ELE 4201 CONTROL 2 N.

Magaji
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``ELE 4201: Control Engineering II
Syllabus
Control Systems and Components: Governors. Hydraulic pumps and motors.
Hydraulic Valves. Hydraulic feedback systems. Pneumatic bellows, flapper-nozzle
valves, relays and actuators. Pneumatic feedback system. Electronic PID controllers.
Control motors. Synchros and electronic error detectors. Hybrid feedback systems. Basic
speed and position control systems.

Steady-state analysis. Further Graphical Techniques: M and N charts. Nichol's chart
Inverse Nyquist plots. Root locus construction.
Classical Design Techniques: Classical design performance specification in time and
frequency domain. Cascade and Feedback compensation using:- Root locus, Nyquist and
Bode diagram. Tuning of PID industrial controllers.
Introduction to Non-Linear Systems: Common types of non linearities. Some effects of
non-linearities on closed loop control systems. The describing function method of
analysis, and the phase plane method.





























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CHAPTER 1
SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Chapter objectives
- To understand basic control components
- To model this components
- To know the advantages, disadvantages and applications of this components

1.1 Hydraulic System Models
The term hydraulics is defined as the science that studies the behavior of fluids that
stand still or move (hydrostatics and hydrodynamics).However, in a mechanical
engineering sense, the term hydraulics is associated with the area of fluid studies that
are concerned with transmitting power and force by fluid means. Applications of
power and force transmission are primarily based on Pascals Principle which states
that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount.

Fig. 1.1


The principle can be stated mathematically by equating pressures in and out.
P
out
= P
in
therefore

in
in
out
out
A
F
A
F
=
in
out
in
out
A
A
F
F
=


This static principle gives the user a way to control very large forces using smaller forces
To control these forces requires devices to apply and transmit the forces. These are
called hydraulic drives or hydraulic actuators. They come in two major types:
Hydraulic cylinders: cause linear action from pressure pushing against piston in a
cylinder
Hydraulic motors: cause rotary action from pressure pushing against rotary vanes
Regardless of the type of hydraulic drive or actuator used, a device to supply pressurized
fluid to the drive or actuator is needed. The fluid flow is usually controlled by using
hydraulic valves which open and close off fluid flow to the drives. Drives can also be
controlled by the use of variable speed hydraulic pumps.

1.1.1 Hydraulic Motors:
There are a number of different Hydraulic Motor types:
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External Gear Motors:
Internal Gear Motors:
Vane Motors:
Piston Type Motors:
Rotary Abutment Motors:

Valve Characteristics:
- Fast response
- Less expensive than pump control (although still not cheap)
- can be less efficient
- Quite a variety of different valve types
1.1.2 Hydraulic pump
The source of all fluid power is the hydraulic pump. The pump we consider here
has positive but variable displacement as shown Fig.1.2 such pump are motor
driven. The amount of fluid pumped is a function of the pump stroke x(t) for a
fixed motor speed., the direction of stroke dictates flow direction

Variable Speed Pump Characteristics:
- Slow response
- can be more efficient
The interest of this course is to look at Linear Hydraulic Drives (Cylinders) which
are actuated by the use of valves.

Linkage Model:
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Some hydraulic models will incorporate
linkages between different valves and/or
cylinders for mechanical amplification and
feedback.
The model to the right shows linkage
displacements x, y, and z. Over small
displacements, the relationship between the
displacements and the distance between
pins may be given as

1 2 1 2
y x z x z y
L L L L
+ +
= =
+



Modeling Hydraulic servomechanism:
Example 1
Find the model of he output displacement, y, given the known input displacement, x.
Assume x moves + to the right and y moves + to the left and our model.


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For linkage
x y s x
a b
+
= bx by as ax + =

a b
x s y
a b a b
= +
+ +

For spool valve: For the Cylinder:

V
V K x =
dy
A V
dt
=
Combining:
V
dy
A K x
dt
=
V
K dy a b
s y
dt A a b a b
| |
= +
|
+ +
\ .

Port II Port I
Oil
Under
presurer
B
C
x
y
e
A
a
b
a
a b +
a
a b +
K
s
Y(s) X(s)
(a) Servomotor that acts as a proportionalcontroller;
(b) block diagram of the servometer

Example 2
The electro hydraulic position control system shown in Fig.1.6 positions a mass M with
negligible friction. Assume that the rate of oil flow in the power cylinder is q =K
1
x
K
2
p where x is the displacement of the spool and p is the differential pressure across
the power piston. Draw a block diagram of the system and obtain the transfer function
( ) / ( ) Y s R s
The system constants are given below.
Mass M = 1000 kg
Constants of the hydraulic actuator: K1= 200 cm
2
/sec per cm of spool displacement
K2 = 0.5 cm
2
/sec per gm- et/ cm
2
; Potentiometer sensitivity KP = 1 volt/cm
Power amplifier gain KA = 500 mA/volt; Linear transducer constant K = 0.1 cm/mA
Piston area A = 100 cm
2


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( )
1 2
2
2
k x Ay k p
A
k p My
k
= A
A =

( )
2
( ) 2
( ) 0.02 2
p A
r y k k k x
Y s
R s s s
=
=
+ +


Applications:

iii) Hydraulic Presses: such as control devices
iv) Construction Equipment:
V) Lifting and transporting:
vi) Agricultural Machinery

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1.2 Speed Governor
1.2.1 Mechanical-hydraulic governor
The main function of the turbine governing system is to regulate the turbinegenerator
speed and hence the frequency and the active power in response to load variation. The
speed control mechanism includes equipment such as relays, servomotors, pressure or
power amplifying devices, levers and linkages between the speed governor and
governorcontrolled gates.

A
B
C
D
E
Speed changer
Position movement
Speed Governor
Hydraulic Amplifier
Pilot valve
High
Presure oil
Main piston
Steam valve
Steam
Fig 1.8


- As
m
decreases, the bevel gears decrease their rotational speed, and the rotating
flyweights pull together due to decreased centrifugal force. This causes point B and
therefore point C to raise.
- Assuming, initially, that point E is fixed, point D also raises causing high pressure oil
to flow into the cylinder through the upper port and release of the oil through the lower
port.
- The oil causes the main piston to lower, which opens the steam valve (or water gate in
the case of a hydro machine), increasing the energy supply to the machine in order to
increase the speed.
1.2.2 Electro-Hydraulic Governing System
The ElectroHydraulic Governing System operation is very similar to that of mechanical
hydraulic governors. Speed sensing, droop compensation, and computing functions are
performed electrically. The output signal drives an electricalmechanical transducer,
which operates a pilot valve and pilotvalve servomotor. The turbine rotor speed is
measured electronically with high accuracy.

1.2.3 Speed Droop
The definition of droop is the amount of speed (or frequency) change that is necessary to
cause the main prime mover control mechanism to move from fully closed to fully open
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1.3 Pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems use air pressure to create mechanical motion. Pneumatic systems are
very similar to hydraulic systems, but there are several important differences. The major
functional difference is that air is compressible, whereas hydraulic fluid is not.
From figure 1.20 the controller comprised error detecting device and controlling
mechanism. The may be mounted at some point remote from the process, or it may be on
the actuator itself.






Pneumatic
mechanism
actuator
Output sensor
device(actuator)
Set point
Control variable
output
Pneumatic controller
Fig. 1.20


1.3.1 Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators convert air pressure into mechanical motion. There are two basic
types: linear actuators (cylinder/piston or diaphragm types) and rotary actuators. Piston
and rotary actuators are functionally similar to their hydraulic counterparts.
Pneumatic cylinders are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. There are two basic
internal configurations. The double-acting cylinder connects to the valve with two tubes
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and can be driven in either direction. The single-acting cylinder can only be driven in
one direction with air pressure and is returned by a spring.
Nozzle-flapper
The nozzle-flapper arrangement is used in many pneumatic devices and can be
considered as a transducer, a valve or an amplifier. It transduces a displacement into a
pneumatic signal. The flapper movement acts to close or open a restriction and thus vary
air flow through the nozzle.
The very small linear movement of the flapper is then converted into a considerable
control pressure output from the nozzle. The arrangement is shown in Figure 1.21 A
compressed air supply is provided at a pressure of about 1 bar. The air must pass through
an opening which is larger than the orifice, e.g. about 0.40mm. The position of the
flapper in relation to the nozzle will determine the amount of air that escapes. If the
flapper is close to the nozzle a high controlled pressure will exist; if some distance away,
then a low pressure.
Air supply
Flapper
To measuring unit
Nozzle Orifice
To control valve
Controller,etc
(closed loop)
Fig. 1.21


The nozzle-flapper arrangement is therefore a proportional transducer, valve or amplifier.
Since the flapper movement is very small it is not directly connected to a measuring unit
unless a feedback device is used.

- Pneumatic Bellows
The bellows is used in some pneumatic devices to provide feedback and also as a
transducer to convert an input pressure signal into a displacement. A simple bellows
arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.22. The bellows will elongate when the supply pressure
increases and some displacement, x, will occur. The displacement will be proportional to
the force acting on the base, i.e. supply pressurearea. The actual amount of displacement
will be determined by the spring stiffness of the bellows. Thus
supply pressure Area of bellows Spring or stiffness of belows displacement =
The spring-stiffness and the bellows area are both constants and therefore the bellows is a
proportional transducer. In some feedback arrangements a restrictor is fitted to the air
supply to the bellows. The effect of this will be to introduce a time delay into the
operation of the bellows. This time delay will be related to the size of the restriction and
the capacitance of the bellows.
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Pneumatic proportional controller
An increase in the control variables result in point B tending to move to the right, giving
a reduce output pressure from the controller. The pressure in the feedback bellows falls,
and point C moves to the right under influence of the spring, reducing the movement of
point B to a very small. Thus, an increase in the controlled variable is compensated for by
a reduction in controller output pressure, and vice versa, to maintain the controlled
variable at the value given by the set point.
Process signal
pressure
Set point pressure
Air supply
Air pressure to actuator
Feedback bellows
Spring
pivot
C
B
A
Pilot
valve
Fig.1.23 Pneumatic proportional controller


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- Pneumatic relay amplifier
A relay is used to control the pressure of air supplied to a pneumatic device which needs
a greater air supply than the nozzle can produce and a greater pressure. The relay
normally has a pressure amplifying capacity (due to the difference in area of the
diaphragms) and a flow amplifying capacity due to the characteristics of the high and low
pressure supply restrictors. It is the pneumatic equivalent of the electronic amplifier
which has a millivolt, milliamp input and a volt, milliamp output

1.3.1 Modeling of Pneumatic system
Example 3
A bellows is supplied with air through a restrictor and has its expansion opposed by a
spring as shown in Fig.1.24. Obtain a transfer function relating p
i
on the supply side of
the restrictor to the axial motion x
0
of the bellows.
Solution
Assume the initial pressure in both side of the restrictor = p
Change in pressures in bellows from p
i
to be p
0
P
0
V A
( )
1 0 i
m K p p =
2 0 2 s
m K p V K pAx = +
x
K
3
restrictor
spring
P
i
bellow
Fig 1.24

Mass flow rate of air through the restrictor is

( )
1 i o
m K p p = (1)
Where K
1
, represent the characteristics of the restrictor.
The mass of air in the bellows is given by

2
pV
m K pV
RT
= =

Where V is the bellows volume at pressure p, when the pressure of the air in the bellows
is (p+p
o
) the mass of the air will be.

( )
2 0
( )
s
m m K p p V Ax + = + +
(2)

Where A, is the effective bellows area and x the axial displacement of the bellows, hence
( )
2 0 s
m K pV pAx = + (3)
The term p
o
Ax is neglected because p
o
x is a second order quantity.
For equilibrium of top moving surface of the bellows

0 3 3
0 constant p A K x K spring + = (4)
Combining equations (1), (2) and (3)
( )
1 0 i
sM K p p = (5)
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2 0 2 s
sM K Vsp K pAsX = + (6)
And
0 3
0 p A K X = (7)
Than
( )
1 0 2 0 2 i
K p p K Vsp K pAsX = +
Since
s
m m = . Eliminating p
0
by equation 6
Note
0 0
( ), ( ) ( ) and
i i
X X s P P s P P s = = =


1 3 3
1 2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
i
K K X s K X s
K p s K Vs K pAsX s
A A
= + +

( )
3 1
2 2
3 2 2 1 3
2 1
3
( )
( )
1 1
i
A
K AK X s
p s pA K K V K pA s K K
K V K
K V
= =
| | + +
+ +
|
\ .


Advantages of Pneumatic Control Systems:
Easily provide analog or proportional control
No shock hazard
Relatively inexpensive
Rugged
Most are fairly accurate
Can be easily expanded
Can provide many different control sequences
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Control Systems:
Air stations require routine maintenance
May require specialized tools for set-up and calibration
Technician has to be onsite to check the system.

Application

Pneumatics has applications in Industries, dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas
1.4 Error detectors
Error detectors
Every error detectors has two input terminals and one output terminal. The output signal
is proportional to the difference of the two input signals. An error detector can be built
by connecting two potentiometers as shown in figure 1.25 (a). The potentiometers may
be located far apart. For example, one may be located inside a room and the other,
attached to an antenna on the rooftop. The input signal
r
and
o
are mechanical
positions, either linear or rotational; the output v (t) is a voltage signal. They are related
by

r
v t k t t =
0
u u ( ) [ ( ) ( )]
Or

r
V s k s s ( ) [ ( ) ( )] u u =
0

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Where k is a constant. The pair of potentiometer can be represented schematically as
shown in Fig. 1.25(a) or (b). The circle where the two signal entered is often called
summing point .


k
r
u
u
0
v
v
k
k
r
u
u
0
a ( ) b ( )
+
+

Fig 1.25 error

1.4.1 Tachometer
Tachometer is a device that can convert a velocity into a voltage .It is actually a
generator with its rotor connected to the shaft whose velocity is to be measured.
Therefore tachometer is also called a tacho-generotor. The output v(t) of the tachometer
is proportional to the shafts angular velocity; that is

d (t )
v(t ) k
dt
u
= ( 8)
Where (t) is an angular displacement and k is he sensitivity of the tachometer, in volt/
radian/second. Applications of Laplace transform yields

V( s)
G( s) ks
( s) u
= =
A tachometer usually attach to the shaft of the motor , as shown in figure 1.26(b)
,although the transfer function of the tachometer is improper, the transfer function from
v
in
to y is as shown in figure 1.26(b).It is strictly proper.

m m
in m m
K kK s Y( s)
* ks
V ( s) s( s ) s( s ) t t
= =
+ + 1 1
(9)

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The block diagram in figure 1.26 b can plotted as figure 4.7(c) which is useful for
computer simulation.

1.4.2 Potentiometer
Is a device that can be used to convert linear or angular displacement to voltage. The
potentiometer converts the angular displacement (t) into electric voltage v(t) described
by
v(t ) k (t ) = u
Where k is a constant and depends on the applied voltage and type of potentiometer
used. The application of Laplace transform to above equation yields
V( s) k ( s) = u


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1.4.3 Synchros
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer that is used to convert angular shaft position
into an electric signal. The basic element of a synchro is a synchro transmitter whose
construction is very similar to that of the 3- alternator.
An ac voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip-rings. The schematic diagram
of synchro transmitter- control transformer pair is shown above.
To perform error detection, two synchros are used: one in the mode of a control transmitter,
and the other as a control transformer, as shown in 1.28.
Output = K (input-shaft position output-shaft position)
= K(u
i
-u
0
)


Fig. 1.28 Synchro error detector


1.5 A.C. Servo-motors
A.C. servo-motors are usually two-phase induction motors with the two stator coils
placed at right angles to each others as shown schematically in Figure 4.17. The current
in one coil is kept constant, while the current in the other coil is regulated by an amplified
control signal. This arrangement gives a linear torque/control-signal characteristic over a
limited working range. They are usually very small low-power motors, up to about
0.25kW. As with the d.c. motors in the previous section, servo-motor tachogenerator
units are supplied to facilitate the application of velocity feedback.
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Example 2
Figure below shows a schematic diagram and a block diagram for a servo system. The
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objective of this system is to control the position of the mechanical load in accordance
with the reference position.



a) Reduce the block diagram
b) Write a total feedback transfer function for the servo system

1.6 Realizations of PID Controllers
Proportional Controller
R
1
R
2
-
+
V
in
V
out
P-CONTROLLER

1
2
out
C
in
V (s) R
K
V (s) R
= =

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Proportional + Derivative Controller
R
1
R
2
C
1
-
+
V
in
V
out
PD-CONTROLLER

( )
2
1 1
1
1
out
in
V (s) R
sC R
V (s) R
= +
Proportional +Integral (PI) Controller
R
1
R
2
C
2
-
+
V
in
V
out
PI-CONTROLLER

2
1 2 2
1
1
out
in
V (s) R
V (s) R sC R
| |
= +
|
\ .

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Proportional +Integral +Derivative (PID)
R
2
C
2
-
+
V
in
V
out
PID-CONTROLLER
R
1
C
1

( )( )
( )
1 2 2
2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1
2 2
1 1 2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1

=
=
d
o
i
i
p
Z (s) , Z (s) R
C s
C s
R
R
R C s R C s
V (s) Z (s) C s
V(s) Z (s) R C s
C s
R
R C R C s R C R C s
R C
R C s
R C s R C R C s
K
K K s
s
= = + =
+
+
+ +
= = =
+
+ + + | |
= + + +
|
\ .
+ +


1.7 Hybrid Control Systems
Uses multiple technologies
Transducers often used as an interface between control systems
May be require different power supplies
The most common application is partial replacement of pneumatic control system
to a automated control system
Advantages of Hybrid Control System
Take advantage of the best characteristics of each control system
Reduce cost by using existing equipment
Accuracy can be increased by using modern control system components
Remote troubleshooting and alarms are achievable
Disadvantages of Hybrid Control Systems
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Additional knowledge is needed to service the control system
Troubleshooting may be more difficult because of system complexity
Failure of one of the control system may cause the failure of the entire system