Number 2 for Factor B. Then check whether any interaction exists. If not,
proceed with the Number 3 for Factor C. If there is an interaction, check with
the Lnteraction Table, which Column is to be allotted to the interaction? Then
proceed with the next number for the next factor.
(viii) Complete the numbering as described till the following is achieved.
All the factors and interactions are numbered.
There is no repetition of numbers.
The interaction numbers are as per the Interaction table.
The numbers used do not exceed the number of columns permitted for the
Orthogonal Array Table.
a For Example, only four numbers (Numbers 1 through 4) are permitted for
the L27 OA (Tablel.1).
(ix)
Write the column numbers against each factor. That is the Design
Assignment. Rewrite the OA Table with only those columns represented by
factors and all the rows as per the OA Table. Replace the 1, 2 and 3 in the
Table with the Physical value of the level from the Factors and Levels
identified.
This completes the Design Layout.
One need not conduct the Experiment in the same order as in the OA Table. We
can randomize the order by any method of Random Number generation. In the present
research, Taguchi's Design of Experiment (L27 Orthogonal array, Table 1.1) is employed
in the optimization of Gas carburizing process variables.
Table 1.1 Orthogonal array of L 27 showing 5 variables with 3 levels
Degrees of Freedom
It is the number of independent comparisons. In general, if there are n results,
then the number of Degrees of Freedom is n-1.
Orthogonal array
This also called as Design Matrix it means a Balanced Table.
Linear graphs
Enables scientists and engineers to design and analyze complicated experiments
without requiring the basic knowledge of the construction of designs. Associated with
orthogonal mays and pictorially presents the information on main effects and
interactions. Consists of nodes joined with lines - node denotes variables and line denotes
interactions.
Analysis of Variance - ANOVA
ANOVA is a technique for determining equality of two or more Averages based
on data from samples. It is mainly used to isolate the dominate factors or interactions
from a list of suspects and to estimate the proper level for each important variables in
order to yield optimum end results.
F-ratio
It is the ratio of two variances. This ratio follows a distribution known as F-
Distribution. F-Distribution is defined through the degrees of freedom. It is defined by
the numerator and denominator degrees of freedom (Richard A. Johnson, 2000).
Signal to Noise ratio
It was developed as a proactive equivalent to the reactive loss function. Signal
factors ( Y ) is set by the designer or operator to obtain the intended value of the response
variable. Noise factors s2 are not controlled or very expensive or difficult to control. In
elementary form, S/N is Y / s2.
Factorial Method of Design of Experiment
An experiment involving the study of more than one-variable. Such an
experiment is called a full factorial if all possible variable-level combinations are being
experimented upon otherwise it is called a fractional-factorial or a fractional-replicate
(Douglas, C., and Montgomery, 2001).
Factorial experiments are very efficient ways to study multiple variables in the
same experiment. They allow one to assess any possible interaction, and if no
interactions are present, then the effect of each factor can be evaluated with the same
efficiency as though the whole experiment has been devoted to entirely that variable.
However, factorial experiments even with moderate number of variables can lead
to large number of experimental trials, industrial experiments are always restricted trials,
and industrial experiments are always restricted as to the number of experiments that can
be run due to time and expense. Therefore, two extremely usehl factorial design are
those with all the variables at only two levels or all variables at only three levels. These
are referred to as 2k or 3' fractional design, respectively.
In the present work of Induction Hardening process variables study 33 Factorial
design of experiment is followed and Table 1.2 shows the details.
Table 1.2 33 Factorial method of Design Matrix
The word sources intended to include variables and levels as well as interaction effects.
The variables P, S, and Q were assigned the first three columns.
(i)
All possible combinations of levels (33 = 27) do appear in the first three
columns.
(ii)
A11 possible interactions (three two ways and one 3-way interaction) are
assigned to a column, which simply is the product of the columns
corresponding to the factors in the interactions.
(iii)
The design of Table 1.2 is an orthogonal and balanced design.