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ISSN- 2319-2070
International Journal of
Society and Humanities
Bi-Annual Journal
Refereed Journal
International Journal of Society and Humanities
Edition: 2013, Vol-1, No-3, July December, 2013ISSN- 2319-2070
Periodicity: Bi-annual
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International Journal of Society and Humanities Vol-1/2013 No -2/ ISSN-2319-2070
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6
About The Journal

International Journal of Society and Humanities (IJSH) is a peer-reviewed
international journal published in various languages. Its multi-disciplinary
publication dedicated to the scholarly study of all aspects of society and
humanities in the global world. Particular attention is paid to works dealing
with Philosophy, History, Geography, Political Science, Public Administration,
Human Rights, Economics, Management, Commerce, Education, Islamic
Studies, Anthropology, Sociology, Social Work, Mass Communication, Fine
Arts, Law, Hindi, English, Urdu, Sanskrit, Environmental and Developmental
issues, as well as ethical questions related to scientifc research. The Journal
seeks to place society and humanities traditions as its central focus of academic
inquiry and to encourage comprehensive consideration of its many facets; to
provide a forum for the study of humanities and societies in their global context;
to encourage interdisciplinary studies of the worldly affairs that are cross-
national and comparative; to promote the diffusion, exchange and discussion of
research fndings; and to encourage interaction among academics from various
traditions of learning.
The annual review consists only of articles considered to be of wide
interest across the feld selected by our editorial team in consultation with the
Advisory Board. We do not accept direct submissions to the annual review.
Candidates for inclusion in the survey journal will include top-ranked articles,
works by invited contributors, papers offered by plenary speakers at the
conference, and articles selected from thematic journal submissions for their
wide applicability and interest across the feld.
Dr. Erfan Ahmad
(Chief Editor)
7
Contents
Articles Page
Intellectual Property Regime And Food Security In India: Issues And Challenges
Saleem Akhtar Shahab Ahmad 11
Effect Of Gender, Type Of School And Socio -Economic Status On The Acquisition
Of English As A Second Language Among Secondary School Learners
Dr. Seema Singh Rathore* Harsha Ankodia** 23
Customer Purchasing Decisions And Brand Equity: A Study On Multi-
Utility Vehicles(Muv) In Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Mohd. Sadiq Anis* 27
Automated Recorders & Information Processing Sensor (Arips)
Dr. M. Husain & Akhlaque Husain 36
Educational Status Of A National Minority: A Case Study Of The Muslim Community
Fareed A. Khan* 39
Changes For Human Resources Development After Reform In Power Sector :
A Case Study Of Rajasthan Rajyavidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited
Dr. Parul Varshney 45
Trend, Pattern And Determinants Of Fdi In India:
An Empirical Analysis Of Post Liberalisation
Dr. Perways Alam, Mohammed Nizamuddin 49
The Changing Impact Of Socio-Economic Factors On Contraceptive
Use In North-East India: A Comparative Study Of Nfhs-2 And Nfhs-3
P. Thongkhanthang 56
International Financial Institutions: A Quest For Their Responsibility
And Accountability Towards People And Society
Amrendra Kumar 66
Geo -Visualization Of Climatic Variables In Indira Gandhi Canal Region, Rajasthan
Tarun Prakash Meena 72
Recent Maritime Piracy In The Arabian Sea: A Critical Geopolitical Analysis
Md. Obaidur Rahaman Md. Anisujjaman 82
Reservation And The Political Upliftment Of Muslims In Post-Independence Bihar
Md. Haider Ali 88
Changing Gears From Product To Process Approach To Writing.
Zeba Farooqi 94
Concept And Historical Background Of Panchayati Raj In India Before Independence
Firoj Ansari 100
Concept Of Soul
Naseema Bano 105
Empowerment Of Women Through Education In India With Special
Reference To Jammu And Kashmir
Jameel Ahmed 113
Kashmiri Stone Pelters: A Psychological Perspective
Shar-Ul-Nisa-Haroon & Amrita Sharma Roomana N. Siddiqui 118
Religiosity And Modernism Among Youth
Iram Feroz And Asma Parveen

127
8
Ethics Versus Science
MK Sharma, Ilyas Khan 132
Role And Development Of English As An Offcial Language In India
And Its Constitutional Provision
Firoz Ahmad 134
Attitudes Towards Science Of Medieval Indian Rulers
Akhtar Hassan 140
Deccan Policy Of The Great Mughal Emperor Akbar
Dr.santosh Kumari 144
Population Explosion Is The Main Obstacle To The Smooth
Development Of The Indian Economy
Dr.m.s.khan 149
Relationship Between Effective Teachings And Teacher Education
Dr.dharmendra Sharma 153
Socio-Legal Problems Of Working Women In Special Economic Zone:
A Case Study Of Pataudi Region Of Haryana
Md. Zafar Mahfooz. Nomani Mohammad Rauf 157
The Effect Of Induced Fatigue On The Accuracy Of Soccer Skill
Shabahat Ali Khan 167
A Journey Of Exploitation And Harassment: A Study Of Van Gujjars:
Mohammad Umar Khan 171
Socio-Economic Status And Muslim Educational Backwardness: An
Overview Of The Existing Situation.
Sajad Ahmed** 178
Translating Myth Into Metaphor: Reading Mahasweta Devis Breast Giver (Stanadayini).
Ashique Rashul 185
Child Labour Laws And Legal Regulation In India: A Judicial Activisim
Mohammad Sabir Khan
1
188
Comparative Study Of Consumer Awareness Among Males And
Females Of Malappuram District Of Kerala.
Fasalurahman.p.k.patterkadavan 193
Era Of Global Governance And India: With A Focus On Right To Information
Janmejay Sahu 199
RUMIS EPISTEMOLOGY
Jakir Hushain 204
Occupational Mobility Among The Scheduled Caste Population In Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Falak Butool 209
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan And The Perspectives Of 1857 Revolt: An Analysis Of His
Writing With Special Emphasis On Asbab- I-Bagabat-I- Hind And Sarkashi Zila Bijnor.
Shahid Anwar Siddique 215
Foreign Direct Investment In Indian Retail Sector: Opportunities & Challenges
Mohd Ajmal, Asif Pervez 221
ROLE OF POLICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA
Dr. Najibul Hasan Khan 230
Rationale For Public Expenditure On Health In India
Dr. Mohd. Shahid J. Ansari 235
Crisis In The Higher Education In India-Are We Heading Towards Right Direction?
Md Shahnawaz 240
Legality Of Electronic Contract In Indian Legal Environment
Azmat Ali, 246
9
Diversifcation Of Agriculture And Status Of Malnutrition Among
Marginal Farm Families In U. S. Nagar Of Uttaranchal State
Dr. Kusum Lata 253
Facts And Fiction: How Close And How Far?
A Brief Study Of Select Novels By Amitav Ghosh
Dr. Nazia Hasan, 256
A Descriptive Study Of Knowledge Sharing, Training And Development;
Its Impacts On Organizational Effectiveness
Dr. Mohd Ashraf Ali, Sarfaraz Javed 260
10
11
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY REGIME AND FOOD
SECURITY IN INDIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Abstract
The increasing role of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) to agriculture is a serious concern for
developing countries because the majority of population in developing countries depends on the
agriculture. Close relationship between food security and agriculture is major issue for a developing
country like India. The shift of agricultural research from public to private institutions has caused the
increasing involvement of IPRs in agriculture, whether in the form of Plant Breeders rights or through
the patenting of genes and gene fragments. The role of IPRs in agriculture is deemed controversial
because it clashes with traditional farming practices and pre-existing systems of agriculture that is
based on reuse and free exchange of seeds. The article seeks to examine the role of IPRs in ensuring
food security, or adversely affecting it in Indian Context. It also explores the relationship between
IPRs and food Security through analyzing the food security related provisions of the Trade Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS Agreement) and its impacts and implications
on agriculture and future of food security in India. Authors fnds that IPRs, where innovations are
driven by proft rather than the need oriented research and development, the TRIPS induced new
Indian patent regime can have an adverse effect on small farms and exacerbate social, economic and
environmental problems.
Keywords: Plant Variety Protection, Intellectual Property Rights, Food Security, Agricultural
Biotechnology, India
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Fisher the term Intellectual Property refers to a loose cluster of legal doctrines that
regulate the uses of different sorts of ideas and insignia.
1
Conventional forms of intellectual property
are Patents, Copyrights and Trademarks. IP grants a kind of limited monopoly to persons or group
of persons to invent commercially useful products. Legal Framework for the protection of IPRs
sent a signal to society that creative and inventive ideas will be rewarded. The main rationale for the
protection of IPR in general and patents in particular is to spur innovation by rewarding the person
to monopolize the invention for commercial use for a limited period of time
2
.
The IPR protection in agriculture is a recent phenomenon and an important issue for developing
countries because it directly clashes with traditional agricultural practices which are mostly based on
free exchange and greater participation of public sector. It begins with the creation of World Trade
Organization (WTO) in 1995. After the Second World War several international agreements were
negotiated and ratifed in areas of Justice, Peace, Health, fnance etc. and world bodies was formed.
Need was felt to regulate trade related matters. To fll this gap, the General Agreements on Tariff and
Trade (GATT) was formed in 1946. Uruguay Round of trade negotiation begun in 1986 under the
GATT and after several round of negotiations led to the signing of the GATT agreement at Marrakesh
*Professor, Chairman Department of Law, A.M.U.Aligarh
**Research Scholar, Department of Law,A.M.U.Aligarh
Saleem Akhtar* Shahab Ahmad**
12
in 1994. One of the key achievements was the establishment of the WTO. The main rationale behind
the formation of WTO is to improve international trade by uniformly applying harmonized systems
in global trade, for both the developed and developing countries in an equitable manner. This paper
asses the response of Indian Government by adopting a national IP regime in compliance with TRIPS
agreement and the implication of this response to traditional agricultural practices of farmers and food
security in India. Considering the Raison dtre of this paper, following are the main questions posed.
1. How successfully Government of India responded to TRIPS agreement, considering the socio-
economic conditions of the nation?
2. How effciently the Indian Sui Generis legislation protect the interests of small farmers?
3. How does the Indian Plant Variety Protection (Hereinafter PVP) legislations extension of private
property rights to plant varieties differ from international Union for the Protection of New Variet-
ies of Plants (Hereinafter UPOV)?
4. What are the present trends of applications in India for Plant Breeders Rights (Hereinafter PBRs)?
5. What are the policy options and fexibilities under TRIPS are open to Government of India to
ensure food security?
2. TRIPS provisions relevant to agriculture
WTO members are obliged under article 27(1) of the TRIPS Agreement to provide protection for
inventions, whether products or processes, in all felds of technology by way of patents. To be patentable,
the inventions must be new, involve an inventive step and be capable of industrial application. This
requirement is not absolute and subject to exemptions provided under articles 27(2) and 27(3).
Article 27(2) provides for exemption in order to protect public order or morality, including to protect
human, animal or plant life or to avoid serious prejudice to the environment. Concerned member
states have discretion to decide what constitutes public order or morality and serious prejudice to
the environment.
Article 27(3) (b) provides exemption to member states to exclude from patentability diagnostic,
therapeutic and surgical methods of treatment of humans and animals. Article 27(3)(b) is very
controversial and has been the subject of many debates particularly in the context of fexibilities and
options available to developing countries. Article 27(3)(b) states that the member may exclude from
patentability:
plants and animals other than micro-organisms, and essentially biological processes for the
production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes.
However, Members shall provide for the protection of plant varieties either by patents or by
an effective sui generis system or by any combination thereof
3. TRIPS Compliant Indian Patent Regime
Un-amended Indian Patents Act, 1970 prohibited patents for food, drugs or medicines, including
herbicides, insecticides, fungicides and germicides. The frst amendment introduced the mailbox
arrangements and exclusive marketing rights to implement Articles 70.8 and 70.9 of TIPPS. According
to Mailbox arrangement member states of WTO obliged to provide transnational measures for
patent protection to pharmaceutical, agricultural and chemical products. A system was brought into
existence that stores and assessed the pending patent application as on the date of the of fling of the
patent application, as opposed to the date when the domestic legislation came into force.
3
Moreover,
Article 70.9 ensures the inventors who fled patent applications through the Mailbox system exclusive
marketing rights. Consequently, exclusive marketing rights were ensured to innovators from the 1995,
before 10 years the patent provisions of the TRIPS Agreement came into force in India.
Substantial changes were made in second amendment in 2002. Under Section 3(c) discoveries
13
of scientifc theory was extended to the discoveries of any living or non-living substances occurring
in nature. The phrase has been interpreted as not including the isolation and purifcation of living
or non-living substances involving human intervention.
4
The reference to plants in Section 3(i) was
omitted from the list of processes that cannot be patented under Section 3(i), and a new exclusion
clause added covering plants and animals in whole or any part thereof other than microorganisms
but including seeds, varieties and species and essentially biological processes for production and
propagation of plants and animals. This section allowed the patenting of not only microorganisms,
but including biotechnological process inventions requiring substantial human intervention.
5
The amendment followed in 2005, which removed the bar in Section 51 to process patents for
substances and made product patents available.
6
Since the upcoming deadline of January 1, 2005 for
TRIPS compliance, this controversial amendment was initially introduced through an ordinance and
thereafter passed into law in March 2005.
7
Patents provide the most strongest form of form of IPR protection because it grant the patentee
the highest form of control over the use of protected material.
8
This was the raison dtre why Indian
Government did not permitted patent protection in the feld of agriculture before the membership of
WTO. To satisfy the requirements of TRIPS present patent laws has completely changed the past
policies, and follow a trend prevalent across the western world.
Current Patent Regime allows process patents in microbiological, biochemical and biotechnological
processes, but excludes plants and animals in whole or any part thereof from patentability. The
provisions of the Act are contradictory because a microorganism is a part of a plant or animal, yet a
microorganism is patentable, but a part of a plant or animal is not.
9
The term microorganism or part
of a plant or animal is defned neither in TRIPS Agreement nor in the Indian Patents Act. Therefore
causes to create loopholes and uncertainty for patent flings. Sharma questions the patentability of
products produced using patented microorganisms. According to him claims in gene patent applications
may pertain to genes or partial DNA sequences, proteins encoded by these genes, vectors used for
transfer of genes, genetically modifed micro-organisms, cells, plants and animals and the process of
developing a transgenic product.
10
It is well argued by Sharma that the amended Patents Act has not categorically excluded seeds
developed by novel means.
10
Similarly, if a patentee hold a patent on a gene, a new plant variety can
be created by inserting that gene and patentee can claim the new variety as novel.
11
In a same way Cullet analyses a patented microorganism inserted into a seed can uniquely be found
not just in the seed, but also in the next generation of the seeds.
12
Therefore, the term microorganism
needs to be defned in order to remove contradiction. As the term is not defned in the TRIPS agreement
member states have the option to defne the term narrowly so as to limit the scope of patentability.
They do not have an obligation to follow an expensive approach pertaining to patenting substances
that appear in nature such as cells, genes etc.
4. Indian Sui Generis Legislation for Plant Variety Protection
Given the clear exclusion of plant varieties, new varieties of crops and their seeds from the scope
of patentability, India was obliged to protect these items under a sui generis system according to the
mandate of Article 27.3(b) of TRIPS. Therefore, in furtherance of the mandate of TRIPS, India has
enacted a sui generis legislation Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act (Hereinafter
the Act) in 2001.
Considering the concerns such as public interest, environment and fear of establishment of
monopolies in food sector ensured that the Indian law did not just blindly copy the model laws from
the International Convention for the Protection of New varieties of Plants, 1978 and 1991 (Hereinafter
UPOV).
13
Although the efforts to develop a PVP system commenced more than a decade ago in the
early 1990s, it gained momentum after India ratifed TRIPS Agreement. The law enacted in India
14
is a sincere attempt to reconcile the conficting interests of various stakeholders. The main aims of
the Act as stated in its preamble purports to establish: (i) To recognize and protect Farmers Rights
in respect of the contribution made by them in conserving, improving, and making available plant
genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties. (ii) To protect Plant Breeders Rights
and to stimulate investment for R&D for plant breeding in public/private sector, and (iii) To facilitate
the growth of seed industry to ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting materials to
farmers. The Act provides protection of plant varieties, rights of breeders and farmers and aims to
encourage development of new varieties of plants. However, this multiple rights framework that aims
to equitable distribution of rights, could pose problems of overlapping claims and result in complicated
bargaining requirements for utilization of varieties leading to underutilization of resources.
14
In view
of this contradiction considering the socioeconomic conditions and public interest the paper reveals
the positive and negative features of the Act in parlance with the agriculture in India.
4.1. Positive Aspects of the Act
The Indian Act mandates that farmers are entitled to save, use, sow, exchange, share or sell, their
seeds. However the farmers are not allowed to sell branded seeds of a protected variety. Permitting
farmers to save and re-sow seeds, rather than to compel them to purchase seeds from the market in each
season is very important in Indian scenario, because a huge population of farmers is small, marginal
and subsistence who cannot afford to buy proprietary seeds from the market in each season. The
public and private seed sectors together do not provide the total seeds needed by the Indian farmers,
seeds from the previous harvest saved by them are mainly re-used by them. In course of seed saving,
farmers also use the traditional method of selective re-sowing of seeds to derive desirable traits such
as pest resistance and other characteristics. Such traditional agricultural practices also preserves the
unique varieties of commonly used cereals such as award winning medicinal rice Navara.
15
Section 39.2 of the Act stipulates that the breeder of a protected variety is obliged to disclose to
farmers the expected performance under given conditions of the propagating material of the variety.
If the seeds did not satisfy the stated performance, then farmers can claim compensation from the
breeder through relevant authority. Additionally, a plant breeder who uses a farmers variety to create
an essentially derived variety is obliged to get permission from the farmer (Section 43). Farmers can
also claim benefts from a plant breeder that utilizes their knowledge.
16
Although, only the large farmers
will be able to take advantage of these provisions. In this way both farmers and breeders rights are
protected, the breeder is rewarded for his innovation, but without being able to threaten the farmers
ability to engage in his livelihood independently while supporting the livelihood of other farmers.
17
The Act provides for protection of four categories of plant varieties: new varieties, essentially
derived varieties, extant varieties and farmers varieties.
18
According to Ramanna and Smale this type
of classifcation benefts each of the stakeholder which is correlated with the interests of the specifc
stakeholders.
19
The Act defnes extant varieties and farmers varieties as varieties available in India that
are notifed in Section 5 of the Seeds Act 1966 in situations where it is deemed necessary to regulate
the quality of seeds for specifc variety for use in agriculture. Farmers varieties are those which are
in public domain or about which there is common knowledge. Basically both of these varieties have
been traditionally cultivated and evolved by farmers or varieties which are wild relatives or landraces
of a variety about which farmers possess the common knowledge. An essentially derived variety is
one that can be distinguished from the initial variety but retain its essential characteristics. So, in this
way benefts under the multiple rights system distributed equitably.
Other important positive aspects of the Act are the detailed and explicit disclosure requirement
of passport data requirement at the time of application for a breeders certifcate. Ban on the use of
Genetic Use Restriction Technology (GURT) that terminates the further propagation of genetic material,
guaranteed protection against innocent infringement and exemption of fees for farmers.
With respect to environment, the Act recognizes the role of farmers as conservers of agro-
15
biodiversity. The contribution of farmers in the conservation of land races, wild relatives of plants
and genetic resources whose genes are used in varieties protected under the Act or their contribution
in the form of improvement of some plants by selection and preservation, by virtue of this they are
entitled fnancial reward from the National Gene Fund set up under the Act. The conservation focus
even though narrowed for economic use alone, is noteworthy for at least acknowledging the link
between conservation and use.
20
4.2. Weak Aspects of the Act
Although, the Act hailed as the progressive legislation, the Act faces a number of inadequacies. While
the Act clearly indicates that it will equally protect the rights of plant breeders as well as of farmers,
on the contrary India is offcially seeking to join the 1978 version of the UPOV convention, and makes
provision for the protection of essentially derived varieties (EDVs) which is not required under TRIPS
and is based on the TRIPS plus provision of the 1991 UPOV convention.
The provisions are available in the Act for farmers to register their varieties, only very few
farmers will be able to register varieties because their varieties generally do not meet the criteria
of distinctiveness, uniformity and stability a framework which is directly brought from the UPOV
Convention designed particularly to protect the interest of commercial breeders. Apparently the rights
of farmers are recognized in the Act and farmers are permitted to protect their plant varieties through
registration under the Act. Whereas the PVP format is in place to protect the varieties developed
in laboratories under controlled conditions and is insuffcient to protect the varieties of farmers
developed on farms under uncontrolled conditions.
21
Indias PVP legislation followed the trend of
UPOV Convention and farmers rights were inserted into the draft bill as an afterthought when civil
society organization and farmers group put immense pressure on the government to secure the rights
of small farmers.
22
It is very diffcult for small farmers to espouse the farmers rights provision for various reasons.
Primarily due to the fact that small farmers usually do not have means and time to prove that they are
the true innovators of new plant varieties by demonstrating that their varieties are distinct, uniform and
stable. Probably it will be more affuent farmers who would take initiative to register their varieties
under PVP system.
23
In the absence of external assistance small farmers will be deprived from the
PBR system completely. The trends of applications for registration of plant varieties gives strength to
the doubt specifed above. In May 2007 the PPV&FR Authority started to receive applications for 12
notifed species. As on November 22, 2010 only 55 applications are received by the authority for the
registration of famers varieties, whereas 1180 applications for extant varieties and 673 applications
had been received for extant varieties.
14
According to Kochupillai the slow activity under the category
of farmers varieties suggest that efforts will have to be made to create greater awareness about the Act
among farmers and also to clarify the mechanism that will be used to evaluate the farmers varieties
for protection.
14
Moreover, Section 45 mandates the establishment of a gene fund and under Section 46.2(d) the
breeders who use farmers varieties to breed new varieties will have to pay revenue and it will fow into
a Gene Fund. Despite the good intentions to protect the farmers, the implementation of this provision
is likely to create problems due to poor drafting of the provision. It uncertain and remains to be seen
whether farmers reap any benefts from farmers rights provisions as well as from national gene fund.
Protection against bad seed and liability clause of the breeders gives too much discretion to the plant
variety authority to decide the compensation. In view of national NGOs working in this feld e.g.
Gene Campaign, this can create arbitrary decisions. Gene Campaign suggested that on proof of false
claims of the breeders, so as to protect the farmers from crop failure, at least double compensation
of the value of projected harvest should be awarded to farmer. In case offence is repeated a jail term
should be provided.
5. Interrelation between Geographical Indications and Food Security
16
A recent proposition for the preservation of traditional knowledge, conservation of genetic resources
and recognition of contributions of traditional farmers is through the application Geographical
Indications (GIs). These GIs (a sui generis form of IP) are of prime importance in protecting the
interests of producers of particular goods, which acquires a specifc value because of the reputation
of the particular area in which it is produced. In India there are a number of cereals, fruits, pulses,
vegetables which is protected through GIs. The important GIs protected goods of India are Darjeeling
Tea and Basmati Rice (a fne variety of rice known for its long grains and pleasant aroma). TRIPS
Agreement provides the basis for the enactment of the Sui Generis Law for the protection of GIs
in India namely Geographical Indications of Goods Act, 1999 which came into force in September
2003.
24
The Statement of Object and Reason of the Act stated as To provide for the registration and
the better protection of GIs relating to goods. Act provides a statutory mechanism for the registration
of GIs in India and ensures exclusion of unauthorized persons from misusing GIs would serve to
protect consumers from deception add to the economic prosperity of the producer of such goods and
also to promote goods bearing Indian GIs in the export market.
25
6. Concept of Food Security
Since the Green Revolution Food Security is a concept that has been instrumental to analyse agricultural
food production. Promotion of Genetically modifed (GM) crops through IPRs induced protection has
been justifed on the ground that their protection and wide distribution would ensure food security.
26
Food Security as a concept is imprecise and is used in various ways. The term has been defned
in at least 200 ways, and described by approximately 450 indicators,
27
since its emergence in the
literature of green revolution in the period of 1960s and 1970s.
Acknowledgment of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) that problems surrounding
to defne Food Security is connected with operational complexities inherent in the application of
the concept to a wide range of interdisciplinary contexts.
28
As an agency that specializes in food and
agricultural and specifcally deals with issues of food and agriculture in all parts of the world regard
Food Security as mainly concerned availability of world supplies of basic food stuffs.
29
In the
earlier times, this understanding of food security stands on the presumption that food scarcity is the
cause of food insecurity.
30
As a result promotion of GM crops and modern varieties are promoted under
the banner of food security to increase crop productivity and to alleviate food insecurity.
Considering the diffculty in application of the concept to a wide range of technical and policy
contexts, FAO adopted a reconstructed defnition of food security as food security is a situation that
exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to suffcient, safe and
nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. In
2001 FAO modifed this defnition, remarking that
food security is a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical,
social and economic access to suffcient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Former Defnition focused on only one dimension of food security i.e. food shortage in quantitative
terms. FAOs approach to food security matches with the works of existing academics in the study
of food. For instance food security has been defned by Ryerson Universitys Centre for Studies in
Food Security as
a condition in which all peoples at all times can acquire safe, nutritionally adequate, and
personally acceptable foods that are accessible in a manner that maintains human dignity.
This defnition recognizes the multifaceted aspects of food security as well as focus on the multiple
conceptions of food security in diverse communities. In explaining the concept, the Centre has taken
into account fve components of food security: Availability, Accessibility, Adequacy, Acceptability
and Agency.
31
17
The Previous conceptions of food security heavily relied on the quantitative aspects of availability.
In contrast to previous conceptions it is now widely recognize that food insecurity arise not due to
lack of food or even lack of productive capacity. The current understanding of food security also
considers the qualitative standards of acceptability, adequacy and accessibility.
Despite the wider acceptance and understanding of the current conceptions of food security,
international policy frameworks adopted a method to achieve food security whose effectiveness is
questionable. In the current global scenario neo-liberal policies of free trade presented as a means to
ensure food security.
32
This neo-liberal model which based on the logic of comparative advantage in
international trade promotes developing countries to produce agricultural commodities for exports.
33

Earnings derived from these exports can be utilized by developing countries which are expected to
achieve food security by importing appropriate food from industrialized countries, which have by
virtue of their biotechnological advancement in agricultural sector a Comparative Advantage to
monopolise food production.
34
This practice has resulted in policies which are export oriented in
developing countries that shift the focus of agricultural policy from the production of traditional food
crops to commodities for exports. The cultivation of culturally appropriate staples is replaced with
the production of few luxury (high-proft) export oriented commodities which mainly include cash
crops such as cotton, coffee, cocoa beans, rubbers, sugar tobacco.
35
By 1980-81 for instance, traditional agricultural based products accounted for approximately
39% of all food exports from developing countries.
35
By the year 2000-2001, this has fallen to around
19%.
36
The increase in the in the export of export oriented commodities such as (fowers, vegetables
and fruits) and decrease in staple food crops was approximately 15% to 22% for the same period.
36
The recent shift in export from traditional agricultural products to export oriented agriculture is a
challenging issue for developing countries as this neo-liberal approach to international trade demands
to developing countries to achieve food security by importing food, instead of producing it. Highly
subsidized farming in developed countries poses a threat to local markets when massive imports of
cheap foods at subsidized rates happens.
36
Subsidized foods from industrialized countries food the
domestic markets of developing countries, resulting signifcant drop in the prices of local agricultural
products. This phenomenon makes farming unproftable, and pushes local farmers into debt.
37
6.1. Food Sovereignty
To make sure that food security, in terms of acceptability, adequacy and accessibility of food becomes
a reality, the goals and pillars of food security shall be promoted and discussed under the rubric of food
sovereignty, rather than security.
38
The food sovereignty movement is based on the idea that feeding
a nations people is an issue of national security and sovereignty.
39
Food Sovereignty is aims to
speak to the rights of the States to maintain their own agricultural produce basic foods respecting
productive and cultural diversity. Also, the idea recognizes the rights of peoples to decide on the foods
they wish to produce and consume.
40
The term is coined by the Via Campesina, a global farmers movement to describe its vision of
participatory rural development policies at the national level.
41
At World Food Summit in 1996, Via
Campesina presented its position statement; it announces that food sovereignty is a logical precondition
for the existence of food security: Long-term food security depends on those who produce food and
care for the natural environment. As the stewards of food producing resources we hold the following
principles as the necessary foundation for achieving food security. Food is a basic human right.
This right can only be realized in a system where food sovereignty is guaranteed. Food sovereignty
is a precondition to genuine food security.
42
Essentially, both concepts differ in a fundamental way. On the one hand the concept of food
security is mainly associated with production model of industrial agribusiness. On the other hand
concept of food sovereignty primarily deals with agroecological productions which ensure localized
control over food systems. However, both the models are mainly concerned with how agricultural
18
production ought to be managed in order to address the food insecurity of the large part of the worlds
population that is classifed as undernourished.
43
7. Key Issues of IPRs and Food Security
7.1 Privatisation of Genetic Resources
The Green Revolution which is characterized by self suffciency in productivity, high yielding (HY)
seeds and the underlying technology had no issue of IP protection. The big concern of inadequate
food production was dealt with the research conducted by public money which created public goods
freely accessed by anyone. In Green Revolution IPRs play no role, no proprietary technologies and
no patents on products. The high yielding seeds of the Green Revolution were re-used and re-sown
by Indian farmers as per the usual practice resulting in rapid spread of high yielding varieties in most
of the Indian States. As a matter of fact in the absence of the traditional practices of exchanging and
saving seeds, Green Revolution may not have spread as rapidly as it happened in India.
44, 45
Conversely, The Gene Revolution is controlled by IPRs held by corporations in the form of
private property rights over the genetic material. Few big corporations such as Monsanto, Bayer Crop
Science, Syngenta, Dow, Dupont and BASF plant Science apparently control all the R&D of the GM
crops. Products and processes, including research techniques are patented by these few corporations.
So, the seed is companys property and farmers control over the means of production (i.e. seeds)
withered away.
The concentration of agricultural biotechnologies and propertisation of genetic resources in a
few big corporations is a big concern for developing countries. So, the food security which is such
an important and big concern cannot be let determined by these corporations who virtue of being in
a powerful position can cause to mould the national policies in their favour.
7.2 Spread of Monocultures and its effect on agro-biodiversity
It is generally argued that IPRs promote monocropping by providing incentives to private seed sector
to create uniform varieties because these varieties offer high yields than the local varieties. This tend
to displace the diversity local, traditional and landrace varieties, hence promote monocultures and
homogenization which led to vulnerability, genetic erosion and reduced resilience of crops to pests
and diseases.
46
As mentioned earlier farmers prefer modifed varieties in comparison to traditional varieties
because these varieties offer higher yields and other special characteristics. So, in respect of environment
continuous use of these seeds creates agricultural uniformity after a duration, which is environmentally
unsustainable. It has been argued that continuous use of these varieties has potential to create epidemic
situation because of its internal tendency of disease prone and vulnerability to externalities.
7.3 Overuse of Patents in Private Sector Research
Overuse of Patents in agricultural biotechnology can lead to a complex web of proprietary claims
thereby may cause to stife innovation in the private and public sector instead of promoting it.
47
Main
premise behind the protection of IPRs is that it is necessary to assign these rights because it provides
the industry with suffcient incentives to innovate. However, these rights should not be extended to
primary material such as Genes, DNA etc. because these cause to stife scientifc and technological
innovation.
Private sector R&D mainly focuses on major food crops such as rice, wheat and maize because
these crops have signifcant commercial potential. Private sector usually does not encourage breeding
related to minor crops with small markets because the returns on these investments will be quite small.
This phenomenon also poses challenges to the capacity National Agricultural to fulfll its function of
public good in contributing to the elimination of food security due to concentration in propertisation
of genetic resources and enabling technologies in few corporations. This indicates that efforts should
19
be made to adopt measures to ensure that research should be done to increase the yields of minor crops
which are not so commercially proftable as well as cater to the needs of small farmers.
7.4 PVP and Food Security
The causal relationship between IPRs and Food Security is very diffcult to fnd because the involvement
of a large number of other complex factors. The empirical evidence on the economic impacts of PVP
particularly in the generation of private sector investment and facilitation of transfer of technology has
been very limited.
48
Few empirical studies suggest that increasing role of IPRs in agriculture harnessing
the increased profts for few corporations but decreases in varietal quality of farms and their overall
profts.
49
Although the neo-liberal model of trade concerning agriculture predicts the improvement
of economic situations of farmers and food security, but the fact is that the trend shows a declining
pattern. The trend of export oriented agriculture has negatively impacted the food security goals that
the States aims to achieve,
50
and there is no empirical evidence that can indicate that introduction
of PVP in agriculture increased food security.
51
Moreover, obligation to pay signifcant royalties to
developed countries and corporations will increase the debt burden of developing countries.
Conclusions
The paper has argued that current IPR regime in India which is TRIPS compliant has exerted signifcant
impact upon the food security in India. Three Patents Amendment Acts, which were made to comply
with TRIPS obligations have introduced changes which results in a notable shift from the previous
policies of Indian Government pertaining to Patents law. These amendments strengthens the rights
of patent holders, creates provisions and opportunity for patenting of microorganisms, plant genetic
material as well as to patent the seeds and plant varieties. A Gene which is patented by an investor
can be inserted into a plant variety and entitles the investor to claim the New Variety as novel. So,
trends of commodifcation of genetic resources have started after these amendments which have major
implications for agriculture and farmers in India.
The current Legal Framework put emphasis on private property rights for the participation
of private sector in agriculture, while it has failed to promote the work of local managers of agro-
biodiversity namely farmers and local communities. Neo-liberal economic globalization which have
a tendency to place the interests of corporations above the interests of people should be reversed
and an appropriate framework should be established which places the interests of the people above
the interests of corporations. The emphasis on commercial biotechnology has promoted trade in
agricultural products but generally not contributed to meeting the food needs of every human being.
Further, it has contributed to the erosion of genetic base necessary for the further development of
agro-biodiversity. The recent progress in agro-biotechnology and brisk extension of IPRs to agro-
science can prove detrimental to agro-biodiversity and do not improve the food security condition of
the local and indigenous communities.
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food security:
Availability: suffcient availability of the food for all the people at all the times
Accessibility: economic and physical access to food for all the people at all the times
Adequacy: nutritious and safe food accessibility which is produced in environmentally sustainable ways
Acceptability: accessibility to culturally acceptable food, which is produced and obtained without
compromising peoples dignity, self-respect or human rights
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23
EFFECT OF GENDER, TYPE OF SCHOOL AND SO-
CIO -ECONOMIC STATUS ON THE ACQUISITION
OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL LEARNERS
Dr. Seema singh rathore* Harsha ankodia**
Abstract : The widespread need for English as a second language or a foreign language puts a
considerable pressure on educational resources of many countries to provide English knowledge.
In India, English, however, is not spoken in an identical manner. Different varieties or dialects of
English exists, refecting such factor an as individual degree of education, ethnic group, social class,
or geographical location. In order to understand the importance of English teaching and learning,
the achievement of secondary school students in English is considered for detailed to this study.
Key Words Acquisition, English as a second language, secondary school learners
Introduction
Language is a means of discovery: discovery of the self and of the world. The human urge to share
with others or express ones thoughts and desires drives the learning of a language. Obviously,
communication is a function of language-perhaps, according to some plausible but still in devised
scale, the most important function. But communication does not appear to be the only function of
language. Language is used for thought, for problem solving, for play, for dreaming, for displays of
group solidarity for deception, for certain specialized literary modes such as represent speech and
possibly to fulfll an instinctive need for symbolic behaviour.
Language is the use of an organized means of combining words in order to communicate. It makes
possible for us to communicate with those around us. It also makes it possible to think about things
and processes we currently cannot see, hear, feel, touch or smell. These things include ideas that may
not have any tangible form. Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share
our language.
Language creates an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and its referent an idea, a thing, a
process, a relationship or description. Language has a regular structure only particular sequence of
symbols (sound and words) have meanings. Despite having the limits of structure language users
can produce novel utterances, the possibilities for generating new utterances are virtually limitless.
Second Language Acquisition: - Current thinking about language acquisition has incorporated
the understanding that acquiring language really involves a natural endowment modifed by the
environment (Bates & Goodnman, 1999; Lightfoot, 2003;Mac Whinney, 1999; Maratos 2003; Wexler,
1996) For eg., the social environment, in which infants use their social capacities to interact with
others, provides one source of information for language acquisition (Carpenter, Nagell & Tomasello,
1998, Snow, 1999; Tomasello 1999)
There are many factors, which affect second language acquisition (SLA). Socio-economic status
(SES), family environment and personality traits were identifed as signifcant factors (Chandrakanthi
S., 2003) Besides these, variables such as sex, locality, experience, type of management also affect
second language acquisition (SLA) process (Singaravelu G., 2001); Aptitude, verbal intelligence,
* Senior Assistant Professor, Department of HRM and IB, ICG Mansarovar, Jaipur, Rajasthan
** Research Scholar Department of Management, ICG Mansarovar, Jaipur, Kota
24
motivation, study habit infuence the language skills (Chandrakanthi S., 2003)
Several studies have confrmed the impact of language on the social structure in terms of not only
regional character but also family background in educational attainment and childs linguistic
development. Language, when used for communication is a tool and handling any tool requires certain
skill (Gautam 2002) when it is said tat particular person is a good user of language it is meant that
he has all the four skills of English language i.e. Listening, speaking, Reading and Writing (LSRW).
Language learning occupies an important place in the all round development of the child. Proper
learning of the four basic language skills listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW) facilitates
learning in other curricular area. The proverb Do not give your student fst, but teach them how to
fsh is true in language teaching especially in teaching a foreign language like English. Even though
English is a national and international link language. Many teachers fnd it diffcult to teach. The task
becomes more challenging when we have to teach English in rural schools.
Human seem to progress through stages in acquiring language cooing, babbling-one word utterances
two word utterances and telegraphic speech-basic adult sentence structure. Over the course of
development language complexity, vocabulary and even strategies for vocabulary acquisition become
increasingly sophisticated.
Objectives of the Study
(i) To ascertain the extent to which pupils socio economic status affects the acquisition of English
as a second language.
ii) To fnd out the infuence of gender on the acquisition of English as a second language.
iii) To measure the achievement in English of secondary school learners of Private and government
schools.
iv) To compare the achievement in English of secondary school learner of Private and Government
school.
v) To compare the achievement in English of boys and girls of Private school.
vi) To compare the achievement in English of boys and girls of Government schools.
Method used in the study:- In this study descriptive studies are most appropriately used by the
researcher. A descriptive study describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions or
relationships that exists, opinions that are held, process that are going on, effects that are evident or
trends that are developing. It is primarily concerned with the present, although it often considers past
events and infuences as they related to current conditions.
Population:- The entire population here refers to all the IX class learners of Government and Private
Schools of Rajasthan Board of Secondary Education of Kota city.
Tools of the Present Study: - The following tools are used in present study:
1. English Language Achievement Test (ELAT) prepared by investigator herself which is further
divided into 4 parts Listening Speaking, Reading, Writing.
2. Personal datasheet has been developed to know the students socio-economic status.
Below Rs 1, 50,000 annual =Low SES
Above Rs 1,50,000 annual =High SES
Statistical Techniques:- The following statistical techniques are used in the present study:
i) Mean
ii) Standard Deviation
iii) t Test
df=198, value of t at 0.05 level of signifcance =1.97
df=198, value of t at 0.01 level of signifcance =2.58
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between the learners of Private
and Government Schools.
25
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of
Government Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of Private
Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of
Government Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between girls of Private and
Government Schools
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between girls of High Socio-
economic Status of Private and Government Schools.
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between girls of Low Socio-
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys of Low Socio-economic
Status of Private and Government Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys of High Socio-
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of Low
Socio-economic Status of Government Schools.
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of Low
Socio-economic Status of Private Schools.
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of High
Socio-economic Status of Government Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between boys and girls of High
Socio-economic Status of Private Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between the learners of High
Socio-economic Status of Private and Government Schools.
There is signifcant difference in the achievement in English between the learners of Low Socio-
economic Status of Private and Government Schools..
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between the learners of Low
socio-economic and High Socio-economic Status of Private Schools.
There is no signifcant difference in the achievement in English between the learners of Low
socio-economic and High Socio-economic Status of Government Schools.
Conclusion
Research shows that parents of higher economic status prefer to send their children,
irrespective of their gender, in private school in comparison to government school. As
far as parents of low socio economic status are concerned, the prefer to send their
male child to school. As their economic condition allows them, they send their children
to government school. Family , social culture and fnancial condition bound them to not
send their girl child to school.

In other words, high socio-economic status affects the acquisition of English as a second
language in private school whereas effects of gender in parents of low socio-economic status
in government schools are quite high.
.
26
Bibliography
1. Bhaskara Rao, D. Achievement test in English, RVR College of Education, Andhra radesh, 1995.
2. Bose, Kshanika, Teaching of English-A Modern Approach, Daoba House, New Delhi, 1992.
3. Bright, J.A. And G.P. Mc Gregor, Teaching English as a Second Language, Longman, 1970.
4. Buch, M.B., Sixth Survey of Educational Research 1993-2000, Vol-1 NCERT, New Delhi, 2006
5. Jesa M, Effcient English Teaching, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi; 2005
6. Berelson, Bernard, Content Analysis in Communication Research, New York: Free Press, 1952.
7. Boot, John C.G., and Cox, Edwin B., Statistical Analysis for Managerial Decisions, 2
nd
ed. New
Delhi: Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., 1979.
8. Kothari C.R, Research Methodology Method and Teaching, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1
st
Ed. 1986.
9. Best John W. and Kahn James V., Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 5
th
Ed., 1986.
10. Gage ,N.L.(1966). Handbook of research on teaching. Chlcago:rand McNally & co.
11. Garret,Henry E.(1979). Statistic in psychology and education. Bombay: Peffer and Simans Pvt. Ltd.
12. Haycraft,Brita(1984).The Teaching Of Pronunciation-A Classroom Guide.Longman.
13. Mair,G.H.(1994). Morden English Litrature,New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
14. Macmillan Encyclopedia, the (1981). London: Macmillan London Ltd.
15. Panchal,M.R.(1984). Teaching Of English.Delhi:Vani Educational Book.
16. Potter Simeon(1984). Our Language. Middlesex :Penguin Books.
17. Rathaiah,L. and D.Bhaskara Rao,(1995). Achievement Correlates. Ambala Cantt. The Associated
Publication.
18. Richerd,Jack c.(1985). The Context Of Language Teaching. Combridge:Cambridge University
Press.
19. Rivers,Wilga A. and Mary S. Temprely(1978). A Practical Guid To The Teaching Of English As
A Second Or Foreign Language. New York:Oxford University Press.
20. Strevens,Peter(1977). New Directions In English Language And Litrature Teaching In India.
Delhi:Ajanta Publication.
21. World Book Encyclopedia,The,Vol.12,L.(1992).London:World Book,Inc.
27
CUSTOMER PURCHASING DECISIONS AND
BRAND EQUITY: A STUDY ON MULTI- UTILITY
VEHICLES(MUV) IN UTTAR PRADESH
Dr. Mohd. Sadiq Anis*
ABSTRACT
An marked increase in competition amongst different car companies it become extremely important
for marketers to focus on branding of their products. Brand equity is important tool for associating a
brand and infuencing customers in making purchase decisions for particular brand. Factor analysis is
used to understand the underlying factors infuencing customers in positive purchase intension. The
study throws light on various factors of brand equity marketers much focus on to attract and retain
their prospective and existing customers. The study concludes that right marketing mix in marketing
strategy a pivotal role in customer purchase decision criterion.
Keywords: Brand equity, Brand association, Brand loyalty.
Introduction
In global market where many functionally similar products are available from wide range of suppliers,
the brand name has become differentiating tool to offer the promise of value and quality to
consumers. Building strong brand enables frms to lower their marketing cost and develop ability to
charge premium price for their products. The concept of measuring value of brand come in to existence
when advertising practitioners in U.S. frst coined the term brand equity in early 1980s. Strong
brand equity helps the frm to establish and identity themselves in the market place (Aaker, 1996)
and reduces vulnerability in competitors action leading to higher margins and greater intermediary
Co-operation. In measuring the overall value of a brand, researchers and practitioners have begun to
examine the concept of brand equity (Baldinger et.al 1990; Keller, 1993) as right exploitation of it
can bring tremendous value to producers, retailers and consumers of the brand. Historically, research
has suggested that brand equity can be estimated by subtracting the utility of physical attributes of
products from total utility of a brand and also helps in improving brand value by charging premium
over its competitive brands. Brand equity refers to the marketing effects accrued to product with its
brand name compared with those that will be accrued if the product did not have the brand name. It
refers to the incremental utility or value added to a product from its brand name.
Five Assets Model of Brand Equity
(Aaker, 1991) concluded that brand equity can be evaluated through brand loyalty, brand awareness,
perceived quality, brand associations and other proprietary brand assets in fve different dimensions
shown in fgure1. The implication of model helps in managing brand equity and considers sensitive
value to make informed decisions about brand-building activities. Brand equity is important at
purchasing time as it infuences customers and compete with the competitors attractions.
Literary Contributions
(Gaedebe, 2007) identifed brand name, pricing and distributors reputation are the most important
factors to determine brand equity of different models of cars. (Keller, 1998) describes consumers
memory as a function of a set of nodes and links of the various associations related to brands. The
perceived quality of the brand is associated with price premiums, price elastic ties, brand usage, and
*Senior Lecturers, Syscoms College, Abu Dhabi, UAE
28
remarkably, stock return (Aaker ,1996). (Morgan, 2000) identifed that brand equity can be studied in
terms of perceived quality, brand awareness, brand associations and brand loyalty. (Yoo et.al , 2001)
designed brand metrics for measuring the qualitative parameters of brand performance evaluated
effectiveness of brand-building. (Simon and Sullivan ,1993) conducted empirical study on automobile
frms and concluded that brand equity is important measurement issue for intangible assets in the new
economy. He also validated the effect of brand equity on the value of the frm and addressed the capital
market effects of intangible associations with brand value. (Chen C and Chang Y., 2008) evaluated
the effects of brand equity on brand preference and purchased intentions. They demonstrated the
moderating effects of switching cost on the relationship between brand equity and purchase intentions
on airline proftability. (Rangaswamy et.al , 1993) emphasized on underlying dimensions of brand
equity and their affect on fnancial performance of the frms. (Keller, 2003) concluded that brand
equity can add value endowed by the brand name. (Park and Srinivasan , 1994) conducted study on
various car models in european market and concluded that brand equity should be evaluated in terms
of consumer knowledge, familiarity, and associations with respect to the brand. (Cobb Walgren et al.;
1995; Keller, 1993) coined the customer-based defnition of brand equity as the differential effect
of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A thorough understanding
of brand equity from the customers point of view is essential for successfully managing the brand.
The purposed of the research is to identify the attributes of brand equity and marketing mix infuencing
purchasing decisions of the cars. Hence the study is aimed at analyzing the following objectives:
1. To identify and analyze factors of brand equity infuencing purchase decisions with reference to
MUV segment of cars.
2. To study attributes of marketing mix infuencing consumers purchase decisions of MUVs.
3. To draw out managerial implications of the fndings of the study.
Figure:1
Five asset model of brand
Source: Aaker DA (1996). Building Strong Brands, The Free Press, New York, NY.
29
Research Methodology
An empirical study was undertaken to understand key dimensions of brand equity impacting purchase
decision of cars. Questionnaire with open and close ended questions were circulated through
investigators. In all 130 respondents were selected who owns cars of Maruti, Hyundai, Fiat, Tata,
Chevrolet and other brands. The responses were recorded through trained investigators who were well
versed with the objectives of the research study. The universe of study was large and heterogeneous so
stratifed sampling was adopted. The study was conducted among the car owners residing at Rohtak,
Jhajjar, Bhadurgarh and Sonepat possessing diversifed demographic profle. Study was conducted
on the respondents who are the owners of different segment of MUVs. These cars are especially
popular among the entry and middle price segment of car customers reason being hatchback models
are price effective and large number innovative features available to the customers in terms of options,
features, driving experience and post sale support of different brands of car. Descriptive tools such as
percentage, mean, standard deviation and coeffcient of variation has been used to describe profle of
customers Factor analysis has been adopted to identify the factors of brand equity which are infuencing
customer purchase decisions. The data was collected from January to July 2010.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Table 1 Demographic Characteristic of Respondents
I Gender % of Respondents
Male 73
Female 27
II Age Group
25-30 20
30-35 27
35-40 30
Above 40 23
III Occupation
Businessman 50
Professionals 27
Students 7
Others 16
Table 2 Elements of Brand Equity
(I) Perceived Quality Statements
PQ1 I trust the quality of this brand.
PQ2 Products from this brand would be of
very good quality.
PQ3 Products from this brand offer
excellent
features.
(II)Brand Awareness:
BAW1 Some Characteristics of this brand
come to my
Mind very quickly.
BAW2 I am familiar with this brand.
30
BAW3 I can recognize this brand quickly
among other competing brands.
(III) Brand Association
BAS1 This brand has very unique brand
image, compared to competing
brands.
BAS2 I respect and admire people who are
having this brand.
BAS3 I like the brand image of this
company.
BAS4 I like and trust this brand.
(IV) Brand Loyalty:
BAL1 I consider myself to be loyal to this
brand.
BAL2 If in future, I want to buy the new car
this brand would be my frst choice.
BAL3 I would love to recommend this
brand to my friends.
BAL4 I will buy this brand even if it
increases the price.
BAL5 When buying cars this brand will be
my frst choice.
In table 2 the various elements of brand equity along with their coded statement are shown.
Table 3
KMO and Bartletts Test for Elements of Brand Equity
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .600
Bartletts Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 187.858
df 105
Sig. .000
Before proceeding for factor analysis appropriateness of factor analysis is to be assessed. This can
be done by examining adequacy through Kaiser Olkin (KMO) statistic. KMO value greater than 0.5
is considered to be adequate (Kaiser and Rice, 1974). From the table 3 value of KMO is acceptable
indicating that pattern of correlation are relatively compact and factor analysis can yielded distinct
and reliable results. Barlett test result is signifcant (P<.0001) represent that factor is acceptable. The
items in the individual category subjected to Principal Component Analysis(PCA) with varimax
rotation and Kaiser normalization using SPSS 10.0.The items having factor loading less than 0.5 are
to be eliminated.
Table 4 Communalities
Communalities
Sr. Initial Extraction
no.
1 BAL1 1.000 .776
2 BAL2 1.000 .672
3 BAL3 1.000 .853
4 BAL4 1.000 .685
5 BAL5 1.000 .700
31
6 BAS1 1.000 .705
7 BAS2 1.000 .802
8 BAS3 1.000 .584
9 BAS4 1.000 .780
10 BAW1 1.000 .664
11 BAW2 1.000 .712
12 BAW3 1.000 .840
13 PQ1 1.000 .646
14 PQ2 1.000 .766
15 PQ3 1.000 .777
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Table 4 gives the initial communalities estimates of variance accounted for all components or factors.
Extraction communalities are estimates of the variance in each variable accounted for the factors
in the solution. Small values indicate that variables do not ft well with factor solution and can be
dropped from the analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) involves a mathematical procedure
that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a smaller number of uncorrelated
variables called principal components.Table 5 list eigen values associated with each linear component
associated with each linear component (factor). Before extraction 15 linear components were identifed
within the data set. Eigen values associated with each factor represent the variance explained by each
linear component. Five components are identifed totaling cumulative contribution of seventy three
percent. Table 6 and table 7 matrix gives components before and after rotation. The matrix loading
less than 0.4 are can be suppressed from the output. Scree plot shown in fgure 2 represent point of
infection of the curve. The curve trails after fve factors but there is another drop at four factors before
stable plateau. Therefore, frst fve factors are retained. Table 7 represents rotated component matrix
representing matrix of factor loadings for each variable on to each factor. It can be seen from table 7
that variables BAL4, BAL1, BAL2, Bal5, BAW1, BAL3 having values of principal components of
.781,.773,.752.746,.710 and 685 respectively have loadings on factor 1. This suggests that factor 1 is
the combination of these six variables. Therefore, the factor can be interpreted as customer loyalty.
For factor 2 we see that BAS1, BAS3, BAS4 has high loadings indicating factor 2 is the combination
of these variables .The variable can be clubbed into single factor trustworthiness. As for factor 3 it
is combination of variables BAL3 and PQ2 values are .566 and .812 respectively and can be clubbed
in to factor of brand advocacy. Factor 4 is combination of two variables BAW3, BAS4 component
values being .897 and .701 representing factor lading on facto 4 and combination of
two variables can be termed as brand distinction. factor
5 is comprised of single variable that is PQ3 focusing on
the Innovative features.
Table 5
Total Variance Explained
Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
% of Cumulativ e % of Cumulativ e % of Cumulativ e
Component Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance %
1 4.267 28.446 28.446 4.267 28.446 28.446 3.682 24.547 24.547
2 2.212 14.749 43.195 2.212 14.749 43.195 1.995 13.301 37.848
3 1.816 12.104 55.298 1.816 12.104 55.298 1.928 12.855 50.704
4 1.479 9.862 65.160 1.479 9.862 65.160 1.830 12.200 62.903
5 1.186 7.908 73.068 1.186 7.908 73.068 1.525 10.165 73.068
6 .948 6.321 79.389
32
7 .751 5.004 84.393
8 .619 4.126 88.519
9 .447 2.979 91.498
10 .397 2.646 94.144
11 .265 1.766 95.910
12 .207 1.381 97.291
13 .165 1.102 98.392
14 .141 .939 99.331
15 .100 .669 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analy sis.
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
(A) Product Mix
Product mix of a company refers to all product lines carried out by the car frm, where each line refects
one type of product. So product line length and product should be focused with brand prospective.
From table 8 it can be interpreted that availability of brands is one the key important attribute in
comparison to other sub factors of product mix, as variation among the responses is minimum for the
statement. Maruti brand have clear cut advantage in comparison to other brands like Hyundai, Fiat,
TATA and Chevrolet. The car owners are having negative attitude in terms of product mix offered to
them as still marketers has to work in terms of right product mix for their customers.
Table 6
Product Mix
(A) PRODUCT MIX Mean Standard Coeffcient
Deviation of
Variation
1 Brands are easily available. 4.7 0.59 12.54
2 The purchased brand 2.75 1.50 54.52
assures me of technical
quality of the product.
3 The purchased brand 3.45 0.85 24.50
assures me of functional
beneft of the product.
4 The purchased brand is 3.25 1.04 32.13
matching the expectations
with the product features.
5 The purchased brand has 4.05 1.20 29.51
given me immense
psychological satisfaction.
Source: Field Data
(B) Price Mix
Indian customers are very price sensitive and price mix is one of the very important decision criterion
(Biel, 1992)in the making purchase decisions. The customers disagree on account of price mix offered
to them.
Table 7
(B) PRICE MIX Mean Standard Coeffcient
Deviation of Variation
33
1 Price of the brand is 4.2 0.89 21.3
Affordable to me.
2 The manufacturer are 2.75 1.32 48.07
charging higher price on
account of popular brand
name.
3 3.55 0.92 25.93
The brand gives me value
for money spent on it.
4 The brand name conveys 4.05 0.96 23.79
that I cannot be cheated on
Price front.
Source: Field Data
In table 9 price mix sub category affordable price is key important factor for selecting particular brand
of car. Maruti, TATA and Hyundai brand are considered to be affordable in comparison to brands
other brands like Ford, Fiat and Chevrolet in MUV segment.
(C) Promotion Mix
Promotion mix for has immense importance in customer purchase decisions .If promotion tools applied
sensitively, it can increase chances of successful branding of product. Promotion helps in increasing
awareness among customers. It is only through promotion prospects come to know about promotional
offers offered by companies (Simon,1993). It provides information to prospects and develops positive
brand image of the product. Promotion can be done through advertisements, discounts and other
promotional scheme. Customer believe that promotional offer have signifcant effect on their purchase
decisions. Owners of the various brands of cars still believe that complete disclosure of information
is still very critical in promotional offers customized by various marketers of cars.
(D) Distribution and Service Factor
Distribution and services is important factor in case of car brands. Sub factor of it shown in table 11
regarding updated information available to dealers is especially important from the brand prospective.
Dealers should also provide services so that the satisfaction level of users can be enhanced in
prospective of developing the brand image.
(F) Trust Attributes
Trust attributes is a set of beliefs (Farquhar,1989) branded product position themselves regarding
their performance.
Table 8
Trust Attributes Mean Standard Coeffcient
(F) Deviation of
Variation
1. Economy 3.35 1.29 38.48
2. Safety 3.35 0.98 29.28
3. Performance 3.3 1.11 33.59
Customer Support 3.15 1.10 34.78
4.
Source: Field Data
In table 13 different variables included in trust attributes are shown. Standard deviation for safety
variable is minimum representing that customers are paying lot much focus on the safety feature like
34
air bags facility, anti collision systems and consider it as one of the evaluation criterion in making
the purchase decisions. Tata brand has clear cut advantage of trust and dependability attribute in the
mind set of customers.
In table 14 sub variables of image attributes are shown. Coeffcient of variation is minimum for sporty
looks variable representing very less variation of the factor. The respondents consider sporty looks
in car model in building image attributes. Maruti and Chevrolet clear have competitive advantage
on this front.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
Strong brand equity has signifcant infuence on the purchasing decision of the cars. It can be exploited
by marketers by charging premium price, developing customer loyalty opportunities and enables
the frms to generate proftability (Haigh,1996). Brand equity should be inculcated right from the
conceptualization of model for different markets to its post sale support. Brand should be developed
and projected according to image in customers mind. Signifcant work is to be done on the behalf
of marketers for the synchronization of the supply chain because due to non availability of model of
particular brand, customers are forced to move towards the competitive brand (Asker,1990). Companies
should focus more on right pricing mix of their product and should develop closer association with
the fnancing institutions as customers are considering it as one of the criterion in making purchases
of the cars. Focus should be made on loyalty discounts and customer should be valued on the basis of
adherence to the brand. Marketers should positioned there brands on attribute of trustworthiness by
disclosing transparent information about their promotional offers. Marketers of cars should develop
customer experience with the brand should be made so great that in turn binds customer to be brand
loyal in turn enhance the equity of the brand. Brand managers should make distinction in their brand
offerings from the existing players. Differential in customer experience with the brand would generate
positive word of mouth and generates momentum needed in the market place. To develop strong brand
equity the brand managers can exploit online platform of social networking site as the sites enable
interaction with customers and tickles the curiosity of newcomers for different brands. Social networks
and other relevant tools like Facebook, Twitter and Orkut along with websites like Yelp, GroupOn
and Foursquare work online strategy for developing strong brand equity. The interactive nature of
the sites ensures two way communication between the patrons and people behind the venture. Social
networking sites can be used to put prospects reference group members reviews about favorite cars,
there videos and their reviews about different cars features can be placed to enable prospects for
making comparisons and make meaningful purchase decision. Electronic platform becomes relevant
as it, connection between buyers and sellers happen in real time. This shortens the sales cycle increases
return on investment as till now advertising through social media forms a smaller part of brands
marketing budget. Google maps can be offered to show rooms sites. The companies should move
from search engine optimization to social media optimization of which potential is still unexplored.
CONCLUSION
Strong brand equity allows the companies to retain customers better, service their needs more effectively,
and increase profts. Brand equity can be increased by successfully implementing and managing an
ongoing relationship marketing effort by offering value to the customer, and listening to their needs.
Brand equity factors infuencing customer purchase decision criterion has been discussed. The study
concluded that brand managers efforts should be focused on customer loyalty, trustworthiness, brand
advocacy, brand distinction and innovative features in managing brand equity. Right marketing mix
should be focused to exploit brand equity in terms of the purchase decisions and repetitive sales of
the products. Further, it can concluded that it was not only the marketers name which create a brand
image in the mind of customer but dealers name also infuence also develop the brand image attributes.
REFERENCES
Asker, David A (1990), Brand Extensions: The Good, the Bad, the Ugly, Sloan Management Review,
Summer, p. 42.
35
Aaker, David.(1991). Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name. The
Free Press, Simon and Schuster, Inc.
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Baldinger, Allan L(1992) , What CEOs are saying about Brand Equity: A Call to Action for
Researchers, Journal of Advertising Research, July-Aug, PP. Rc-6-12.
Biel, Alexander I.(1992), How Brand Image Derives Brand Equity, Journal of Advertising
Research, Nov-Dec , p.12.
Cobb-Walgren, C.J., Ruble, C.A., Donthu, N., (1993) ,. Brand equity, brand preference and purchase
intent.
Journal of Advertising 24 (3), 2540.
Chen Ching Fu and Chang Yu Ying(2008), Airline brand equity, brand preference, and purchase
intentionsThe moderating effects of switching costs, Journal of Air Transport Management 14,
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Farquhar, Peter H(1989), Managing Brand Equity,
Marketing Research, A Magazine of Management and Applications, PP 23-33
Gaedebe R(2007), Consumer Attitude Toward s Cars made in Developing Countrioes, Journal of
Retailing, 49,(summer), pp13-24.
Haigh, David(1996), Brand Valuation: A Review of
Current Practice, London, Institute of Practitioners of
Advertising.
Kaiser . HF and Rice (1974).Little Jiffy Mark IV,
Educational and Pschological Measurement, 34(1),111-17
Keller, Kevin Lane (1993), Conceptualizing, Measuring,
and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity, Journal of
Marketing, 57 (January):1-22.
Keller K.(1998), Strategic Brand management: building, measuring, and managing Brand Equity,
New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Keller, Kevin L.(2003), Strategic Brand Management,
Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity .2nd Ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Morgan, R.P.( 2000), . A customer-oriented framework of brand equity and loyalty.,
International Journal of Market Research 42 (3), 65 120.Schiffman Leon G (2008), Consumer
Behavior,
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Rangaswamy, A., R. R. Burke and T. A .Olive
(1993), Brand Equity and the Extendibility of Brand Names, International Journal of Research in
Marketing, 10,1, 61-75
Simon, Carol J. and Mary W Sullivan (1993), The
Measurement and Determinants of Brand Equity: A
Financial Approach, Marketing Science, 12 (Winter), 28-52.
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scale,. Journal of Business Research 52 (1), 114
WEBSITES
www.indiacars.com
www.marutisuzuki.com
www.autoindia.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.interbrand.com
www.brandchannel.com
www.auto.indiamart.com
36
AUTOMATED RECORDERS & INFORMATION
PROCESSING SENSOR
(ARIPS)
INTRODUCTION
Collaboration of communication and technology has made the idea of world as a global village a
reality of the near future. Communication began as a means of transferring ideas between two or
more individuals. The use of wireless networking and internet has made global access of information
and communication a childs play. The day is not far when we would have NGNs (Next Generation
Networking) would encompass all mode & means of communication. Global Communication will not
only be the technology for communication but will be a part of the social lifestyle of each individual
as is evident from the present popularity of social blogging. The idea is of a secure communication
device which would have widespread applications by the next decade. The device would be known
as ARIPS which stands for Automated Recorders & Information Processing Sensors.
ARIPS:
ARIPS is a device that will capture, formulate, regulate, integrate & retrieve specifed instructions
establishing a secure communication channel. ARIPS will act as a Communication Linker ARIPS
will capture the data from the source of information is a specifed set of instructions in a controlled
manner. The data retrieved from the source of information will be integrated into meaningful data and
then sent everybody is vibrating and radiating at some frequencies, these frequencies will further be
used as a source of signals for the device. ARIPS will capture these signals generated from the human
brains nervous system and further these signals will be encoded and decoded and will be processed
out as per the given instructions. To provide for adequate security measures each ARIPS will have a
unique IIC (Individual Identity Code).
SAD:
ARIPS will be accessed through specifed SADs (Sensor Access Devices) (Fig.2) which would be
compatible with machines. Basically SAD will act as an applicative based hardware processing the
data retrieved.
Technologies like NGN, Nest generation Networks, will be used for the access, SADs will establish
the chain of Communication required to retrieve the data and then process it as per the requirements.
It will maintain a secure channel that would bridge the two ports of communication.
Working:
ARIPS will capture the data from signals generated by the human brain. This information will be
encoded and decoded for the security purposes and then through secure communication channels
like the NGN the data will be accessible to the SAD which will use them for the specifed purposes.
The generated signals from the source will be captured: through ARIPS under given constraints of IIC.
Further these signals will be encoded into machine language readable to the SAD, SAD will decode
these machine language codes is process able set of instructions. The self executable instructions will
be used for the various purposes like, communication between two or more individuals, information
*Professor, Madina University, Saudi Arabia.
**Research Scholar, Techno Global University Meghalaya Akhlaquehusain2000@gmail.com
DR. M. HUSAIN* & AKHLAQUE HUSAIN**
37
exchange, automations of devices as per the given instructions and recording of the data for future
purposes.
Basic idea of using this technology will be to create an interface between.
.Man-Man
.Man-Machine
.Machine-Man
The present means available for interfacing between man to man and man to machine is quite primitive
in the technological sense, lacking spontaneity and continuity. Not to mention it lacks cost effectiveness
in long term considerations. This technology can provide 24 hrs continuous connectivity. This will be
a system of specifed purposes which will be self automated and self executable.
Establishing Communication:
First Interface- Man to Man
Each individual will have an ARIPS which they can get connected. The sign generated from the ARIPS
can be captured by a number of ARIPS.
The sender will send signals for permission to get connected, Once he receives the permission from the
other end to connect to the particular ARIPS, identifable through their IIC a communication channel
will be established through which two or more individuals can communicate.
Second Interface-Man to Machine
Here communication is established under IIC constraints between man to machine, The SAD device is
used for the access of data, encoding-decoding and to give instructions to the machine at the other end.
Third Interface-Machine to Man
Here communication is just vice-versa to man-machine communication. The machine generates
signals under IIc constraints which are further interpreted through ARIPS device and tee information
Exchange takes place.
Each ARIPS and SAD will have its unique IIC which will maintain the security. Signals will be brought
into the category of authorized or not authorized through correct IIC.
For the security maintenance IICs have been divided into three levels.
Level 1: It provides highly controlled access which will depend on the users unique identifcation
like DNA or retina scan.
Level 2: It provides restricted access which will depend on users selection. Code can be numeric form.
Level 3: It provides Open access will only ask the user permission.
The different levels of security will be decided according to the dependency of the users choice. Unlike
the present communication channels this technology provides fexibility between the connectivity of
man and machine. The signals exchange is easier and the compatibility is easily established. It depends
on the users choice in connecting the number of ARIPS to the number of SADs.
Application:
. Health & Medicine
. Home Makers
. Business & Productions
. Entertainment
. Education
. Security Purposes
. Network Establishment
. To Map out brain Functions
. Act like I-Card
. Credit Card System
Advantages:
. Mobility
38
. Multi-Tasking
. Time Saving
. Prolong connectivity & access
. Physical presence will not be
. necessary
. Interface between Man & Machine
. Personifcation Cards-Substitute for the Social Security Number & Passports.
. Health analysis Cards
References:
Change, K.T. Fundamental of GIS. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hills, 2009.
39
EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF A NATIONAL
MINORITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE MUSLIM
COMMUNITY
ABSTRACT
It is diffcult to sketch the educational profle of Muslims in India, more so to get a clear picture of
regional differences on participation in various educational activities. Neither census reports provide
any data on this subject nor have any empirical or large scale surveys been conducted to understand
the situational status and problem of this community. However, whatever information is available both
from macro and micro levels of studies on Muslims in India, it clearly indicate that the community
suffers from a number of disadvantages and special measures are required to bring them at par with
rest of the communities of the country.
K.D. Sharma (1987), study is based on feld data from Delhi, postulates three hypothesis (i) the
higher the stage of education the lesser is the participation of Muslims, (ii) there exist some elements
in educational programmes which discourage Muslims from taking advantage of educational
opportunities in an equal measure with non-Muslims and (iii) the social and economic conditions of
the Muslim community tend to reject to a greater extent the utilization of educational opportunities
by its members than by non-Muslims. Sharma found that the coeffcient of equality at the primary
and the higher secondary levels for Muslims were 74.0 and 23.6 respectively. This implies the large
drop-out rate among them. Long distances between home and school, poor study facilities at home,
non-availability of institutions in their mother-tongue, etc. are the discouraging educational factors
identifed by author. Socio-cultural taboos also affect Muslims enrollment in educational institutions.
According to Sharma the most important factor for the educational backwardness was the absence of
a middle class leadership.
A.R. Kamat (1985), hold opinion that in the past, the Indian Muslims population was socially and
economically backward does not convincingly explain Muslims relative backwardness in education.
In socio-economic terms Muslims are not better or worse than others, whether in the middle, lower
middle or backward categories. More than socio-economic questions, the question of language is more
important; for instance, in speaking about the educational cultural predicament of Muslims community
in India, the question of Urdu comes up time and again. According to the 1971 census, there were
28.6 million persons in India who spoke Urdu in their homes, i.e. 5.18 percent of the total population.
It must be recognized that because its script contains several words of Parso-Arabic (the language of
the Holy Quran) origin, and also because it is historically associated with the erstwhile Muslim ruler,
Urdu has acquired a religious cum-political signifcance in the minds of many infuential sections
of the Indian Muslim population.
It is against this background that the literacy and education among the Muslim is looked. In the absence
of reliable data, we have to rely mostly on guess estimates made by various researchers. According
to one source as referred by A.B. Shah (1978), (attributed to Bashers Ahmad Syad, a former Judge of
the Madras High Court ), the literacy for Muslims in 1971 was 10 percent for males and 0.5 percent
*(Asst. Prof.) D/o Sociology, MMDC, Moradabad, MJPRU, Bareilly, UP.
Fareed A. Khan*
40
for females. Yogendra Singh (1977), (quoting Theodre P. Wright) puts the literacy level of Muslims
for the mid 1960 at about 28 percent.
The Delhi survey (1971-72) by Krishna Dev Sharma (1978), states that the percentage of enrollment
to population in the relevant age group in the surveyed areas of the city were 6.20 percent and 11.24
percent for Muslims and non-Muslims respectively at the primary school level; and 2.59 percent and
11.28 percent, respectively at the middle school and the secondary school levels. Rasheeduddin Khan
(1979), asserts (from the proportion of passes in the U.P. High school Board Examination) that Muslim
boys were fve times, and Muslim girls eleven times, more backward than the rest.
In his study of Muslims in Bhiwandi, an industrial township sitated 31 miles from Bombay, A.R.
Monsur (1978), notes that in the early seventies, enrollment of Muslims in Bhivandi College was
only 30 percent as against their strength of 60 percent in the towns population. In another study of a
township in western U.P. included in the same volume, S.P. Jain (1978), found on the basis of a sample
investigation of 155 Muslim adults, that the overall literacy level was 15 percent and that it varied
from 24 percent to zero percent from the upper to the lower Muslim castes. A.R. Kamat (1968), in
his investigation in rural areas of Maharashtra for the period 1955-65 places the Muslims near about
or between the Maratha caste cluster and the artisan caste cluster.
C.A. Abdusalam (1984), analysed the economic backwardness of Muslims in 39 districts of India in
which proportion of Muslims to total population is high. There are 9 districts in which the Muslims
form more than three fghts of the total population. Nearly 39 percent of the total populations of
Muslims in India are residing in these 39 districts, and proportion of Muslim population is found
to be on the average of 34.37 percent in these districts. His fnding reveals that the literacy rate in 7
out of 9 Muslims majority districts is well below the national rate of 36.23 (in 1981). The other two
districts are Malappuram and Lakshadweep in which the rates (both for males and females) are higher
than the national average.
In his case study of the Muslim community in Malappuram district of Kerala, P.M. Jaleel (1982),
examines questions of the education-economic nexus. Jaleel has observed that in Malappuram district
the overall literacy rate increased from 34.29 percent in 1961 to 59.01 percent in 1981, the number
of high schools increased by 112.90 percent during 1970-81 and U.P. schools grew by 48.06 percent
during the same period. He attempts to relate these observed improvements in education and educational
infrastructure to income growth for households in the district.
A.P. Kareem (1988), analyzed the educational performance of Muslim community in Kerala on
comparative basis that is in comparison with that of the Christian and the Ezhava communities. These
three communities form about equal proportions in the population of Kerala. Of these three communities,
the Christian community has ascended to the highest place in terms of educational achievements. The
Ezhava community is also not much behind. In contrast, the Muslim community lagged much behind
and still remains educationally backward. His fndings further reveal that educational backwardness is
greater in Muslim-dominated taluks (districts) than the others. The rate of drop-outs among Muslim
students as compared to others was very high. The most interesting features is that in most of the
Muslim-dominated Malabar region, the performance of Muslim Students was poor.
Indu Menon (1984), refers to the important role of education in the promotion of socio-economic
status of Muslim women in Kerala. Her fndings reveal that social evils such as polygamy and divorce,
prevalent in the Muslim community are due to very low educational status.
N.C. Saxena (1989), Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India examines the data relating to
Muslim enrollment and their performance in education at various levels. It was found that Education
Index was lower. It transpires that at the High Schools and at higher levels, the Muslims are lagging
behind at least three to four times as compared to other communities.
A.R. Sherwani (1980), a Survey of 660 schools of Delhi affliated to the central Board of Secondary
Education discloses that out of 54754 students who appeared in 1979 in the examination only 945
(1.72%) were Muslims. The percentage of Muslim population in Delhi was about 9.4% in 1979 and,
therefore, the education Index works out to be 1.72 divided by 9.4 = 0.18. It is signifcant that the
Muslims studying in Hindi Medium Schools did much better than Muslims who studied in minority
41
Urdu Medium institutions. Thus not only over-all pass percentage of the Muslims was better in Hindi
medium schools, but the number of frst divisioners from such schools was higher as compared to
Urdu medium schools. It seems that the spirit of competition is lacking among the students enrolled
in Urdu medium schools or the standard of teaching is also not up to the mark.
In the UNESCO study conducted by Garndner Murphey (1953), on the attitude of Muslims, it is
stated that the Muslims consider themselves as victims of discrimination in the sphare of economic
opportunities. Muslims regard themselves as a disadvantaged group which was deliberately kept out
of decision making positions.
In India, it may be recalled that the Muslims remained rulers for about 700 years before the advent of
the British. Except for about 60 years from 1820 to 1880 the British policy was also in favour of the
Muslims. Individual equality has been guaranteed under the Indian constitution. How is it that despite
having been the rulers, then favoured by the British, and now enjoying equality of opportunity by the
Indian Government, the Muslims are today far behind non-Muslims (N.C. Saxena, 1989).
For a closer evaluation of the relationship between Islam and ability to exploit educational opportunities
in India, it would be necessary to examine how the Muslims responded to secular education during
the period of the British Rule. As it is well-known, western education was frst introduced in the
presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The Muslims in Bengal were mostly converts
and share croppers and occupied an inferior social position as compared to Hindus. In Bombay and
Madras too their economic situation was not as bright as in Oudh and North-West Provinces. Despite
these economic depressions Muslim enrollment in schools was not hopeless. The Muslims percentage
in schools in the province of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Assam, North-West Provinces, Oudh and
Punjab were 4.4, 8.42, 14.4, 17.8, 25.3 and 34.3 respectively to their respective population of 6.0. 15.4,
32.3, 13.5, 9.0 and 51.6. The total percentage of Muslims in these states was 22.8. Total percentage
of Muslims in schools was 14.6 (P.Brass, 1975a).
Apart from the Muslims, many Hindu castes too, despite their having comfortable position in land
holding, were slow to take to western education. One may mention here non-Brahmins in Madras,
Brahmins in Bihar and Rajputes in U.P. who ever beaten hollow in the race by the Bengali Bhadraloks
and the Tamil Brahmins. But the education movement started by Sir Syed Ahmad khan had its impact
on the Muslim Psychology and by the end of 1931-32 their enrollment had started even surpassing
their proportion in population. In the province of Madras, Bombay, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, United
Provinces, Punjab, C.P. and Brar, Assam and total of these states, the percentage of Muslim students
was 10.9, 19.4, 51.7, 13.5, 18.6, 50.6, 10.7, 22.2 and 27.6, respectively to their respective population
of 7.1, 20.4, 54.2, 11.5, 14.8, 56.5, 4.4, 32.0 and 25.1 (R. Naidu, 1980).
The degree of urbanisation was always higher among the Muslims. If one assumes that most of the
facilities for education were concentrated in the urban area and then if one tries to correlate the Muslim
share in total education to their share in urban population, one gets a different picture (P. Brass, 1975 b.)
Although the Muslim share in English literacy in U.P. in 1921 and 1931 was higher than their share
in population, yet it was signifcantly lower than their share in urban population. Even in 1931, 9.56
percent of urban Hindus in U.P. were literate in English as compared to only 5.94 percent of total
urban Muslims (P. Brass, 1975 a). An impression was created that the upper and middle classes of
Muslim land lords kept themselves away from higher education on grounds of religious prejudice,
whereas the Hindu urban businessmen, traders and contractors had not such inhibition and started
pouring in government English medium schools. Second, a signifcant percentage of the Muslims
children started private Madrasas. In 1890-1891, 47 percent of the total number of the Muslims children
started attending schools in U.P. went to private schools, as against only 18.2 percent in the case of
the Hindus (Francis, 1975: 274). Although this percentage started declining and became 16.4 in 1920-
21 (for the Hindus it came down to 3.8 percent) still the absolute number was substantial to create
an impression that the Muslims preferred traditional Islamic learning. Muslim share in government
jobs was disproportionately higher in the North-West Provinces and Oudh which could not have been
maintained no matter how fast they had learned English language. In 1850 the Muslims flled three
quarters of the Judicial post held by the Indians in the North-West provinces. Despite growing Hindu
42
competition, they still held 45 percent of the total number of posts in 1886 in the judicial and executive
services of the North-West provinces and Oudh (R. Naidu, 1980: 35-38). Since, their overall share
was declining, the impression gained around that they had not fully beneftted from facilities offered
by the British regime in education. Although Muslims share in jobs at the lower and middle level
was quite impressive yet in the elite professions, they lagged behind Hindus. Even in 1931 Muslims
could not catch the Hindus in higher, scientifc and professional education (R. Naidu, 1980: 36-37).
Throughout the last 70 years of British regime, the Muslims were being favoured in jobs in the lower
ranks of bureaucracy. Their leaders were conscious of the fact that in an independent India, no matter
how secular it may be, such advantages would not be available on the basis of the family tree or land
ownership. The very basis of landed status of the Muslims was continuously eroded by the rise of
powerful commercial classes (mostly Hindus) who in addition of achieving status through merit were
buying their land too (N.C. Saxena, 1989).
Recent HRD ministry statistics show a signifcant decline in national primary school enrolments.
Given Indian demographics, where the number of children is increasing every year, the results are
even more shocking. This is despite all the noise about right to education for every Indian.
There are many reasons of drop out. One, the most obvious reason is that the schools are terrible. If
someone visits a village school, you will realise how everything is low quality, from the classrooms
to the desks to the quality of teachers.
Secondly, the curriculum in our schools is obsolete. Poor people send their kids to school are that they
will learn skills to make more money. If schools dont give them those skills, why will they bother?
Advanced concepts of education to satisfy curiosity, or learning for learnings sake, do not apply
to people with no money. Surveys show a person with decent English language skills can increase
earning power by 400%. Why is it that poor people not given English education? Why do government
schools start teaching it so late?
Thirdly, the massive infation rate has made life extremely diffcult for people with low incomes.
Every pair of hands on the felds is now more valuable than sending a child to a substandard school
for several years, the benefts of which are unclear.
Fourthly, there isnt enough money being put into education, to make more schools or improve existing
ones. Tax collections have seen high double-digit growth rates for several years now. However, much
of taxpayers money is used to fund scams and mass bribery type subsidies or to pay interest. If instead
of NREGA we provided villagers the right skills to modernise, enhance farm income and increase job
eligibility, maybe we would generate wealth rather than burn it.
Fifthly, the hidden benefts of illiteracy to politicians. Illiterate people are useful when it comes to
maintaining vote banks and keeping scam parties going. If everyone were well-educated, would the
government get away with so many scams?. If every Indian really understood what happened, could
the loot continue? So while there may not be a deliberate strategy to keep people illiterate, there is
no burning passion or political incentive to make India educated either. And politicians only work on
incentives, not on the goodness of their hearts. This problem wont go away. It will get worse. If today
millions arent being educated well, how will they get proper jobs tomorrow? Wont the education
crisis translate into a far scarier job crisis in a few years? Or are we happy for our kids to be poor
forever? (The Times of India 2011).
The pathetic conditions of the attendance of Moradabad Muslim Degree College explain in the
following graph.
43
SOURCE, COLLEGE STUDY, 2011-2012
A number of reasons are attributed to the educational backwardness of Muslims in India. Such as
lack of equality of opportunity, medium of instructions, inadequate minority educational institutions,
religious education, prevailing system of education, economic reasons, dual system of education,
early earnings, discriminations, reservation and so on. Some believe that the community had been the
victim of the discriminatory implementations of the various developmental schemes resulting in the
deprivation of any benefts to them. Others hold that Muslims themselves are to be blamed for it as
they do not avail the benefts of the developments due to their conservative social and cultural values
and their tendency to remain aloof from the main stream of national progress. The truth however,
lies somewhere else as I. Ahmed (1987), puts it : Muslims are not alone in refecting educational
backwardness. They share it with several other minority communities, particularly the Christians, lower
castes among Hindus and the Schedules Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Therefore, the question which
requires to be addressed is not whether they are educationally underrepresented and backward but
the reasons which account for their educational backwardness and whether equalization of educational
opportunity for all of them calls for a single and unifed strategy.
There is a common belief that Muslims in India have remained largely unaffected by the economic
developments in the country, despite the successive Five Years Plans and further their general economic
condition is becoming worse than before. No serious attempt has so far been made to examine the
causes of their backwardness and to devise ways and means to remove them so that they could be
brought in the national stream. The Muslims are unfortunately feel very much alone and very few
among their leaders have tried to help them to rise economically, socially, educationally, politically and
legally at par with the majority community. How it is that keeping second majority of the community
away from the concept of distributive justice country will fourish. The need is of equal opportunity to
everyone irrespective of caste, colour and creed. The identity of every individual is needed to preserve.
This could be achieved with structural change in the education system. This is again to be seen that
whether politicians of the country really want for the betterment of the society where everyone could
feel at home.
44
REFERENCE
Abdussalam, C.A. 1984, Socio-Economic Problems of Muslims of India, P.15.
Ahmad, I, 1987, Educational Development of Minorities in India. Future Perspective. Journal of Educational
Planning and Administration, Vol. 1, no.2, pp. 191-209. Brass, P. 1975a. Robinson, Francis (ed.) Separatism
Among Indian Muslims (Vikas, Delhi) pp. 143-149.
Brass, P. 1975b. Language Religion and Politics in North India (Vikas, Delhi) p. 146.
Francies, R. 1975b. Separatism Among Indian Muslims (Vikas, Delhi) p. 274.
Jain, S.P. 1978, Caste Stratifcation among Muslims in a Township in western Uttar Pradesh. In Imtiaz Ahmad
(ed.) Caste and Social stratifcation among Muslims in India, Manohar Publications, N.D., P.238.
Jaleel, P.M. 1982, Educational and Economic Growth in Malappuram District (unpublished Ph.D. Thesis),
University of Calicut).
Kamat, A.R. 1968, Programmes of Education in Rural Maharashtra, Gokhale Institute, Pune, Working Paper
No. 56. Kamat, A.R. 1985. Education and Social Change in India. Somaiya Publications, Delhi, pp. 295-301.
Kareem, A.P. 1988, Education and socio- Economic Development, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
Khan, R. 1979, Minority Segments in Indian Polity Muslim situation and the Plight of Urdu, Economic and
Political Weekly, September 22, pp. 1509-1515.
Menon, I, 1984. Status of Muslims in India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi.
Monsur, A.R. 1978, Muslim Caste in an Industrial Township in Maharashtra in I. Ahmed (Ed.), Caste and
Social Stratifcation among Muslims in India. Manohar Publications N.D., pp. 192-131.
Murphey, G. 1953. In the Minds of Men (UNESEO), P. 128. Naidu, R. 1980, The communal Edge to Plural
Societies, (Vikas, Delhi), P.35.
Saxena, N.C. 1989, Public Employment and Educational Backwardness Among the Muslims in India in Moin
Shakir (ed.) Religion State and Politics in India, Ajanta Publications, pp. 155-199.
Shah, A.B. 1978, Minority Segments in Indian Polity: A Comment, Economic and Political weekly, September,
pp. 1910-1912.
Shah, SS. 1983, Educational and Economic Problems of Indian Muslims, paper presented at the Intellectual
meet on problems of Minorities, Teen Murti House, N.D., 5 June, Organised by the Young Intellectual
Congress. Sharma K.D. 1978, Education of a National Minority:A case study of Muslim community in
Delhi, Kalamkar, New Delhi, Chapter IV, pp.74-97.
Sharma, K.D. 1987, Educational of a National Minority: A case study of Indian Muslim, in NIEPAS reading
material on planning and management of minority institutions, N.D., January, pp. 131-11.
Sherwani, A.R. 1980, National Herald, 17 February, Siddiqui, M.Q. 1983. The problems of Education of
Muslims in India, paper presented at the Aligarh Seminar organized by the Business and Employment
Bureau, 5-6 August.
Singh, Y. 1977 Social Stratifcation and change in India. Manohar Publications, Delhi p. 64.
The Times of India, N.D., May 24, 2011 New Delhi.
The Times of India, N.D., March 26, 2011.
45
CHANGES FOR HUMAN RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT AFTER REFORM IN POWER
SECTOR : A CASE STUDY OF RAJASTHAN
RAJYAVIDYUT UTPADAN NIGAM LIMITED
ABSTRACT
The study was designed to assess the development of human resources and the quality of working life
after the restructuring the power sector in Rajasthan. Rajasthan State Electricity Board had been
restructured in 1998 for the purpose of increasing proft and working effciency of resources. So it is
necessary that the employees of power sector are to be kept highly motivated for meeting the new
challenges. A higher state of development in working life is also required to increase the working
effciency of human resources. This article is based on research which has been completed on the topic
of development of the employees of Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utapadan Nigam Limited(RVUNL).This
work is based on primary data. A total number of 100 employees were selected from the RVUNL, Kota
for the study; primary data have been collected through the survey and interview method.
This study is related to fnd out the changes which have been taken place after restructured Power
Sector and the results reveal that no signifcant developments were seen in the employees of Nigam
after power reforms and restructuring.
INTRODUCTION:
Power is a very important factor to develop a basic infrastructure for any developing country that is why
the power sector will be restructured to encourage functional specialization, decentralization, autonomy
and accountability in decision making, to facilitate and encourage private sector participation, to ensure
an effective and independent regulation of the sector. To fulfll this agenda of Reforms it is necessary
that the employees of power sector are required to be kept highly motivated for meeting the new
challenges. A higher state of morale is also required to increase their level of performance. A positive
morale keeps the employees energized to cope with the increasing work load and responsibilities
and rendering qualitative service. A higher state of development in working life and productivity is
also required to increase the working effciency of human resources that can be happened only by
developing the resources of human in an organization. According to Human Resource Professionals
Human Resource Development is, Organized learning activities arranged within an organization
in order to improve performance and or personal growth for the purpose of improving the job, the
individual and / or the organization.
Human Recourse Development includes the areas of training & Development, career Development
and organization Development. Human Resource Development is the integrated use of training,
organization, and career development efforts to improve individual, group and organizational
effectiveness.
This is related to Human Resource Management A feld which includes Human Resource research &
information system, union / labor relation, employee assistance, compensation / benefts, selection &
staffng, performance management systems, Human Resource planning and organization job design.

*(Asst. Prof.) D/o Sociology, MMDC, Moradabad, MJPRU, Bareilly, UP.
*Dr. Parul Varshney
46
Different type of training, development plans, promotions and incentive procedures, annual appraisal
directly affects the quality of working & development of human beings and a developed human
resource can give better performance in any of the sector such as -
Improving working environment of labors
Performance Review
Annual appraisal
Development plans
Promotions methods to motivate employees in terms of monetary benefts or another.
This article is basically written to research that how much the quality of working life of employees has
been increased, till what extent Job Satisfaction is there in the employees, and is the work performance
better than former condition? What kind of development has done in the feld of power sector after
reform?
Objectives of the study:
1. To assess the development of human resources after privatization and the level of working life of
RVUNL.
2. To examine the job satisfaction and performance level of employers after Restructuring.
3. Finding out the appraisal System in RVUNL.
Hypothesis:
Keeping in the view the above objectives the following main hypotheses have been formulated:
1. The employees of Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utapadan Nigam Limited(RVUNL), are likely to
have high quality of development in the working conditions as compared to before reforms.
2. The satisfaction level of workforce in power sector is likely to improve.
3. Now the employees are more motivated as compared to before the reforms.
Research Methodology:
The present study was conducted on a sample of 100 employees taken from Rajasthan viduat Utpadan
Nigam, Kota. For the study primary data have been collected through the survey method. Out of the
100 employees 50 employees are from feld workers and related with distribution of electricity also.
The mean age was 40 years. Rest of the people was related with electricity production department
and the mean age was 37.For fnding informations direct and telephonic interviews has been done for
taking the information. A questionnaire of 25 questions related with Promotions, workings conditions,
compensations, over time, etc. also has been flled with the employees of Rajasthan Viduit Utpadan
Nigam.
Results:
After the questionnaire flled and the statistics application in this study, in the form of result it is
observed that there is no signifcant difference in the working conditions of the employees after and
before the Power sector reform.
The employees of Power production sector, Kota are likely have high quality of development
in the working conditions as compared to the previous working quality of power production sector
but the working conditions of power sector has not been changed, sitting arrangement, drinking water
arrangement, general facilities are still working in the same manner .
Leave policy , Medical policy and Insurance policies are the same as that are before reform
of Power sector.
The satisfaction level of workforce in power sector is not improved yet.
Monitory Compensation is not given to employees but as compensation a holiday is giving
to them in every four extra working hours.
In the answer of Promotion scheme most of the employees answered that now the promotions
are slower as compared to before.
However technical Trainings are taken place regularly for new joining of the employees but
no other trainings and development programme for the development of employees has been held in
power sector.
47
Conclusion:
Findings of the study show no signifcant difference between the performance level of employees
and the efforts for Human Resource Development in Power sector after reforms. Power sector is
trying to involve with the futuristic strategy which requires planning and programming on the part
of employees to fnd new roles within the framework of new agendas. It is reality that improving
productivity depends upon better planning, streamlined procedures, and development of human
resources and improved decision making.
In the light of the fndings of the present investigation we may conclude the private sector power
sector is not differ from public sector even before privatization employees were more satisfy . it is
to be noticed that performance level does not show any signifcant difference however it has been
understood and accepted that the work performance of the private sector would be more better than
public . Responsibility and accountability will be increased because good work in a private sector
gets recognition immediately but unfortunately nothing could be taken place like this. Promotion
Scheme is the heart of any institution because it motivates to the employees to do work more seriously,
before Restructure of power sector promotion of employees were given in 9 years but post reform it
is given in 10 years. No extra trainings at the work place are held, very few promotions are given to
employees and no motivation programmes are held, Working conditions are the same like previous,
Salary increments are also same. These are the things which are direct related with the satisfaction of
employees and after reforms all the conditions remain same is demotivating and inverse of satisfaction
to the employees.
There is signifcant positive relationship between motivated, developed employed workforces with
job outcomes (job satisfaction and performance) . The positive correlation between job satisfaction
and performance implies that employees who are motivated , developed and satisfed with their jobs
also perform better so it is necessary to keep them motivated and satisfed. When a person gets more
from his job in the terms of salaries, opportunities to growth and advancement, safe and healthy
working conditions , social integration in the work place, discipline and devotion to work, he will
always concentrate on his work very effciently and effectively.
Analysis carried out with the selected sample reveals no signifcant difference after power sector
reforms. It is clear that the quality of working life affects the job performance of the employees. The
result will be more productive for the organization if the employees are satisfed there. The result of
the present study reveals that most of workers are not satisfed with their current working conditions
so some suggestions can be apply for the development and betterment of the employees.
Suggestions :
It is found that the employees who have high level of qualitied work life are more satisfed
with their job thats why it is suggested that working quality should be increased so that the work
force could be work more comfortably.
Promotion scheme should be revised and it should be based on performance of employees.
General soft skill trainings and motivational lecture should be organized for the employees
so that they could feel more motivated and enthusiastic for their work.
Training session should also be there for the old employees as well as for new joined
employees.
It is observed that Political interference level is high in the process of selection and promotions
of employees ,it should be lesser and unbiased.
Compensation should be given in monitory term or it may be in choice whether the employee
want to take leave or money because sometimes employee does not in need of leave and compensation
in term of leave increases the nature of leisure in employees on the other hand compensation in money
motivates to the employees.
48
References :
1. Haque, A.B.M.Z.N(1992) Quality of Working life and job satisfaction of Industrial Workers in relation
to Size of the Organization. Bangaladesh Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(1), 43-55
2. National Productivity Council India ,(1991). Quality of working life and productivity . New Delhi.
3. Sharma,B.Rand Bhasker,S(1991), Determinants of job satisfaction among engeers in a public sector
undertaking.ASCI journal of Management, 20(4),217-233.
4. Gilley, J.W. & Eggland, S.A., Principles of Human Resource Development, Addison-Wesley, NY, 1989, p.
5. Kumari,Patiraj,Rana,Surekha & khanna ,(2008), Prabandh: Indian Journal of Management , New Delhi,
2008 p.62-72.
6. Kothari,D.P and Nagrath,L.J., Modern Power System Analysis,3
rd
edn.,Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2003
7. www.rajenergy .com
8. mop.rajasthan.gov./in.power_sector _reform_act1999.asp
49
TREND, PATTERN AND DETERMINANTS OF FDI IN
INDIA:
AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POST
ABSTRACT
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is considered as an imperative contributor to economic development
in a country because of its two fold attractiveness as it provides capital fow, knowledge, managerial
skill, and technology transfer coupled with its subsidiary functions. It has become the necessity of
capital to achieve the sustainable economic growth especially, after economic slowdown, increasing
rate of infation, devaluation of rupee against world currencies, global economic crisis etc. Amidst,
the situation of Indias balance of payment and trade defcit is very severe. In the present economic
scenario, investment has made the need of hour to bridge this gap between developed and developing
countries. On being inspired these profound the problems, an attempt has been made to work with
this paper. The research paper tries to analyze the present trend and pattern of FDI infows in India
since liberalization. The main aim of this study is to analyze the role of FDI in enhancing economic
growth, and also made endeavor efforts to examine the various determinants which impact on overall
development of the country. These determinants are such as Gross Domestic Product, Foreign Reserve,
Exchange Rate, Trade openness, Infation etc. The empirical results indicate that there is a positive
linear relationship between economic growth in terms of GDP at factor cost, FDI infows and Foreign
Exchange Reserve.
Key Words: Foreign Direct Investment, Gross Domestic Product, Trade Openness, Foreign Exchange
Reserves
INTRODUCTION
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is considered to be an imperative contributor to economic development
of a country because of its two-fold attractiveness in the form of capital fow and technology transfer
along with the supplementary benefts. It is well known fact that the developing countries have the
characteristics of being fnancially poor and defcient in technology, two elements are essential to ac-
celerate economic growth. Domestic savings in these countries also cant be enhanced satisfactorily
because of their intrinsic characteristics which has an impact on capital investment. This is the reason
behind less expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) infrastructure facilities as well as
sluggish rate of growth in economic development. In order to surmount such a situation, infusion of
foreign investment is essential. Even though there are myriad other forms of external fnance, foreign
direct investment infows are usually preferred over others because of its prominent characteristics.
To attract foreign investment, a number of policy measures have been taken by the government to
enhance the capital infows in order to increase economic growth of the country. Myriad changes
have been taken place since then to bring about more foreign investment in different sectors of Indian
economy as a result of which from a low of US $133 million foreign investment in 1991-92 it has
increased up by about 43 times to US $ 5925 million in 2001-02. Foreign Direct Investment has always
made a win-win situation for both the host and home countries; on the other hand we can say that it
*Assistant Professor at Yasin Meo Degree College, Nuh (Mewat), Haryana (INDIA)-122107
**Research Scholar at Centre for Studies in Economics & Planning, School of Social Science, Central University
of Gujarat, Sector-30, Gandhinagar, Gujarat (INDIA).
Dr. Perways Alam*, Mohammed Nizamuddin**
50
has always given benefts. The policies of economic reform of India since 1991 laid major emphasis
on attracting foreign investment to the country. Further, the integration of global fnancial market
paves way to this explosive growth of Foreign Direct Investment around the globe.
Review of Literature
Many empirical studies have been undertaken to analyze the trends and determinants of Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) in India, few of them are as follows
Chakraborty & Basu, (2002) explore the co-integration relationship between net infows of FDI, real
GDP, unit cost of labor and the proportion of import duties in tax revenue for India with the method
developed by Johansen (1990). They fnd two long-run equilibrium relationships. The frst relation-
ship is between net infow of FDI, real GDP and the proportion of import duties in tax revenue and
the second is between real GDP and unit cost of labor. They fnd unidirectional Granger Causality
from real GDP to net infow of FDI.
Naga, (2003) discusses the trends in FDI in India in the 1990s and compares them with china. The
study raises some issues on the effects of the recent investments on the domestic economy. Based on
the analytical discussion and comparative experience, the study concludes by suggesting a realistic
foreign investment
Burak & Ismail, (2009) developed an empirical framework to estimate the economic determinants
of FDI infows by employing a panel data set of 17 developing countries and transition economies
for the period of 1989-2006. Seven independent variables were taken for this research namely, the
previous period FDI, GDP growth rate, wage, trade rate, infation rate and economic investment. The
empirical results conclude that the previous period FDI is important as an economic determinant.
Besides, it is also understood that the main determinants of FDI infows are Infation rate, the interest
rate and trade (openness) rate.
Nizamuddin, M. (2013) studies on FDI in multi brand retail and employment generation in India. He
made an analysis to see the impact of FDI on economic growth and employment generation. By using
time series data from 2001-02 to 2009-10 and applying ordinary least square (OLS) method we fnd
that FDI have negative impact on employment generation in retail sector in India. As stated that the
numerous studies have been conducted related to FDI in different aspects of areas. But none of the
studied reviewed by the researchers is in context to the FDI in India and shows that how FDI affecting
Indias growth and impact of FDI infows on growth of the economy in terms of different variables
like GDP and employment generation in India. Further, in the research paper double log model has
been used to fnd out the elasticity between the different indicators.
The main objectives of this study are as:
1. To examine the trend and pattern of fow of Foreign Direct Investment in the country.
2. To study the determinants of Foreign Direct Investment infows in India.
3. To analyze the impact of Foreign Direct Investment on the Indian Economy.
Research Methodology and Data Sources
The present research study is an analytical and quantitative in nature based on secondary data. The
secondary information is extensively used for analysis purpose. This information are collected from
reliable sources such as SIA reports (various issues), newspapers, and websites of Reserve bank of
India (RBI), Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), Economic Survey 2010-11, 2011-
12 and a number of leading journals. All the relevant data is obtained from Handbook of Statistics on
Indian Economy (various issues). In order to compare the FDI infow over the period under study,
the percentage method and simple statistics is used. A 20 years period is taken for the study is post-
liberalization period from 1991 to 2011.
Trend and Pattern of FDI Infows in India (1991-2013)
Economic reform in 1991 by the government has made the country today as one of the prominent
performer of global economics by placing the country as second fastest growing economy of the world.
51
India ranks 11th largest economy in terms of industrial output and has 3rd largest pool of scientifc and
technical manpower. The economy has gone through a phase of extensive regulation, protectionism,
and public ownership. Today while the cumulative FDI approval in the country since 1991 have been
Rs 2, 84.812.5 Cr., the actual infow is Rs 1,29,837.60 (US $ 28.55 billion). At present scenario to study
the impact of reforms and FDI policy on magnitude of infow, quantitative information is needed on
broad dimension of FDI and its distribution across sectors and areas. The actual FDI infows in India
is welcomed under fve broad heads: (i) Foreign Investment Promotion Boards (FIPB) discretion-
ary approval route for larger projects, (ii) Reserve Bank of Indias (RBI) automatic approval route,
(iii) acquisition of shares route (since 1996), (iv) RBIs nonresident Indian (NRIs) scheme, and (v)
external commercial borrowings (ADR / GDR) route.
FIPB route represents large projects which require bulk of infow and account for government discre-
tionary approval. Although the share of FIPB route is declining compared to Reserve Bank of India
automatic route and acquisition of existing shares route, automatic approval route via Reserve Bank
of India shows an upward trend of FDI infow since 1995. This route is meant for smaller sized invest-
ment project. Acquisition of existing shares route and external commercial borrowing route gained
prominence (in 1999 and 2003) and shows upward increasing trend. FDI through NRIs route shows
sharp declining trend. Present time sectors like energy, telecommunication, electrical equipments,
transportation industry and services sector taken together have accounted for 71 percent of the FDI
approvals and 56.3 percent of the FDI infows. Sector-wise, although energy got approval of highest
percentage (27.4), electrical equipments including computers and electronics receive highest percentage
of infows (13.9). It is also noticed that traditional industrial sectors like food processing industries,
textiles, etc. have become less attractive for FDI in comparison to modern industrial sectors like elec-
tronics and electrical equipments, etc. Thus, the infow of FDI can be easily observed in the country.
Sources of FDI Infows in India
India has broadened the sources of FDI in the period of reforms. There are about 140 countries
investing in India at present time as compared to 15 countries in 1991. Thus the number of countries
investing in India has increased after reforms. After liberalization of economy Mauritius, Singapore
are the largest investors in the country and contribute about 50% of total FDI Infows U.K, Japan,
U.S.A, and many more countries predominantly appears on the list of major investors.
Table 1 Country wise FDI Infows in India
S. No Countries FDI Infows (in US $ Million) % of Total Infows
(In terms of US $
Million)
1 Mauritius 65608 38%
2 Singapore 17555 10%
3 U.K 16314 9%
4 Japan 12663 7%
5 U.S.A 10710 6%
6 Netherland 7652 4%
7 Cyprus 6603 4%
8 Germany 4880 3%
9 France 2988 2%
10 U.A.E 2301 1%
Total FDI
Infows
174835
Sources: Compiled & computed from various issues of Economic Survey, RBI Bulletin and Ministry
of Commerce
52
From the above mentioned table it can be observed that FDI infow from Mauritius is highest as due to
Double Taxation Treaty i.e. DTAA - Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement between the two countries,
which favors routing of investment through this country. The DTAA policy has also been now taken
up with many other countries also like of Singapore and Malaysia as a result of which Singapore is
the second largest investing country to India.
Foreign Direct Investment and Indian Economy
A nations progress and increase is refected by sustained economic growth and development. Apart
from countries reserve government revenue, fnancial position, available supply of domestic savings,
quality of investment is necessary for well being of country. Investment provides base and pre-requisite.
FDI is today the safest international capital fow out available in form of external fnance. In 1990s,
FDI infow rose faster than almost other all indicators of economic activity worldwide. According to
World Trade Organization, the total world FDI outfow has increased nine times during 1982-1993.
From 1990s FDI was sought to facilitate development process. Thus, a nation can improve its economic
conditions by adopting liberal policies and by creating proper conditions, which attract investment as
particulars which positively infuence the inputs and determinants of investment process
Impact of FDI on Economic Growth
The role of FDI in an economy goes beyond simply easing fnancial constraint. FDI infows are as-
sociated with multiple benefts such as technology transfer, market access and organizational skills.
Consequently there is an increasing and intense competition between countries to maximize the
quantity of FDI infow. Any successful policy for attracting FDI keep competitive scenario in mind.
There are benefts of FDI infow as it bridges the fnancial gap between surpluses of funds needed to
sustain a level of growth and domestic availability of funds. Secondly technology transfer coupled
with knowledge diffusion that leads to improvement in productivity. It thus fastens the rate of progress
and provides contagion effect. It also creates a link between organizations and improves management
practices. In the context of a country like India, the role of FDI in easing fnancial constraint becomes
critical. It provides a sound base for economic growth and development by enhancing the fnancial
position of the country. It also contributes to the GDP and foreign exchange reserves of the country.
Table 2 FDI Infows in India during 1991-2013
S. No. Year FDI Infows
(Rs. In Crore)
% Growth over
Previous Year (Rs. In Crore)
S. No. Year FDI Infows
(Rs. In Crore)
1 1991-92 409 - 12 2002-03 12871
2 1992-93 1094 167.48 13 2003-04 10064
3 1993-94 2018 84.46 14 2004-05 14653
4 1994-95 4312 113.68 15 2005-06 24584
5 1995-96 6916 60.39 16 2006-07 56390
6 1996-97 9654 39.59 17 2007-08 98642
7 1997-98 13548 40.34 18 2008-09 142829
8 1998-99 12348 (-8.86) 19 2009-10 123120
9 1999-00 10311 (-16.49) 20 2010-11 97320
10 2000-01 10733 4.09 21 2011-12 165146
11
2001-02 18654
73.80
22 2012-13 121907
Sources: Issues of SIA Bulletin, http://www.dipp.nic.in, Access on September. 2013
Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) In India
In the present section, we have empirically examined the major factors which have determined the
53
infows of FDI in India in the Post-Reform period i.e. 1991 to 2011. A country which has a stable
macroeconomic condition with high and sustained growth rates will receive more FDI infows than
a more volatile economy. The variable that measures the economic stability and growth are Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), infation rates, Trade Openness and Foreign exchange reserves. Investors
prefer to invest in more stable economies that refect a lesser degree of uncertainty and risk. Market
size also plays an important role in attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) from abroad and it is
measured by GDP. Market size tend to infuence the infows, as an increased customer base signi-
fes more opportunities of being successful and also the fact that with the rampant development the
purchasing power of the people has also been greatly infuenced moving to many levels higher in
comparison to what it was before the economic growth. Trade openness is also considered to be one of
the key determinants of FDI as represented in the past literature; much of FDI is export oriented and
may also require the import of complementary, intermediate and capital goods. Thus, trade openness
is generally expected to be a positive and signifcant determinant of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Gross Domestic Product is used as one of the independent variable. The tremendous growth in GDP
since 1991 put the economy in the elite group of 12 countries with trillion dollar economy. India
makes its presence felt by making remarkable progress in information technology, high end services
and knowledge process services. By achieving a growth rate of 9% the country opens new avenues
to foreign investors from 2004. Indias GDP growth was 8.37 percent reaching an historical high of
10.10 percent in 2006.
Table 3 Gross Domestic Products (Figure in Cr.)
S. No. Year GDP
(at factor cost)
S. No. Year GDP
(at factor cost)
1 1991-92 1099072 11 2001-02 1972606
2 1992-93 1158025 12 2002-03 2048286
3 1993-94 1223816 13 2003-04 2222758
4 1994-95 1302076 14 2004-05 2388768
5 1995-96 1396974 15 2005-06 2616101
6 1996-97 1508378 16 2006-07 2871120
7 1997-98 15732268 17 2007-08 3129717
8 1998-99 1678410 18 2008-09 3339375
9 1999-00 1786525 19 2009-10 4507637
10 2000-01 1864301 20 2010-11 4885954
Sources: Various Issues of RBI Bulletin
Indias diverse economy attracts high FDI infows due to its huge market size, low wage rate, large
human capital (which has benefted immensely from outsourcing of work from developed countries).
In the present decade India has witnessed unprecedented levels of economic expansion and also seen
healthy growth of trade. GDP refects the potential market size of Indian economy. In fact, in a dynamic
economy, prices are quite sensitive due to the fuctuations in the domestic as well as international market.
In order to isolate the fuctuations, the estimates of domestic product at current prices need to be con-
verted into the domestic product at constant prices. Any increase in domestic product that takes place
on account of increase in prices cannot be called as the real increase in GDP. Real GDP is estimated
by converting the GDP at current prices into GDP at constant prices, with a fxed base year. In this
context, a GDP defator is used to convert the GDP at current prices to GDP at constant prices. The
present study uses GDP at factor cost (GDPFC) with constant prices as one of the explanatory vari-
able to the FDI infows into India for the aggregate analysis.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RESERVES (RESGDP)
RESGDP represents Foreign Exchange Reserves as percentage of GDP. Indias foreign exchange
reserves comprise foreign currency assets (FCA), gold, special drawing rights (SDR) and Reserve
54
Tranche Position (RTP) in the International Monetary Fund. The emerging economic giants, the BRIC
(Brazil, Russian Federation, India, and China) countries, hold the largest foreign exchange reserves
globally and India is among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of foreign exchange reserves.
India is also the worlds 10th largest gold holding country (Economic Survey 2009-10)15. Stock of
foreign exchange reserves shows a countrys fnancial strength. Further, an adequate FDI infow adds
foreign reserves by exchange reserves which put the economy in better position in international market.
Table 4 Foreign Exchange Reserves (Figure in Cr.)
S. No. Year Foreign Exchange Re-
serve
S. No. Year F or e i g n E x-
change Reserve
1 1991-92 23850 11 2001-02 264036
2 1992-93 30744 12 2002-03 361470
3 1993-94 60420 13 2003-04 490129
4 1994-95 79781 14 2004-05 619116
5 1995-96 74384 15 2005-06 67637
6 1996-97 94932 16 2006-07 868222
7 1997-98 115905 17 2007-08 1237985
8 1998-99 138005 18 2008-09 11283865
9 1999-00 165913 19 2009-10 11496.50
10 2000-01 197204 20 2010-11 12248.83
Sources: Various Issues of RBI Bulletin
In fact, adequate foreign reserves are an important parameter of Indian economy in gauging its ability
to absorb external shocks. FDI helps in flling the gap between targeted foreign exchange requirements
and those derived from net export earnings plus net public foreign aid. The basic argument behind this
gap is that most developing countries face either a shortage of domestic savings to match investment
opportunities or a shortage of foreign exchange reserves to fnance needed imports of capital and
CONCLUSION
Foreign direct investment has a number of benefcial effects like capital fow, technology transfer,
generating positive work culture, transfer of management ethos, affecting the economic environment
of the country. Since economic reforms were started in India in 1991, the fow of FDI has started
increasing. Still, compared to some of the developing countries India is far behind. India, having a
large domestic market, appreciable economic growth at present times, and a large pool of educated
and skilled workers and having a comparative advantage especially in labour intensive manufacturing
sector and software industry has high potential to attract foreign direct investment. Indian economy
just ended a decade of reform in several key sectors like industry, fnance, etc. and now has entered
the next decade with second-generation reform focusing the real sectors of the economy. With these
changes, it is hoped that India will be in a better position to attract more foreign investment and will
be able to compete equally with other developing nations in the coming years. It may be concluded
that developing countries has make their presence felt in the world economy by receiving a descent
amount of FDI in the last three decades. Although India is not the most preferred destination of global
FDI, but there has been a tremendous fow of FDI in India since 1991. It has become the 2nd fastest
growing economy of the world. India has substantially increased its list of source countries in the
post - liberalization era. India has signed a number of bilateral and multilateral trade agreements with
developed and developing nations.
REFERENCES
Basu, P., Nayak, N., & Archana. (2007). Foreign Direct Investment in India: Emerging Horizon. Indian Eco-
nomic Review, XXXXII(2), 255-266.
Burak, C., & Ismail, C. (2009). The Economical Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Developing
countries and Transition Economies. e journal of New World Science Academy, 4(3).
Chakraborty, C., & Basu, P. (2002). Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in India a Cointegra-
55
tion Approach. Applied Economics, 34, 1061-1073.
Crespo, N., & Fontoura, P. M. (2007). Determinant Factors of FDI Spillovers- What Do We Rally Know.
World Development, 35(3), 277-291.
Khan, A. K., Siddiqui, A., & Taufeeque. (2011). Impact of FDI on Indian Economy: A Comparision with and
USA. International Journal of Business & Information Technology, 1(1).
Kumar, N. (1995). Industrialisation, Liberalisation and Two Way Flow of Foreign Direct Investments: Case
of India. Economic and Political Weekly, 48, 3228-3237.
Mohammed, N. (2013, April 15). FDI in Multi Brand Retail and Employment Generation in India. (D. P.
Mishra, Ed.) International Journal of Engineering and Management Sciences, 4(2), 179-186.
Morris, S. (1990). Foreign Direct Investment from India: 1964-83. Economic and Political Weekly, 31,
23142331.
Naga, R. R. (2003). Foreign Direct Investment in India in the 1990s: Trends and Issues and Problems. Eco-
nomic and Political Weekly, 1701-1712.
Nirupam, B., & Jeffrey, D. S. (2006). Foreign Direct Investment in India: issues and Problems. Development
Discussion Paper No 759.
Kearneys, T. A. (2007). Global Services Location Index.
(2007-08). Industrial Policy and Statistics (Handbook).Government of India.
(2007). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (World Investment Report).
Economic Survey (2009-2010). Ministry of Finance, Government of India
56
THE CHANGING IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC
FACTORS ON CONTRACEPTIVE USE IN NORTH-
EAST INDIA:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF NFHS-2 AND NFHS-3
ABSTRACT
Apart from a few exceptions, the use of contraceptive broadly registers an increase among currently
married women during NFHS-II & III. This trend is most noticeable (15 per cent) among mothers
without experience of child death. On the contrary, the sharpest decline in the use of contraceptive is
noted among mothers who experience child death (5 per cent). The results of the logistic regression
analysis show that the impact of socio-economic factors has more signifcant impact on the use of
contraceptives in 1998-99 than in 2005-06. Age of mother and educational level of mother are another
crucial socio-economic determinant that infuences the use of contraception.
INTRODUCTION
Over the decades, contraceptive use has been increasing in India. The NFHS-3 shows that contraceptive
prevalence among women aged 15-49 in Northeastern region is highest in Tripura (48 per cent),
Assam (40 per cent), Sikkim (38 per cent), Mizoram (37 per cent), Arunachal Pradesh (30 per cent),
Manipur (29 per cent) and Nagaland (18 per cent). However, using contraceptives among currently
married women aged 15-49 is somehow higher than the eligible women. While all the states in the
region have experienced increasing contraceptive use by the time of NFHS-3 compared to NFHS-2,
only the state of Nagaland shows a slight decline during the inter-survey period.
Of all the states, Tripura has the highest (66 per cent) contraceptive use among currently married
women, followed by Mizoram (60 per cent) and Sikkim (58 per cent). The NFHS-3 indicates that use
of modern contraceptive method is the most preferred choice (33 percent) in the region. Percentage of
modern contraceptive use among currently married women in Mizoram (60 per cent) and Sikkim (49
per cent) remains higher than the national average (48.5 per cent). Traditional method became the next
preferred method (16 per cent) followed by folkloric method (only 0.2 per cent). The overall users of
contraceptive have a slight increase by 11 percent during NFHS-2 and NFHS-3. Of all contraceptive
measures, users of withdrawal method have increased the highest (145 per cent), followed by pill and
condom. At the other ends of the spectrum, female sterilization has eighteen per cent declined during
the six-year periods (Table 1). Despite the prevalence of high contraceptive use among currently
married women in some states (Tripura & Mizoram), contraceptive usage is still low in the rest of the
states (Table 2). The 2001 Census records that the percentage growth rate of population per decade
in the region are signifcantly higher than the national average (1.93 per cent) except Tripura (1.6 per
cent) and Assam (1.9 percent). Nagaland has the highest (6.4 percent per decade) population growth
rate in the region, followed by Sikkim (3.3 percent) and, Meghalaya and Manipur experience an equal
growth rate of 3 per cent per decade.
*Research Scholar, Center fro the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences,Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi
P. Thongkhanthang*
57
In the recent years, we often come across claims about fertility transition in India. However,
2001Census and NFHS-3 (2005-06) show that the total fertility rate (per woman) for all the states in
the region are still considerably higher than the national average (2.7 children) except in two states
viz., Sikkim (2.02 children) and Tripura ( 2.22 children). This partly explains the high growth rate of
population and why the TFR remains above 3 children in most states of the region. Among others,
contraception is the need of the hour to counteract the rapid growth of population, especially in the
hill states of northeastern India.
TABLE 1. PERCENTAGE OF CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN AGED 15-49
USING CONTRACEPTION BY METHOD, NORTH-EAST INDIA, 1998-99 AND
2005-06
Method
Year
NFHS-2(1998-99) NFHS-3(2005-06)
Not using 56.8 50.6
Using 43.2 49.4
Pill 6.4 9.4
IUD 4 3.3
Condom 1.5 3.5
Female Sterilization 19.6 16.1
Male Sterilization 0.8 0.6
Periodic Abstinence 7.4 8.3
Withdrawal 3.1 7.6
Other 0.4 0.7
Current User (N)
4368 6740
Total currently married women 10116 13647
Source : IIPS, 2000, 2006
RELATED CASE STUDIES
The acceptance of family planning is infuenced by many socio-cultural and demographic factors
at individual, family and societal levels. Recent studies assert that family planning acceptors had
more live births and living sons, while non-acceptors had more female live births and less number of
children. Contraceptive use was highest when both spouses wanted no more children and have 4-5
living children (Mahmood, 1997). In another study, several researchers (Srivastava, 1991; Rahman,
1996) reported that child death had a very large negative and signifcant effect on contraceptive use.
Education of women has great effect on use of contraception as shown by several studies (Curties
and Westoff, 1996; Dwivedi, 1992; Gulati, 1996). Moreover, the acceptance of contraception by a
couple is governed by various socio-cultural factors, such as religion (NFHS, 1998-99). The states
with greater use of contraceptive have generally achieved a more advanced state of socio-economic
modernization. Work status of women determines the attitudes towards family size and the use of
contraception (Basu, 1992). Various studies also found that contraceptive prevalence rate has been
found to be lower among the Muslim and lower caste Hindu women. In fact, contraceptive use is
considerably less in North East India when compared with other states in the country, and the adoption
of family planning methods varies from state to state. Keeping all this in mind, the study examines
the percentage change of currently married women using contraceptives in different sub-groups of
population for northeastern states of India over the six years time period and to show the average
percentage of women using contraceptives as per the womens background. Also, to assess the net
effect of socio-economic factors on contraceptive use during NFHS-2 and NFHS-3.
58
TABLE 2. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENTLY MARRIED
WOMEN AGE 15-49 BY CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD CURRENTLY USED,
NORTH EAST INDIA, 1998-99 AND 2005-06
State
Any method Any Modern method
Any Traditional
method
NFHS-2 NFHS-3 NFHS-2 NFHS-3
NFHS-
2
Arunachal Pradesh 35.4 43.2 32.8 37.3 2.4 5.9
Assam 43.3 56.5 26.6 27 15.8 29.5
Manipur 38.7 48.7 25.9 23.6 12.7 25.1
Meghalaya 20.2 24.3 15.5 18.5 4.2 5.7
Mizoram 57.7 59.9 57.1 59.6 0.7 0.3
Nagaland 30.3 29.7 24.2 22.5 5.9 7.2
Sikkim 53.8 57.6 41.4 48.7 12.3 9.0
Tripura - 65.7 - 44.9 - 20.8
India 48.0 56.3 42.8 48.5 5.0 7.8
Source: NFHS, 1998-99 and 2005-06.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
The data for this analysis is gleaned from the 1998-99 and 2005-06 National Family & Health Survey
(NFHS-2 & 3) which gives information for nationally and at state level estimates. The main objective
of the survey was to collect reliable and up-to-date information on family planning, fertility, infant
and child mortality, reproductive and child health, nutrition of women and children, the quality of
health and family welfare services, and socio-economic conditions. The analysis focuses on currently
married women. Out of 10116 eligible women in NFHS-2 and 13647 in NFHS-3, some 4368 (43.2
per cent) and 6740 (49.4 per cent) in NFHS-2 & NFHS-3 currently married women respectively in
North-East India comprises of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim and Tripura are used as the data source in this work. Data from these surveys are used to build
indicators at different levels to facilitate comparison on social and economic variables.
Binary Logistic regression analysis has been done with dichotomous response variable
(1=Not use, 2= Use) to show the net effect of a selected group of covariates on the probability of
using contraceptive methods in terms of Odds ratio. Current use of any method of contraception was
considered as a dependent variable in the analysis. Bivariate analysis has also been done to show the
percentage of women using contraception in different sub-groups of the population without having
control over other factors. In the analysis, the following predictors have been considered : age of
mother (15-29/30-39/40-49; sex of child ( male/female); child loss (no/yes); place of residence (urban/
rural); respondents educational level ( no education/ primary/ secondary and above); work status
of women ( not working/ working); caste/tribe (Scheduled Tribe/others); religion(Hindu/Christian/
others); standard of living index (low/medium/high); media exposure (no/yes) and number of living
children (0-2/3-4/5 and above).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 3 gives the percentage share of currently married women using contraception under every single
variable in two time periods (NFHS-2 and NFHS-3) and along with the changing percentage share
from NFHS-2 to NFHS-3, which shows increase/decrease in share of women over time.
Age of Mother and Contraceptive Use: Table 3 gives a distribution of currently married women
using contraceptive by age of mothers. In NFHS-3, forty-two percent of women at the prime age
(15-29) accepted contraceptive as against thirty-one percent in NFHS-2, indicating an increased
of contraceptive users by 33 per cent between the two surveys. However, in the later age (40-49),
forty-nine percent of women adopted contraception in NFHS-2 and forty-eight percent in NFHS-3,
which implies a decline of three per cent during the inter-survey period. Among the 30-39 year age
group of mothers, the percentage of contraceptive users have increased by 3.3(6 per cent) between
the two surveys. Thus, the results show that contraceptive use in the prime age group of 15-29 years
59
is increased the highest (33 per cent) which support the notion that womans age is always directly
related to the use of contraception and early marriage increases her reproductive span, and the use of
family planning is more than late marriage.
Sex of Child and Contraceptive Use: Various studies have shown that sex of living children have
considerable infuence on acceptance of family planning method. Son preference is a major determinant
of contraceptive use. Moreover, couples with sons have longer birth intervals and fewer subsequent
births. Table 3 gives that the proportion of contraceptive users who have male child (son) is higher
than women having female child (daughter) in both the surveys. While NFHS-3 documented that
ffty-fve percent use contraceptive, forty-nine percent used contraceptive in NFHS-2, indicating that
contraceptive use has increased by thirteen percent during NFHS-2 and 3. It is also observed that ffty
percent and forty-four percent of women in NFHS-3 and NFHS-2 respectively use contraceptives.
This revealed a change of 5.8 or 13 percent between the two surveys. This fnding was in line with
the fndings of Mahmood (1997) who observed that in Pakistan, contraceptive use was highest when
both spouses wanted no more children and had 4-5 living children, of whom 1 or 2-3 living sons. It
is, therefore, clearly evident that son are more preferred over daughter in northeastern states as well.
Child Loss and Contraceptive Use: Child mortality has signifcant infuence on future contraceptive
behavior of women. Couples who had lost a child tended to move to higher birth orders for child
replacement purposes, than couples who did not lost a child. Thirty-two percent of women in NFHS-
2 adopted contraceptives which have increased to forty-seven per cent in NFHS-3. This explains an
increased by 45 per cent among women who do not experience child death in the region. With regard
to women who experience child death, contraceptive users rate have increased only by 5 per cent.
In line with Rahman (1996) who has found out that after controlling for other variables, child death
had a very large negative and signifcant effect on contraceptive use regardless of the number of
surviving children in Matlab district of Bangladesh, the contraceptive prevalence has increased higher
among women who did not experience child death compared to women who experience child death.
Contraceptive use is lesser among women who experience child death is due to the fact that in order
to recoup the lose child, adoption of contraception is quite negligible and even unthinkable for them.
TABLE 3: PERCENTAGES USING CONTRACEPTIVES AMONG CURRENTLY
MARRIED WOMEN BY SELECTED BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS,
NORTH EAST INDIA,1998-99 AND 2005-06
Explanatory
Variables
NFHS-2
(1998-99)
NFHS-3
(2005-06)
Absolute
Change (2)-(1)
Relative Change
(3)/(1)*100
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Age of Mother
15-29 years 31.3 41.6 10.3 32.9
30-39 years 55.4 58.7 3.3 6.0
40-49 years 49.3 48 -1.3 -2.6
Sex of Child
Male 48.7 55.1 6.4 13.1
Female 44.3 50.1 5.8 13.1
Child Loss
No 32.3 46.9 14.6 45.2
Yes 47.4 42.4 -5 -10.5
Type of Residence
Urban 54.5 54.6 0.1 0.2
Rural 39.6 46.1 6.5 16.4
Education
No Education 36.3 40.8 4.5 12.4
Primary 42.3 48.7 6.4 15.1
Sec.& above 50.1 54.4 4.3 8.6
Work Status of Mother
Not working 44.6 49.9 5.3 11.9
60
Working 40.7 48.7 8 19.7
Caste/tribe
ST 37.7 41 3.3 8.8
Others 47.5 55.8 8.3 17.5
Religion
Hindu 50.4 58.1 7.7 15.3
Christian 37.7 38.5 0.8 2.1
Others 34 47.7 13.7 40.3
Standard of Living Index
Low 31.4 34.7 3.3 10.5
Medium 45.6 47.8 2.2 4.8
High 58.5 57.2 -1.3 -2.2
Media Exposure
No 31.1 32.3 1.2 3.9
Yes 49 52.2 3.2 6.5
Number of Living Children
0 to 2 39.6 52.3 12.7 32.1
3 to 4 56.7 59.1 2.4 4.2
5 & above 32.8 33.5 0.7 2.1
Total 43.2 49.4 5.0 12.1
Type of Residence and Contraceptive Use: Urbanization is often cited as an important factor that
increases the level of contraceptive use. Various studies argued that urbanization reduces fertility
because children are less likely to contribute to household production and more diffcult to supervise
in an urban setting. Despite contraceptive use in urban areas is typically higher than in rural areas,
the percentage change of currently married women using contraception from NFHS-2 to NFHS-3 in
rural areas were signifcantly higher than in urban areas. In urban areas, 54.5 per cent of women use
contraception in 1998-99 which increased to 54.6 per cent, indicating a minimal increase of less than 1
percent during the inter-survey period. In rural areas, however, the percentage change of contraceptive
users is observed at seven per cent when compared with forty per cent and forty-six per cent during
NFHS-2 and NFHS-3 respectively. This indicates that ruler women became more aware about their
family size due to the awareness spread of family planning methods regardless of place of residence
in the region.
Educational Level and Contraceptive Use: Table 3 gives the percentage of women in different levels
of education which shows that with increasing in levels of education the percentage share of current
users of contraception increases. This has been true with the fndings in the states of Kerala and Utter
Pradesh where female education beyond the middle school increases the use of contraception.11
Current contraceptive use among not educated women is so much high that it almost equal to the
level of literate women. In NFHS-3, ffty-four percent of women who have completed secondary
and higher education used contraception as against ffty per cent in NFHS-2, revealing an increased
of contraceptive users by 4 per cent between the two surveys. Women who are educated at primary
level in NFHS-2 constituted 42 per cent which increased to 49 per cent in NFHS-3. This indicates the
percentage change have risen by15 per cent, and among not educated women (41 per cent in NFHS-
3 and 36 per cent in NFHS-2) the percentage of current contraceptive users have an increased of 12
percent. Thus the results revealed that the percentage change under this category (Primary passed) is
highest (15 per cent) this is most likely due to the fnancial problem faced by the households of these
women that embracing family planning method is the only option in order to avoid the burden of
household economy.
22
Similarly, mothers who regularly exposed to mass media have thirty-fve per
cent less likely to embrace contraceptives with the reference category of mothers who are not exposed
to media. Number of living children has a signifcant impact on contraceptive use. Mothers who have
3 or 4 children have twenty-seven per cent less chance for using contraceptives, whereas mothers
who have 5 and above children have ffty-fve per cent more chance for embracing contraception.
Working Status and Contraceptive Use: Work status of women is one of the indicators, which
determine her economic independence and status in the household and in the society. The NFHS
gives information of current contraceptive users by work status of women (Table 3). Although the
61
proportion of not working women embracing contraception is higher than that of working women in
both the surveys, the percentage change is higher among working women than the not working ones.
In NFHS-3, ffty percent of not working women used contraceptive, and in NFHS-3 forty-fve percent
use contraception, indicating an increase of 20 percent during the inter-survey period. Nonetheless, the
percentage change over the periods is higher among working women than not working women which
stands at 12 percent. In fact, working women have the opportunities to interact with the outside world
and also being preoccupied with works that led them to embrace more family planning methods than
not working women which has been documented by many studies as well.4
Standard of Living Index and Contraceptive Use: Standard of living of the household indicates the
economic condition of the respondent and acts as a proxy variable when data on per-capita income
is not available. Households standard of living determines contraceptive use. It is found per-capita
income had more impact on sterilization acceptance than did urbanization in 16 major states of India.
10

It had the maximum direct positive effect on acceptance of conventional contraceptives. Table 3 further
shows that with increase in standard of living contraceptive use have simultaneously increased in the
study region. Many studies have found this phenomena in developing countries.
6
The percentage of
current use of contraception among currently married women belonged to high standard of living
households was ffty-eight percent in 1998-99 which has declined to ffty-seven per cent in 2005-06,
demonstrating a decline by 2 per cent during the inter-survey period . Among the low standard of
living households, thirty-one per cent of women use contraceptive in NFHS-2 as against thirty-fve
per cent in NFHS-3, revealing an increase of 10.5 percent over the periods. Further, women belonged
to medium standard of living households; the percentage of contraceptive use has increased by 5 per
cent during the six year time period. Thus, it is obvious that the percentage change is highest among
women who belonged to low standard of living households, and this might possibly be due to more
awareness have been received by these women folk.
Number of Living Children and Contraceptive Use: Percentage of women using contraceptive by
children ever born has shown in the table (Table 3) given below. Contraceptive users among currently
married women are highest with those having 0 to 2 children and low among women having 5 and
above children. Women having 0 to 2 children have increased the highest (40 per cent). Overall
contraceptive users during the two surveys were highest among women having 3 to 4 children. In a
study in rural Karnataka Rajatnam (1995) concluded that contraceptive use increased steadily as the
number of living children increased. Likewise, in northeastern states contraceptive use become lesser
among women having 0 to 2 children and 5 and above children. Surprisingly, contraceptive use has
increased slightly from women having 5 and above (2 per cent), followed by women having 3 to 4
children (4 per cent) and women having 0 to 2 children (32 per cent).
This indicates that prevalence of contraceptives was high among higher parity women they had already
attained their desired number of children.
9
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Contraceptive use was found to be infuenced by the socio-economic factors. Nevertheless, all
factors were not equally infuential in describing the variations in contraceptive use in the region.
Only signifcant variables have been selected for data analysis. The frst model shows that almost all
socio-economic variables selected in the analysis have a more signifcant effect on contraceptive use
in the year 1998-99 compared to 2005-06. Keeping all other variables constant, place of residence
shows 28.5 per cent more likely to adopt contraception by currently married women living in rural
areas compared to their urban counterparts. Age of mother also has signifcant effect on contraceptive
use. The probability of accepting contraception is thirty-four per cent less to mothers in the age group
of 30-39 year, and thirty-four per cent more chance of accepting contraception to mothers age 40-49
with reference to the 15-29 mothers age group. Sex of child reveals that 21.5 per cent higher chance
to mothers having female child for adopting contraception in comparison with mothers having male
child after controlling other variables. According to child mortality variable, the result shows that
forty-two per cent less likely to adopt contraception to mothers who did not experience child death
in reference to mothers who experienced child death.
62
Furthermore, education has a great impact on contraceptive use and it shows that with increases
in the level of education of mothers, the chance of accepting contraception is 35 per cent less likely
to mothers who have completed primary education whereas eighteen per cent less likely to adopt
contraception to mothers who have completed secondary and above education in comparison to the
reference category of not educated mothers.
TABLE 4: LOGIT ESTIMATATES OF THE PROBABILITY OF
CONTRACEPTIVE USE AMONG CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN, BY
SELECTED BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS, NORTH EAST INDIA,
1998-99 AND 2005-06
Explanatory Variables
NFHS-2 NFHS-3
Exp()(Odds Ratio)
Exp()(Odds
Ratio)
Type of Residence
Urban
Rural 1.285*** 1.065
Age of Mother
15-29 years
30-39 years .659*** 1.055
40-49 years 1.340*** 1.705***
Sex of Child
Male
Female 1.215*** 1.199***
Child Loss
No
Yes .577*** .571***
Mothers Level of Education
No Education
Primary .654*** .646***
Sec.& above .821*** .879**
Work Status of Mother
Not working
Working 1.096* .923**
Caste/tribe
ST
Others .813*** .863**
Religion
Hindu
Christian 1.586*** 1.265***
Others 0.883 .560***
Standard of Living Index
Low
Medium .570*** .556***
High .824*** .813***
Media Exposure
No
Yes .654*** .613***
Number of Living Children
0 to 2
3 to 4 .728*** .865**
5 & above 1.552*** 1.416***
Reference Category
*Signifcant at 10 % level ** Signifcant at 5 % level ***Signifcant at 1 % level
63
For those working mothers have no impact on adopting contraception with the reference
category of not working mothers. Under caste, others have nineteen per cent less chance of adopting
contraception as compared to the Scheduled Tribe women. Religion shows signifcant effect on adopting
contraception as per the data. Keeping all other variables controlled, the probability of mothers who
belonged to Christian is 58.6 per cent more likely to adopt contraception with reference to mothers
belonged to Hindu. Standard of living has signifcant impact on contraceptive use. Mothers belonging to
medium standard of living households have forty-three per cent less chance and mothers who belonged
to high standard of living households have eighteen per cent less likely to accept contraceptives with
reference to mothers who belonged to low standard of living households. Similarly, mothers who
regularly exposed to mass media have thirty-fve per cent less likely to embrace contraceptives with
the reference category of mothers who are not exposed to media. Number of living children has a
signifcant impact on contraceptive use. Mothers who have 3 or 4 children have twenty-seven per cent
less chance for using contraceptives, whereas mothers who have 5 and above children have ffty-fve
per cent more chance for embracing contraception.
Finally, the socio-economic impact is more on the variable of number of living children
which was recorded at 27 per cent less chance in NFHS-2 which has increased by 13.5 per cent less
in NFHS-3, implying that the probability of contraceptive use among women having 3-4 children
have an increase of 0.13 times in reference to mothers having 0 to 2 children.
CONCLUSION
As this paper examines the interaction between contraceptive use and other socio-economic factors,
that is, whether the effect of socio-economic factors on contraceptive use brings any change in terms
of percentage of women who accepted contraceptives, apart from the socio-economic impact on
contraceptive use during the two NFHS surveys. Overall, contraceptive use among currently married
has increased from 43 per cent in NFHS-2 to 49 per cent in NFHS-3.The analysis also found that
during the two NFHS rounds, the percentage change of women who tend to adopt contraception has
increased in different degrees in almost all sub-groups of population. There are three exceptions to
this observation, viz. (i) mothers in the age group of 40-49 years (ii) mothers who did not experience
child death, and (iii) mothers who have high standard of living. The percentage change of increase in
contraceptive use is highest (45 per cent) among mothers who did not experience child death, followed
by women who belonged to religious groups (40 percent) other than Hinduism and Christianity,
mothers in the age-group of 15-29 years (33 percent) and mothers who have 0 to two children (32 per
cent). And the rest of the sub-group represents an increase less than 30 per cent. Thus, the fndings of
the impact of socio-economic factors on contraceptive use are quite similar to many other studies in
India.
6, 13, 14
Although Ramesh (1996) claims that if education is controlled, urban-rural differences
in contraceptive use is substantially reduced, the percentage change in rural areas is much higher as
compared to urban areas during the two rounds of NFHS surveys in the study. Both NFHS-2 and 3
have documented that in northeastern states, the commonest method of family planning was female
sterilization (19.6 per cent in NFHS-2 and 16.1 per cent in NFHS-3) which is also similar to the studies
found in East Delhi.
4
The analysis also indicates that illiterate women in northeastern states use more
and more contraceptives which is almost equivalent to literate women, and this is perhaps due to the
fact that illiterate women were in receipt of the benefts of health and socio-economic advancement.
2
Moreover, the percentage of decline is highest (11 per cent) among mothers who experience
child death. This is followed by mothers within the age-group of 40-49 (3 per cent) and mothers having
high standard of living (3 per cent). Perhaps contraceptive use decline the most among mothers who
experience child death is due to the fear of lost of their family line, security in the case of illness and
during old age. More importantly, at least one son is a must for the Hindu society since religious utility
fows from performance by sons of important religious functions and according to Hindu tradition,
sons are needed for the cremation of deceased parents because only sons can light the funeral pyre.
1

Although it is found in this study that a positive relationship between contraceptive use and standard
of living which is consistent with Kanitkar and Murthy (1983) conclusion in contraceptive use and
standard of living in Rajasthan and Bihar, the percentage change during the two NFHS surveys was
64
declined among women having high standard of living. Results of the logistic analysis shows that all
the socio-economic factors have signifcant impact on the use of contraceptive except in the variable
of place of residence. The net impact on contraceptive use by the socio-economic factors declined
in most of the cases during NFHS-2 and NFHS-3.In fact, the net impact of socio-economic is higher
in certain variables viz., mothers age, mothers education (secondary and above) caste and number
of living children (3 to 4). Overall, age of mother and educational level of mother are the most
important determinant among the social-economic variables that infuence the use of contraception
in northeastern region.
REFERENCES
1. Arnold, Fred, M.K. Choe, and T.K. Roy (1998). Son preferences, the family building process and child
mortality in India, Population Studies, 52:301-315.
2. Arokiasamy, P. (2009). Fertility Decline in India: Contributions by Uneducated Women Using Contraception,
Economic and Political Weekly (44): 30 (July 25 - July 31)
3. Bankole, A., and S. Singh (1998). Couples fertility and contraceptive decision making in developing
counties, Hearing the mans voice. International Family Planning Perspectives, 24(1): 15-24.
4. Basu, Alka (1992). Cultural infuences on the timing of frst birth in India: Large differences that add to
little differences, Population Studies, 47:85-95.
5. Bhasin, S.K., M.Pant, M. Metha, S. Kumar (2005). Prevalence of Usage of Different Contraceptive Methods
in East Delhi-A Cross Sectional Study, Indian Journal of Community Medicine 30: 2, April-June.
6. Bhende, A.A. and T. Kanitkar, (1993). Indias Population Policy, Principles of Population Studies, New
Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.
7. Bose, S., Trent, K. (2006).Socio-demographic determinants of abortion in India: A north-south comparison,
Journal of Biosocial Science, 38( 2) March, 261-282.
8. Curtis, S.L., and C.F. Westoff (1996). Intention to use contraceptives and subsequent contraceptive behavior
in Morocco. Studies in Family Planning, 27(5): 239-50.
9. Dwivedi, L.K. (2006). Contraceptive Use in India: A Multivariate Decomposition and Related Simulation
analysis, Demography India, 35. (2): 291-302.
10. Dwivedi, S.N. (1992). Contribution of some socio-economic variables towar4ds explaining the level of
adoption of various family planning desires in India during 1987. Demography India, 21(2): 239-45.
11. Gulati, S.C. (1996). Contraceptive methods use and choice in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh: Multinomial logit
analysis of NFHS data. Demography India, 25(2): 205-20.
12. Irudaya Rajan S., U.S. Mishra and T.K. Vimala (1996). Choosing a permanent contraceptive: Does son
preference matter? Economic and Political Weekly, 3(29): 1, 980-4.
13. Kanitkar, Tara and B.N. Murthy (1983). Factors associated with contraception in Bihar and Rajasthan:
fndings from recent sample surveys, Dynamics of Population and Family Publishing House, Delhi.
14. Mahmood, N. and Ringheim, K. (1996). Factors affecting contraceptive use in Pakistan. Pakistan
Development Review, 35(1): 1-22.
15. McNay, K. , Arokiasamy, P. , Cassen, R.H.(2003). Why are uneducated women in India using contraception?
A multilevel analysis, Population Studies, 57 (1) March, 21-40.
16. National Family Health Survey, 1998-99 and 2005-06, International Institute of Population Sciences,
Mumbai.
17. Rahman, M. (1996). Child mortality and fertility regulation behavior in Bangladesh: Implications for
family planning programs. ICDDR, B Working paper No. 52 Dhaka: International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research.
18. Rahman, M., J.Akbar, J.F. Phillips and S. Becker, (1992). Contraceptive use in Matlab, Bangladesh: The
role of gender preference, Studies in Family Planning 23(4): 229-42.
19. Rajaratnam, R. (1995) Family size desires, sex preference, socio-economic condition and contraceptive
use in rural Karnataka, India. Demography India, 24(2): 275-90.
20. Raju, K.N., and T.N. Bhat (1995). Sex composition of living children against socio-economic variables
65
while accepting family planning methods. Demography India, 24(1): 87-99.
21. Ramesh, B.S., S.C. Gulati and R.D. Retherford (1996). Contraceptive use in India, 1992-93. NFHS subject
Reports No. 2, Mumbai, IIPS; and Honolulu: East-West Center.
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and Uttar Pradesh. National Family Health Survey bulletin, Issue 3, April, 1-4.
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white-collar workers. Journal of Family Welfare, 37(4):19-26.
66
INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS:
A QUEST FOR THEIR RESPONSIBILITY AND
ACCOUNTABILITY TOWARDS PEOPLE AND
SOCIETY
Amrendra Kumar*
For long time, International Financial Institutions (IFIs) have been playing important role in maintaining
the international monetary and fnancial system in the world. However, these international fnancial
institutions especially International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank have been quite controversial
in developing nations for imposing newer conditionality, austerity policies and sometimes violating
the international laws as well(Subedi:2006). There has been demand for making them responsible and
accountable in this regard for omission and commission through policies, functions and operations
in a state. They could be held a subject to international law as international organization, hence
may be dealt for responsibility and accountability towards affected people and societies in any state
for their monetary policies, programmes and operations for development, environment, education
and investment. Hence, the basic aim of this paper is to discuss about the IFIs, especially IMF and
World Bank, area of work they operate, for that the immunity they maintain, the responsibilities
and accountabilities they hold towards individual, groups and societies in different member nations
especially in developing nations.
The most prominent IFIs are two global organizations and a set of regional development banks.
The two global organizations are the IMF, World Bank and the Regional Development Bank is
African Development Bank (AFDB), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD); and the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB). The
legal and governance, structures, purpose and function of these major regional development banks
are modeled on World Bank, hence, IMF and World Bank provides a useful basis for understanding
the international legal principles applicable to the operations of all the IFIs. Hence, it makes quite
obvious to restrain myself to focus on only IMF and World Bank while examining the scope of the
responsibilities of the IFIs (Bradlow: 2010).
IFIs under UN System
As it is well known that the emergence of the IMF and World Bank preceded the formation of the
United Nations, but Chronology of the events did not have in the way of the IFIs operating within the
UN framework. As both the institution were included under the UN system, as independent specialized
agencies under Article 57 of the UN Charter, as it says:
The various specialized agencies, established by inter-governmental agreement and
having wide international responsibilities, as defned in their basic instruments in
economic, social cultural, educational, health, and related felds, shall be brought into
relationship with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of Article 63.
Again, Article 63 states: The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreement with any of the
agencies argued to in Article 57, defning the terms in which the agencies concerned shall be brought
into relationship with United Nations. Hence, these two IFI through two individual agreements became
*Research Scholar,CILS/SIS Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi
67
independent specialized agencies of the UN in 1948. This linkage gives immunity to the IMF and
World Bank when they works in different member states of United Nations, expanding their activities
in the feld of security, environment, education, cultural issues and some human rights.
Hence, arguably the relationship agreements between these two institutions and the UN acknowledging
them as specialized agencies required them to consider UN decision and recommendations. The IFI
are also required to give due consideration to the requisite of UN to place the issues it proposes on
the agenda of Boards of Governance of these two institutions. The agreement also makes it mandatory
for these institutions to implement any decision that the Security Council adopts under chapter VII of
the UN Charter as well. However, these two IFIs have interpreted the agreements in different manner
and argued that they have to merely consider and are not necessarily required to follow the decisions
and recommendations of the United Nation.
IFIS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW
As the primary source of international law under Article 38 of the Statue of ICJ are international treaties,
customary international law and formal principles of law accepted by all nations. This means, that the
international law applicable to the IFIs consists of their Articles of Agreements and any other treaties
to which they are party any applicable customary international law and applicable general principles
of law accepted by all nations. The moist important treaty for the World Bank and the IMF is their
founding document, their Articles of Agreement, where all the objective and functions are written in
general terms and one expected to perform them without resorting to measures destructive of national
or international prosperity. However, both the World Bank and the IMF are free to apply them as
they deem appropriate in their operations. In fact, their Articles of Agreements also specify that the
authority to interpret the articles rests, with the boards of executive directors, Subjects to an appeal
to their board of governors only.

However, these Articles should also be interpreted in accordance
with Vienna Convention (1969) in ordinary meaning of their words in the light of their purpose and
the context in which they operate. But through creative interpretation of their Articles, they have
been able to adopt to the changing conditions in which they operated over the past sixty years, hence
became loan of contentions and criticism, on the ground of mission creep and political activity.
Such activities may fall them under responsibility under international law as well.
Apart from this, these IFI are also signatories to several international agreements: First, each has signed
a relationship agreement with UNO; second, they concluded headquarters agreements with their host
states and analogous agreements with other states in which they have offces. Finally, they inter into
international agreements each time by a loan or guarantee agreement with their member states.

Since
these three categories of agreements involve at least one international organization, are not directly
governed by the Vienna Convention. Instead, they are governed by customary international law and
world be covered by the Vienna Convention on the law of Treaties between states and International
organizations or between international organizations.

However, instances of applicability of customary international law to international organizations
understandably is said to be ambiguous, which is even diffcult to identity. In regard to the relations
between the member states and the IFIs, an important applicable customary international law
principle is respect for the sovereignty of the member states which mean that IFIs should refrain from
interfering in these matters that fall within the domestic jurisdiction. The second set of customary
international law principles relate to the enforcement of any international agreements between the
IFIs and member states. These are the specifc areas where these IFIs have been urged for holding
the responsibilities towards states, societies and people. The third set of customary international law
is jus cogens principles from which no derogation is possible, are also applicable to IFIs. But this
principle is limited to universal agreement hence, limited application in the normal course of the IFIs
operations. It is even more diffcult to identify formal principles that are applicable to the operations
of IFIs, but may found under the principles of good faith and non-discriminatory treatment as well.

INTERNATIONAL IMMUNITY AND IFIS
All IFIs are treaty organizations with their own international legal personality. But this legal
personality of international organization in IFIs cannot be treated uniformly, as there is no equality
68
as such in terms of their purpose, mandate and membership. Somewhere or other, the immunity
accorded to international organizations also undermines the establishment of the legal responsibility of
international organizations. The immunity from jurisdiction of international organization is generally
analyzed for its mission and activities in member states and hence, not submitted to the National
Courts for functional autonomy. Relying either on the convention creating the organization, or on the
headquarter agreement between the organization and host state, or less frequently on customary law;
judges generally consider themselves bound to grant immunity to organization whenever submitted to
National Courts. However, the beneft of such immunity may be refused in some cases, e.g. it may be
refused on the basis of the having the immunity by organizations which is rarely done. Alternatively
it may be refused because the state before whose courts the matter has been brought is not a party
to the conventions or agreement, creating the organization and the judges do not feel bound to grant
immunity on the basis of customary law(Gaillard:2002).

Then, for holding them responsible for their activities and conduct, there has to be limit the scope of
the immunity from jurisdiction of IFIs. For that some scholars argue that there has to be method of
limitation and relevant substantive principles as well.

In terms of method, there are two conceivable
solutions for limiting the scope of the immunity, frst, the multilevel conventions and then head
quarters agreements or other specifc instruments, such as the treaty regulating the immunities of
the United Nations. As on substantive level, limiting the immunity from jurisdiction of international
organization depend on the disputes and criteria for the exclusion of immunity involving international
organization and third parties. As far as IFIs are concerned, they are enjoying some immunity in their
function, hence need to be limit their immunity on certain circumstances. However, under current
law, a private party or individual access to the courts against them is not systematically generated,
which requires bypassing the obstacles of immunity for hold them responsible, to the extent of lifting
the veil of the IFIs Boards.
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND IFIS
Now, there is general assumption that the norms relating to the responsibility of international
organization in the international law are underdeveloped allowing IFIs to evade accountability and
legal responsibility for their policies and programmes (Chimini: 2010).

This can be examined by asking
two questions as when such organization held international personality, whether they are responsible
internationally for violation of any law; what basis they are responsible and how their responsibility
is enforced.
As these IFIs i.e. IMF and World Bank are specialized agencies of the UN system as stated above,
holding the international personality by the membership of sovereign states by providing separate
will, can be said subjects of international law, hence entails the responsibility from the charter of
UN. However, they have managed to curve out more leeway for autonomy and independence through
their respective agreements with United Nations. As subject of international law, there is not much
judicial product on the international responsibility of or to International organization, but notably
classic authorities may be found by PCIJ in the Chorzow Factory Case (1927) that the violation
of international law entails responsibility and the obligations to make responsible in one form or
another(Amersinghe:2005). Then it was set out by ICJ in famous case Reparations of Injuries Case
(1949) that the breach of international law by an international person, whether by commission or
omission, produces responsibility.

However, this issue of responsibility of international organization
has been given until mid 1980s, after collapse of the International Ten Councils Case (1983) which
provided clear picture on the responsibility of the International organization and their member states
and Third parties. Hence, such obligations are even demanded by the IFIs as international organization
to abide by this norm, later on backed by the ICJ in WHO case (1980)(Klabbers:2004).

Now, the question of responsibility of IFIs primarily arises in area where it is relationship with
member states, international organizations or other international institutions and private individuals or
groups of individuals within the member states, who are basically affected by IFIs, fnanced projects
and activities. In this regard, the Charter of United Nations and its connection on privileges and
immunities safeguard more IFIs of the full and independent exercise of its operations, administration
69
and performance by recognizing its role making and regulatory measures. But, correspondently, they
are also required to consider UN decisions and recommendation, this could also be way to restrain
and hold them responsible.
In other instances, as well, the qualifying phase Except as otherwise provided in this agreement or in
the General Convention of Article III, Section 7(3) of the UN headquarters Agreement delineates the
Convention of areas of activities which are not subject to either local jurisdiction or to local law, hence
provides genesis of most headquarters agreements(Susz:1987). A binding decision under Charter VII
of the UN Charter well decision any operative measuring of the Relationship Agreement in the light
of the explicit provision in Article 103 of the UN Charter of the supremacy on the obligations under
the Charter over obligations under any other international agreement.
Additionally, the ICJ also reminds that Customary International Law continues to exist and to apply,
separately from international treaty even where the two categories of law i.e. Charter and separate
agreements have an identical context.

This means that international organizations are bound by such
customary international law even though they are not parties to the corresponding treaties. Taking
account, this case law, there can be access to the ICJ for advisory opinions as well for the purpose
of establishing the responsibility of IFIs, which may be accepted as binding decision by agreement
between the parties to a dispute, hence can be a convenient forum for holding them responsible.
As far as the question of responsibility of IFIs in connection with the borrowing, loan and guarantee
obligations are concerned, they do not enjoy the privileges and immunity otherwise available to
them. There have been several legal attacks on the validity of such agreement made by the extensive
breach itself, especially in radical change of leadership resulting in non-payment of loans by member
states(Head:1996).

However, the concept of moral hazard is used to argue that non-payment of
illegitimate debt is necessary to discipline them and to prevent future lending to oppressive dictations
made by the World Bank and IMF in the name of poverty reduction. In such circumstance, it has
been demanded that there should be the liability of lender and not the borrower on illegitimate debt
as such (Hamlon: 2006). Again, there is considerable evidence that conditionality prescribed by IFIs
lead to the violation of human rights of individuals, groups and societies livings in borrowing states.
Such ascertain has been the basis of controversy and critique of IFIs under the International human
rights as well (Suzuki: 2010).
Here, Prof. Chimni argues that though IFIs are not parties to international human rights instruments,
they are bound to observe international human rights obligations, on the basis of frst, IFIs are under
an obligations as subject to international law to abide by norms of customary international law, backed
by ICJ in WHO case and then, can be reinforced by the fact that as specialized agencies of UN, they
are bound to respect the UN Charter for instance Article 55-57 that suggest binding legal obligations
on member state and thereby on international institutions.

ACCOUNTABILITY AND IFIS
The violation of international law and international human rights law, resulting from implementing
IFIs policies and programmes, also engages their accountability and responsibility. The principles
of accountability is also said to be broader than the concept of responsibility\ in international law.
Responsibility is incurred only when there is a breach of an international obligations and the principles
of accountability goes further to the extent that the IFIs be morally answerable to the people whose
lives are impacted by loans and conditionalities advanced by them(Hafner:2003).

Hence, the demand
for accountability also can be raised in violation of international human rights in member states.
However, the International Law Commission also defined Accountability of International
Organizations as multifaceted phenomena and inter-related with three level of liability, and considered
that only legal interest may trigger accountability. All the accountability mechanisms that IFIs have
adopted in effect have a similar operative notion of accountability (Suzuki & Nanwani: 2005).

Hence,
an important example of formal accountability mechanisms is the World Banks Inspection Panel
(1993). As the accountability has various degrees of consequence ranging from oversight, monitoring
and evaluation possesses to censorship or other forms of sanctions to the attribution of legal liability
for injuries resulting in binding remedial action.

In view of this, the World Bank has been looked as
70
Fact Finding Body only, devoid of any concrete accountable mechanisms. Such nature of mechanisms
is carefully limited. The reviews by the inspection penal are not to be equated with the conduct
of judicial proceedings. It is neither empowered to settle disputes between contractual parties nor
provide judicial type remedies such as injunctions or damages for non-compliance with its policies
and procedures (Woods: 2001).
Hence, there has been radical criticism not only the NGOs but equally from IFIs major stakeholders
demanding that such institutions become more transparent, more accountable and more participatory as
well. As today, these IFIs are being required to perform much wider tasks and works affecting a wide
range of people, hence the question of their accountability assumes correspondingly greater importance
than the responsibility. But the simple question is to whom should they be accountable and how?
The basic structure of accountability in the IFIs revolves around the representative of member states
who constitute the Board of Governors. The day to day operations and main work of the institutions are
overseen by representatives of member state who sit on the Executive Boards of such institutions. So,
the case of the problem of accountability lies in the fowed representative of the Executive Board in the
fund and in the Banks. As the Board does not adequately represent all members and representative on
the Board of the institutions are too distinct forum the most they represents and the stakeholder most
affected by the work of institution, hence falls under vertical accountability. Again, the role of the IMF
and the World Bank has expanded as such have falls under horizontal accountability. However, aware
of the criticism they face, and also frustrated by their limited effectiveness in implementing wider
policy reform, both the IMF and the World Bank have taken member of steps to make themselves more
accountable to such stakeholders including transparency, new mechanisms of horizontal accountability
and working more closely with NGOs(Nanwani:2008).

However, in recent years, there has been much developments on the accountability as initiatives taken
by the IFIs as which has been accessed by different NGOs as well. Several NGOs specially from United
Kingdom like British Overseas NGOs for Development (BOND) in 2005 and one World Trust (2006)
have tried to defne accountability and provided different component as such for the mechanisms, as
transparency, participation, evaluation and complaint, and response as well.

In view of this, World Bank
Inspection Penal (1993) is fne example as it opened the gateways for people, non-state actions and
NGOs to present their graveness in bank projects at the international level. But on the other hand, they
have also faced several impediments when accessing the institutions for accountability. Some of these
are highlighted by scholars are: misinformation or lack of information, about the recourse available
to them, restriction on overdoes matters, fear of represents and intimation, delay in investigation and
accountability and independence of accountability mechanisms as well.
CONCLUSION
The International Financial Institutions play dominant role in formalizing the policies, programmes
and projects in any member states through monetary and fnancial advice and assistance. In lieu of
these, IFIs impose unfair conditionalities, austerity policies and unnecessary operations in the member
nations especially in developing nations. The people and societies are directly affected by their policies,
programmes and operations, but not having contractual relationship with them, IFIs generally escapes
from the responsibility and accountability towards them. The people and civil society groups argue
that the IFIs generally undermines their rights as recognized under international law on fnancial,
developmental, environmental, and social operations in the member state. Further, the respect for their
rights is not simply a discretionary option for the IFIs avoiding the responsibility and accountability
on the pretext of immunity, but rather an obligation that is incumbent on all subjects of international
law. The only options have been to them to ask the government to raise the issue either at the Board
of Governors or Board of Directors of the IFIs. In recent times, certain government agencies, NGOs,
and civil society groups have raised these issues of expansion of their operation and extension of their
immunity on international arena. Hence, the pressure is building on the IFIs to reconsider their position
and operations and look after the issues attached with people and societies in the member states.
71
REFERENCES:
Surya P. Subedi: The Challenge Ahead for the World Bank and the IMF with regard to the Human Rights
Agenda in the Human Rights and Development: Law, Policy, and Governance edited by C. Rajkumar
and D.K. Srivastava, Ist ed. (2006) Lexis Nexis, Hongkong, pp. 177-188.
Daniel D. Baradlow: International law and the Operations of International Financial Organizations in
International Financial Institutions and International Law; edited by Dewell D.Bradlow and David B.
Hunter (2010), Kluwer Law International, Netherland, Pp. 1-30.
For details of relationship agreement see, Agreement, Between the United Nations and The World Bank, 16
UNTS 346 (1948) and Agreement Between and the International Monetary Fund (15 UNTS 328 91948).
E. Gaillard and I.P. Lurunza: International Organization and Immunity from Jurisdiction: to Restrict and to
Bypass International and Comparative law Quarterly, Vol. 51, January 2002, pp. 1-15.
UN Charter Article 185, see also General Convention on the privileges and immunities of United Naitons, 13
Feb. 1946.
B.S. Chimni: IFIs and International Law: A Third World Perspective in International Financial Institutions and
International law edited by Daniel D. Browdley and David B. Hunter (2010), Kluwer Law International,
B.V. Netherland, pp.3 1-62.
C.F. Amersinghe: Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations 2
nd
ed. (2005) Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge (UK).
Jan Klabbers: An Introduction to The International Institution Law Ist ed. (2004) Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge (UK).
Paul C. Sasz: The United Nations Legislates to limit its liability The American Journal of International Law,
Vol. 81 (1987) pg. 739-744.
Nicaragoa vs. US.A. (1986) ICJ 14 (Para 179)
John W. Head Evolution of the Governing law for loan agreements of the World Bank and other multilateral
development banks American Journal of International Law, Vol. 90 (1996), Pp 215-234.
Joseph Hamlon Illegitimate loans: Lenders, not borrowers are responsible Third World Quarterly, Vol. 27,
no. 2 pp. 211-226 (2006).
Eisuke Suzuki Responsibility of International Financial Institution under International Law in International
Financial Institutions and International law edited by Daniel D. Browdley and David B. Hunter (2010),
Kluwer Law International, B.V. Netherland, pp.3 1-62.
Gerhard Hafner: Accountability of International organizations American Society of International Law
Proceedings 97 (2003) pg. 236-39.
Suzuki & Nanwani Responsibility of International Organizations: The Accountability mechanisms of multilateral
development Bank Michigan Journal of International law 27 (2005) pg. 53.
Nagire Woods: Making of IMF and the World Bank more accountable International Affairs 77, (2001) pg.
83-100
Suresh Nanwani: Holding Multilateral Development Banks to Account: Gateways and Barriers International
Community Law Review, 10 (2008) 199-226.
72
GEO -VISUALIZATION OF CLIMATIC VARIABLES
IN INDIRA GANDHI CANAL REGION, RAJASTHAN
Tarun Prakash Meena*
ABSTRACT:
Recent advances in the technologies of geospatial data acquisition, modeling and dissemination,
analysis, and decision support. Geographic information science has made signifcant advances and
discoveries regarding the major issues surrounding geospatial technologies, notably in areas of
ontology (the nature of being) and data modeling, visualization, and uncertainty.
The Arid region of India covers south-western parts of Rajasthan. The state accounts 132150 sq mi
or 342239 km, representing 10.41 percent of the total geographical area of the country. The region
is characterized by typical hot summer and cool winter (arid). The mean annual precipitation is less
than 400 mm. The area is under rain fed mono-cropping (traditional) agriculture. The resistant and
short duration rainy season crops, such as pearl millet, chari (fodder), and pulses are grown in non-
saline areas. The yields are low under average management practices. In areas favoured by availability
of irrigation water, cotton, sugarcane, mustard, gram and wheat are grown. The natural vegetation
comprises sparse, sporadic tropical thorn forest. Recent statistics show that the forest area in the
region is drastically reduced from 15 to almost 1 per cent. The Constraints regarding are insuffcient
rainfall leading to high water defcit, Soil salinity leading to frequent physiological droughts and
acute drought at the time of grain formation and these constraints are continuously expanding towards
more and more severe trends. Therefore, to study the Climatic Indicators in a state like Rajasthan
following objectives are there:
o Analysis of Long-term trends in Temperature, Precipitation and Other Climatic Indicators.
o Geo- Spatial relation and variation in climatic indicators.
Among all Climatic Indicators Precipitation and temperature are most interactive in nature with
each-other and this interaction leads to change in the climatic conditions. So, both these are the prime
indicator of the climate to study. It become a very important to study the climatic indicators behaviour
in the region. In this paper, we analyze the fuctuating conditions of temperature and precipitation over
the period of 102 years (1901-2002) and model for future for Rajasthan, which is generally counted
in North-Western India. Relationship between these two indicators and the spatial variation over the
different climatic periods also studied.
INTRODUCTION:
Geo-Visualization the term means Visualization of Geographic Information and entities. Geo
Visualization is different form of view which has reference (Geo reference) to it, means the entity
we are looking is exist on the same place over the real space. While experiencing the climate as hot
or cold, rarely we realize that the climate is the result of a delicate balance between several elements,
which include Atmosphere, Water systems, Living organisms, Topography. Out off which Climatic
*Research Scholar, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
73
variables are more allied towards sub variables like Temperature, Precipitation, Pressure, Humidity,
wind speed, Run-off etc.
Temperature and Precipitation has a much interactive nature with each-other and this interaction
leads to change in the climatic conditions. So, both these are the prime indicator of the climate. The
Rajasthan, the on desert system (ecosystem) in India, has an active and interactive climate system.
The heat budget over this region is the major driving force for the South Asian monsoon system.
Because of its enormous 3-dimensional extents, it affects the sub-continents climate greatly. It alters
the indicators of weather-cum-climate with its greater heights and spatial spread. Climate varies greatly
over long distances due to plain topographic forcing. Large-scale variations in precipitation within an
area occur with changing elevations, aspect, and rain-shadowing effects
1
.
Precipitation and temperature has a much interactive nature with each-other and this interaction
leads to change in the climatic conditions. So, both these are the prime indicator of the climate.
In Desert context, various studies had shown changes in these two indicators over the time.
Signifcant decreasing trend in the monsoon precipitation recorded in last century with winter
warming. Also, negative relationships between mean winter air temperature and rainfall
amounts recorded (Bhutiyani et. al., 2009). Long-term data analysis reveals cyclic cooling
and warming in the region with inter-relationship between temperature and precipitation.
So, it become a very important to study the climatic indicators behaviour in the region. In this paper,
we analyze the fuctuating conditions of temperature and precipitation over the period of 102 years
(1901-2002) for Rajasthan, which is generally counted in Western Indian. Relationship between these
two indicators and the spatial variation over the different climatic periods also studied.
STUDY-AREA:
There is great variation in the climatic conditions of Rajasthan due to extreme variation in elevation.
The climate varies from hot and dry desert in the western tracts to cold, alpine and humid in the
southern and South-eastern mountain ranges with more elevation. The state has areas like Mount Abu
(Sirohi) that receive very heavy rainfall, as well as those like Jaisalmer and Bikaner (North-Western
Districts) that are cold and almost rainless.
Western Rajasthan is relatively dry and infertile; and includes some of the Thar Desert, also known
as the Great Indian Desert. The climate varies throughout Rajasthan as youll see when you travel to
Rajasthan, India. On average winter temperatures range from 8 to 28 C (46 to 82 F) and summer
temperatures range from 25 to 46 C (77 to 115 F). It covers Area: 342,239 sq km. In which 56.5
million people are living here mainly people used to speek Hindi, Marwari, and Rajasthani. Rajasthan
Tropic of Cancer passes through its southern tip of the state.
Indira Gandhi Canal area is most arid part of the Rajasthan where the annual rainfall varies from 100
to 400 mm quite after erratic so much so that the entire rainfall of the year may fall on a single day
and rest of the year may be dry. This is an area of not so developed system where there are no fowing
streams owing to poor rainfall, surface water resources do not exist. While good water resources are
after deep natural vegetation is therefor only seasonal.
But now this area is rich in agricultural production on account of a well developed system of canal
irrigation. Today a large network of gang canal and Bikaner canal which along with the Indira Gandhi
Canal has made this area green and production.
OBJECTIVES:
The paper is a preliminary exercise to look into the Geospatial pattern of Climatic variables at district
level in Rajasthan as well the spatial distribution pattern of these indicators in case study of Indira
Gandhi Canal region. The major objectives are as follows:
Spatio-Temporal variation in climatic indicators. To analysis of Long-term trends in
temperature and precipitation. Relationship between temperature and precipitation and their
understanding.
To fnd out temperature variation scenario in Indira Gandhi Canal Region and to see whether
74
there is some relationship between Indira Gandhi Canal and temperature variability.
Evaluate level of Human-induced Climate Variation in Study area.
Hypothesis:
Western Rajasthan Mainly Indira Gandhi Canal leads to tremendous temperature variation,
But during last two decades variation changed a lot.
Database:
The study is mainly based on secondary data information available from different sources for
years 1901 to 2002 (2006). The major sources are as follows:
(www.indiawaterportal.org) Data from 1901 to 2002 for two Climatic Variables Temperature
and Precipitation from the web page of Indiawaterportal
Indian Metrological Department:
o Indian Daily Weather Report 1975-2006
o Rainfall Annual : Irrigation department, Government of Rajasthan
Chief Engineer Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana, Bikaner Head offce.
For this study we have taken data from the above web-page. This site provides data from Climate
Research Unit (CRU) TS2 Dataset, out of the Tyndale Center for Climate Change Research, School
of Environmental Science, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Institute collected
data from IMD India, and flled-up gaps for those weather stations, which have less than 25% of data
gape, by +_ 10 years simple average method. Those stations, which have more than 25% of data
gape, institute doesnt give data for them. For example, both districts of Goa have more than 25%
data gape. So, site doesnt show any data for these districts.
Methodology:
To analyze the long-term data and to make them easy to interpret some basic methodologies has been
used including statistical and graphical methods. But, frst period of 1901-2002 is divided in three
climatic periods, each having 34 years of data. These are 1901-1934 (Climatic Year I), 1935-1968
(Climatic Year II), 1969-2002 (Climatic Year III)
To analyse the objectives of the stations are marked around Indira Gandhi Canal. Then collected
monthly Mean Min-Max of May and June of this region for years starting from 1975 at 5 year interval.
After it Normal temperature of these stations is taken and calculated Departure.
Departure = Actual Normal
Percent Departure = (Departure / Normal)*100
Methodology in any case is like a key which apparently reveals and discloses the complexities of
any kind of problems. In order to shift the complexities and draw inferences, various cartographic
statistical and GIS techniques have been applied. In general there are two methodology techniques
adopted for study:
Statistical Methods: Normal or average, of different climatic periods, calculation for trend analysis. This
is one of the best method to analyze the changing nature of variables, especially the climatic variables.
Correlation and Simple Linear Regression analysis for determining the relationship between
temperature and precipitation (Bhutiyani et. al., 2009)
Graphical Methods: Simple Linear Trend-line (Gadgil et. al., 2005)
Representation of temperature and precipitation through Isotherms and Isohyets respectively with the
help of ArcGIS software tools. This is used to represent the North-South movement of temperature.
Geo -Visualization of Climatic Variables
Trend analysis for temperature and precipitation data:
By average method, the trends of these indicators are shown in the Table; 1. A general overview
of the table suggests that;
Temperature increases in all forms, means maximum, minimum and mean temperature in the
2
nd
climatic year but after construction of Indira Gandhi Canal in 3
rd
climatic year temperature
again declined.
2
nd
climatic year period (1934-1968) recorded increased in temperature in P-II, but declines
75
in the next period (3
rd
).
Decadal scenario also have recorded the same trend, i.e. increases in second period but
decreases in the third (1969-2002) climatic period.
Precipitation doesnt show any regular trend. While precipitation increased where it is 556mm
in 1901 reached to the level of 610mm in 2002.
These trends also represented by trend line, depicted by simple linear regression method.
Graph ahead illustrates the results through this method. Some observations are;
o Temperature experienced increase in all seasons except the monsoon.
o Precipitation increases in all seasons, without showing any decrease in any season.
Concern point: Although temperature shows same results through both methods but
precipitation doesnt. It gives some contradictory results for precipitation. So, we have to be careful,
while interpreting the results. We used the graphical representation of the data. It make possible to
interpret the results accurately and rationally, without any faw.

76
Variations in Temperature and Precipitation Trends in Temperature and Precipitation
Minimum temperature is increasing with a low pace as compare to Maximum and in decadal as well
as climatic (normal) level it is increasing in maximum terms. Both are clear through line graph and
trend line.
Differences are recorded in the Maximum temperature record. Figure presents that maximum
temperature increases through the trend-line is positive. But, minimum temperature Figure clarifes
that, though maximum temperature increases in P-II & III, but it records signifcant decreases in the
P-III. So, in the last climatic period that is 1969-2002, temperature decreases in all forms in the state.
Same thing happened with precipitation also. Precipitation recorded increase, while rainfall reduces
in amount in the whole period. This can see through both graph and trend-line. Although, average
graphs are differing a little bit to the trend line but through Table it is clear.
District wise analysis:
Analysing the states climatic conditions, as a one single unit, sometimes omits some signifcant
properties of the data. It can ignore the extremes and can do generalization. So, by going to minute
level, we can achieve results with higher accuracy and without any lose of data property. So, we
opted to do district level analysis also, along with the state level. Mostly all the districts are showing
77
the same pattern increasing temperature in June and annual and decrease in January temperature but
some districts have sharper pattern and some are showing slow changes.
Annual Temperature:
Annual temperature is more like with the June temperature scenario. The Banswara, Dungerpur
Jalor etc southern districts are showing highest variation as well as highest average annual temprature.
Then the north western districts of Jaisalmer, Jhunjunun and Churu.
Min-Max Temperature: The Mean January temperature is showing just opposite pattern of June
month. Areas having higher variability in June months have low variability in January temperature.
The whole Indira Gandhi canal area has lowest temperature variability in January month. Where at
the time of june month it is showing a perfect opposite pattern. Here in this map of hundred years of
June temperature we can see that eastern Rajasthan is showing highest variability in terms of June
temperature. Southern part have least variability which oppse in winter in northern parts.
Annual Precipitation:
Precipitation variability, its well known that precipitation is lowest in western Rajasthan and it increases
as we move towards eastern Rajasthan or the areas of higher rainfall. Jaisalmer, Barmer and Bikaner
are the districts which have shown highest climatic variability.

78
Selection of districts for the study;
Though, we have data for all the district of Rajasthan and through that data only we could able to
calculate average data for the whole state. For, district wise study, it will be diffcult to deal with all
the districts and depict their data on line graph or trend line. So, we selected three districts for the
study, are;
1. Barmer 2- Jaisalmer 3- Jodhpur 4- Bikaner 5- Ganganager 6- Hanumangarh
Can also delimit these districts threw Indira Gandhi Canal Region considering spatial pattern into
account from South to North on ground.
In arid western plains of Rajasthan climate conditions vary throughout the year in summers
there is much variation in the diurnal range of the temperature in Rajasthan. Though day temperature
can melt your bones and they tend to fall considerably at night.
This temperature variation is mostly because of sandy soil. Sandy soil gets heated more
frequently in day and temperature increases 0n the other hand during night it release heat at much
faster rate so temperature decrease. Today some human factor also affects this temperature variation,
For example in this arid region. Gang canal Rajasthan canal, explosion in Pokaran by men and some
other factors also have affected temperature variation a lot.
Thats why today temperature variation in this arid western zone or Indira Gandhi Canal area
has changed. Indira Gandhi Canal is the lifeline of this region and this canal affects all aspects of this
region to great extent.
Annual Precipitation in Indira Gandhi Canal:
Based on map ahead here we can say that where precipitation is very less in this region has increased
due to Indira Gandhi Canal, here we can say that Bikaner is the only district in the region shown a
constantly low value of rain in whole last century.
Spatial Precipitation Variation in Canal Region: threw data the pattern emerged is that the variation
in precipitation is least in southern part of region then of the northern districts.

79
Temporal Precipitation Variation in Canal Region: shows the same where districts showing a constant
line upto1660s but after creation of canal in the region district shows a sudden change.
Annual Temperature in Indira Gandhi Canal:
In Rajasthan to meet the demand of increasing population Indira Gandhi Canal has into existence
and it has affected a natural and cultural aspects. In month of June in Ganganagar normal maximum
temperature remain 41.9C and normal minimum remains 28.2C. In Bikaner normal temperature
of June 41.7C maximum and minimum remains 29C. Same is with stations like Phalodi, Jaisalmer
and Barmer with normal Maximum temperature 40.9C, 40.8C, 40.3C and minimum temperature
27.6C,26.8C, 27.3C respectively.

80
After construction of Indira Gandhi Canal in the same month temperature started to variating
tremendously. Mostly it vary according rainfall in rainfall years temperature decreased and in low
rainfall years temperature increased as in 1980, 1995, 2003 and 2005. Both temperature increased. In
2001 there was high rainfall 305mm so temperature decreased so much. So I can say that in June also
temperature varite much but according rainfall. In whole region there is more effect of Indira Gandhi
Canal a little mostly maximum temperature.
Correlation between Temperature and Precipitation 1901- 2002:
Correlation does not show any kind of clear pattern only a single pattern emerged is that the northern
most districts in canal region are negatively correlated to each other and allover pattern in the region
pattern emerged is that when the temperature increases precipitation also increases.
District Correlation B/w Temprature and Precipitation
Barmer -0.27324
Jaisalmer 0.444726
Jodhpur 0.740865
Bikaner -0.51958
Ganganager 0.417498
Hanumangarh -0.20635
Study Area 0.403634
Results:
After interpreting all diagrams and data it can be said that, all most all stations have decreased their
monthly temperature slightly in the month June, after 2003, minimum temperature of tested stations
have decreased their temperature specially. In earlier years because of variation in temperature also
vary. All station has more or less same trend line.
In June maximum temperature also all station decreased their percentage departure. Notable is that
performance of Phalodi it has decreased a lot its temperature.
Conclusion:
In conclusion it can be said that whole region have a tremendous temperature variation and the
temperature of this area has been affected by Canal. Minor variation in temperature are caused
by drought rainfall of other climatic characteristics but mostly long term analysis shows that after
introducing Indira Gandhi Canal area in western arid region temperature has been decreased.
The interpretation of data proved that June maximum and minimum temperature of all stations has
decreased after 1987 (year of Indira Gandhi Canal introducing). In Phalodi have decreased it is highest
81
temperature a lot in comparison to other stations.
So it can be said that Indira Gandhi Canal is lifeline of western Rajasthan have brought physiographic
change by extensive canalization, hydrological, environmental, animaual, agricultural, settlement
pattern, vegetation ecological, atmospheric changes and change in biodiversity and it last can be also
said that Indira Gandhi Canal in western Rajasthan have affected climatic variables.
REFERENCES:
Bhutiyani ,M.R .and Kale,V.S.and Pawar, N.J, (2009). Climate Change and the Precipitation Variation in the
Northwestern Himalaya, , International Journal of Climatology, Vol. 29, Issue- 4, 30th march, 2009,
Bookhagen, Bodo and Thiede, Rasmus C., and Strecker, Manfred R.,(2005). Abnormal monsoon years and
their control on erosion and sediment f lux in the high, arid northwest Himalaya. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 231 (2005) 131 146
Mall.R.K, Akhilesh Gupta.2006.Current Sciences, Vol 90, 10-12,June
Reiter Paul (2001), Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 109,
Supplement 1: Reviews in Environmental Health, 2001 (Mar., 2001), pp. 141-161.
Tyagi B.K. (1997), Emerging and Re-emerging Vector-borne Diseases in the Thar Desert, North-wester Rajasthan,
India, Regional Health Forum- Volume 2, Number 1, 1997.
Dhiman Ramesh C., Pahwa Sharmila and Dash Aditya P.(2008), Climate change and malaria in India: Interplay
between temperatures and mosquitoes, Regional Health Forum Volume 12, Number 1, 2008.
Report of a Brainstorming Session (2006), Vector-Borne Diseases in India, World Health Organization, Regional
Offce of South-east Asia, 9 November 2006.
Longstreth Janice (1991), Anticipated Public Health Consequences of Global Climate Change, Environmental
Health Perspectives, Vol. 96 (Dec., 1991), pp. 139-144.
Gadgil, Alka and Dhorde, Amit,.(2005). Temperature trends in twentieth century at Pune, India, Atmospheric
Enviornment, 39 (2005) 6550-6556.
Lowe, J.J. and Walker, M.J.C., (1984.). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments. In: , Longmans, London
(1984), p. 389.
Mayewaski, A. Paul and Pregent, Gerad P. and Jeschek, Peter A. and Ahmad, Nasiruddin, (1980). Himalayan
and Trans-Himalayan Glacier Fluctuations and the South Asian Monsoon Record, Arctic and Alpine
Research, Vol. 12, No. 2 (May, 1980), pp. 171-182 .
(Endnotes)
1 Yadav et.al., 1997, 1999, 2002
82
RECENT MARITIME PIRACY IN THE ARABIAN
SEA: A CRITICAL
GEOPOLITICAL ANALYSIS
Md. Obaidur Rahaman* Md. Anisujjaman**
ABSTRACT:
The Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea is one of the busiest trading routes in the world. This space
is not only geo-economically important but also geo-politically and geo-strategically so signifcant.
Recently maritime pirates are a direct product of the geopolitical, social and political chaos that
has prevailed in the last two decades. The root causes of piracy in the Arabian Sea on the coast of
Somalia could be attributed to lack of a central government, unemployment, poverty and unequal
distribution of resources, organized crime, terrorism and exploitation by the powerful developed
countries. Piracy has become an increasing problem that has affected both commercial and private
shipping. To compound the problem, there are few alternatives to the Gulf of Aden. The longer
route to Europe and North America around the Cape of Good Hope signifcantly increases the cost of
shipping. Assisting Somalia to rebuild its central government, re-establish the rule of law, providing
basic amenities and facilities, optimistic approach and fnancial support from the international
community could reduce, prevent and combat piracy.
(Key words: maritime piracy, geo-economics, geo-politics, geo-strategy, unemployment,
terrorism, optimistic approach)
INTRODUCTION:
Recent maritime piracy in the Arabian Sea, especially on the coast of Somalia, the Gulf of Aden
and the Horn of Africa (HoA) have not only received attention from the media and the international
community, but also garnered the attention of the policy strategists and academic researchers as well.
This area has seen the largest share of global piracy attacks in recent years, and the problem appears
to be growing day by day. Arabian Sea is not the only area of the world affected by maritime piracy,
however. The Gulf of Guinea in West Africa has long been a high risk area, as are the waters along
Bangladesh and the South China Sea. But in 2010, more than half the global piracy attacks were
ascribed to Somali pirates. Piracy has become an increasing problem that has affected both commercial
and private shipping, especially off the coast of Somalia. Somalia, a third world country on the
horn of Africa, has a population of fshermen that convert to pirates in efforts to remove themselves
from poverty. These pirates join together under a leader and make organized and planned attacks,
seizing ships with valuable cargo (including oil and military tanks) and holding its crew hostage
until their demand for ransom is met. There are two types of maritime piracy: the frst is robbery
or hijacking, where the target of the attack is to steal a maritime vessel or its cargo; the second is
kidnapping, where the vessel and crew are threatened until a ransom is paid (Hand, M. 2007). The
Somali situation is unique in that almost all of the piracy involves kidnapping for ransom.
Shipping by sea remains a vital method of transporting goods between nations and the Arabian Sea
plays a very signifcant role in such kind of activities. Approximately 80% of worlds trade
* Research Scholars, Centre for International Politics, Organization and Disarmament (CIPOD), School of
International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110067.
83
currently travels by sea, representing around 93,000 merchant vessels, 1.25 million seafarers, and
almost six billion tons of cargo. Since the end of the Second World War, seaborne trade has doubled
every decade (Frank, J. 2008b). Geopolitically, the Gulf of Aden is one of the most signifcant trading
routes in the world. Thousands of ships pass through the Gulf route to or from the Suez Canal every
year. The US Department of Energy estimated that, as of 2006, as many as 3.3 million barrels of
oil per day were transiting the Bab el Mandab strait between the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea.
To compound the problem, there are few alternatives to the Gulf of Aden. The longer route to
Europe and North America around the Cape of Good Hope signifcantly increases the cost of
shipping. According to the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), in 2009 Somali pirates
hijacked 47 vessels, took 867 crewmembers hostage
and carried out no less than 217 violent attacks on ships. All this took place after the United Nation
Security Council (UNSC) passed a resolution authorizing the deployment of a sizeable naval force
in the region to protect ships and their crews. From the economic point of view, piracy affects
international trade through an increase in insecurity related to the prompt delivery of the goods
transported. Canal authorities have reported declines in shipping traffc and resulting revenue
loss recently, due both to decreased economic activity and the piracy threat in the Gulf of Aden
(Hand, M. 2007). If international shipping continues to avoid the Gulf areas oil and gas exporting
facilities, the world may see an increase in commodity and energy prices from Asia and the Middle
East. Furthermore, it is feared that if the price of shipping, including insurance premiums, continues
to rise, regional trade for countries like Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Dijbouti
and Yemen will decline as well. Therefore, it is very important to understand the root causes
of maritime piracy in the Arabian Sea and their impact on the trade transport industry in the world.
OBJECTIVE:
1.) To understand the meaning and concept of maritime piracy.
2.) To analyze the dimensions of maritime piracy in the Arabian Sea.
3.) To critically examine the geopolitical causes and consequences of maritime piracy in th Arabian
Sea.
Database and methods:
The study has an exploratory-cum-descriptive design and is based on a host of primary as well as
secondary information. The primary sources are documents, reports, country offcial news, summit
reports, seminars, newsletters, interviews, etc. as well as secondary sources books, articles, etc. Most
of the data are taken from the reports of International Maritime Bureau (IMB) and the International
Maritime Organization (IMO). They are the supreme body who provide the accurate data about the
maritime piracy in the world. Their reports have been seen carefully and geospatial and
temporally analyzed in this paper. The post Iraq War (2003) period has been taken for better
understanding the geopolitical scenario of the world. Iraq has recently emerged as a new hotspot; 10
attacks were reported in 2005. According to the IMB, pirates in Iraq are heavily armed and their main
motive is robbery and fnancial gain. They attack from small boats, mostly attacking vessels
at anchor in the vicinity of Basrah oil terminal and Umm Qasr. This study is based on the deductive
reasoning method. The approach of study is geoplitical and critical geopolitical point of view.
Meaning and Concept of Maritime Piracy:
Maritime Piracy is an international crime. The term piracy comes from the sailor language,
meaning plundering and robbing at sea and those who practice such activities are called pirates.
Historically, the term comes from the Greek peirats, meaning aggressor. The Explanatory
Dictionary of Romanian Language defnes piracy as the action carried out by the crew of a vessel,
using threats and violence, resulting in kidnapping another vessel or the goods or persons onboard;
an offence committed by the authors of this action. Piracy is a phenomenon that has affected
shipping since antiquity and has become in modern times a very dangerous phenomenon, almost out
of control. Swords, giving piracy a facade of romance, have been replaced with automatic weapons
84
and instead of the peaceful and lovely parrot, the pirates now bear a rocket propelled grenades on
their shoulder. Different defnitions of piracy exist as an effort of several institutions (Dillon, 2005).
The defnitions of the United Nations, International Maritime Bureau (IMB) and the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) are mentioned below:
In the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), maritime piracy consists
of:(a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private
ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: (i) on the
high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or
aircraft; (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State;
(b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of
facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act
described in subparagraph (a) or (b) (UNCLOS, 1982). This defnition is unclear on the meaning
of the word illegal. It is left to the courts of the countries to decide whether the act is designed as
illegal according to the international law or according to the national law of the countries.
The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) defnes piracy as: An act of boarding or attempting to
board any vessel with the apparent intent to commit theft or any other crime, and with an intent or
capacity to use force in furtherance of that act. The IMBs defnition is not concerned with a
formal legal defnition but can be mentioned as a quite practical one in a way to effectively register
pirate attacks. This defnition is broader than the international legal defnition. However, the
IMB is an organization that does not seek to sensationalize stories for proft. According to international
law, any illegal acts of violence and detention which are committed within States territorial waters
are not defned as piracy. But, according to the IMB, nearby all illegal acts in Southeast Asia occur
within territorial waters and thus would not fall under the defnition of piracy. The International
Maritime Organization (IMO) defnes piracy as: Any unlawful act of violence or detention or any
act of depredation, threat therefore, other than an act of piracy directed against a ship or against
persons or property on board such ships, within a states jurisdiction over such offences. According
to Chew, the lack of a standard and comprehensive defnition of piracy results in some subjectivity
in the available statistics. In reality, a signifcant number of IMBs reported incidents involve thefts
from ships sailing close to land, at dockside or at anchor (Chew, 2005).
Dimensions of Maritime Piracy:
Cases of maritime piracy have increased both in their frequency and geographical location in
recent years. Piracy affects all corners of the globefrom the Caribbean, to the Mediterranean,
to the South China Sea. In 2008, East Africa accounted for the greatest number of incidents with
134, followed by the South China Sea (72 incidents) and West Africa (50 incidents). The overall
number of attacks has been on the decline in many parts of the world with acts of piracy occurring
at a rate of about 25 per month in 2008, down from a peak of nearly 40 incidents per month in 2000.
This decline was global in nature with one notable exceptionthe waters surrounding East Africa
(e.g., Gulf of Aden, Red Sea) saw a 123 percent (74-incident) increase from the prior year. In
2008-2009, piracy again skyrocketed, due almost entirely to the dramatic increase of piracy off
the Coast of Somalia. Majority of pirate attacks occur in the Gulf of Aden, Somali basin, Horn of
Africa and southern entrance to the Red Sea.
There are three, worlds most strategic shipping chokepoints i.e. Bab el Mandab, Straits of Hormuz,
and Suez Canal. Here Iraq has recently emerged as a new hotspot; 10 attacks were reported in 2005
compared to none in 2004. According to the IMB, pirates in Iraq are heavily armed and their main
motive is robbery and fnancial gain. They attack from small boats, mostly attacking vessels at
anchor in the vicinity of Basrah oil terminal and Umm Qasr. Piracy is once again on the forefront
of the international communitys attention, as maritime trade is threatened and ransom payments
to Somali pirates have risen to the millions of dollars. Incidents of piracy and armed robbery have
been rising in East African waters (e.g., Gulf of Aden and Red Sea) in recent years as the numbers
of incidents in other parts of the globe have generally stabilized. In
2008, acts of piracy that occurred in East African waters were more than double the number from
85
the prior year and comprised 44 percent of incidents worldwide. In the 11-year period from 1998
to 2008, yearly totals in these waters rose from 19 to 134an increase of 605 percent. In
contrast, in 2000, when global incidents of piracy and armed robbery at sea peaked at 471, only 6
percent occurred in East African waters while acts of piracy in the South China Sea, Malacca Strait,
and Indian Ocean accounted for 77 percent of incidents across the globe.
In 2008, there was an average, one reported pirate attack roughly every 31 hours, in 2009 this increased
to roughly one attack every 29 hours but it increased to one attack every 27 hours. In 2008, there
were reported more than 120 attacks, a total of 35 ships were seized by pirates and about 600 sailors
were kidnapped. In January 2009, 14 ships and 280 sailors from 25 countries were held hostage in
Somalia, and two sailors were killed during the attacks carried out by pirates. In 2010, there were
445 pirate attacks worldwide, a 10% rise from 2009. Pirates seized
53 vessels and captured a record 1181 hostages in 2010, almost all of them off the Somali coast. Sea
piracy hit a record high of 142 attacks in the frst quarter of 2011 Somali pirates become more
violent and aggressive (Pinto, A. 2005).
It is also noted that Somalias pirates have had to drift further and further from the coast in search of
prey. In 2004, the International Maritime Board warned all vessels to avoid sailing within 50 nautical
miles of the Somali coast. In 2005, it increased this distance to 100 nautical miles. By 2006, some
pirate attacks extended as far as 350 nautical miles off the coast of Somalia, with pirate attacks
occurring in the Indian Ocean, in the Gulf of Aden and at the mouth of the Red Sea. Between 2007
and 2008, the main area of pirate activity shifted from southern Somalia and Mogadishu port to
the Gulf of Aden. Since the beginning of 2009, there has been an increase in the number of attacks
reported off the east coast of Somalia in the western Indian victim of this piracy is undoubtedly the
Somalis themselves. Ocean, with some attacks taking place over 1,000 nautical miles off that coast.
Table1.1: Maritime Piracy in the Gulf of Aden and Indonesia in 2009
Source: IMB, Dec, 2009
Geopolitical Causes of Piracy in the Arabian Sea:
Geopolitically, The Gulf of Aden is one of the most signifcant routes which connect between
European countries and Asian counties. Recent pirates are a direct product of the geopolitical, social
and political chaos that has prevailed in the last two decades. After the 22- year dictatorship of Siad
Barre and 18 years of civil war, the central government collapsed in
1991(Donna, N. 2008), and the country effectively split into three: the independent north-eastern
state of Somaliland; the central semi-autonomous region of Punt land; and the south-western
state of Somalia. Today, the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia still does not retain full
control of the capital, let alone the rest of its sovereign territory. Over three million Somalis depend
on food aid, more than a two-third increase from 2007. The country has one of the highest
maternal mortality rates in the world. Less than a quarter of Somalias children go to school, and the
country is about to become Africas least literate. There has been a continuous outfow of refugees
and migrants to neighboring countries, with the UN High Commissioner for Refugees estimating
that as many as 50,000 people, predominantly Somalis, crossed the Gulf of Aden to Yemen in 2008.
Modern piracy off the coast of Somalia is said to have arisen from efforts of local fshermen, who
formed vigilante groups to protect their territorial waters. After the fall of the Barre regime, foreign
vessels from Europe, Asia and Africa moved into tuna-rich Somali waters. Un-authorized fshing may
have resulted in the loss of nearly 30% of the annual catch. The United Kingdom Department for
Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Gulf of Aden 21 10 48 22 51 111 217
Indonesia 120 98 79 50 48 25 12
World Aggregate 452 330 266 240 282 306 406
86
International Development (DFID) has estimated that Somalis lost US$100 million to illegal tuna
and shrimp fshing in 2003-2004, at a time when the countrys GDP was perhaps US$5 billion.
There have also been reports of toxic waste dumping in Somali waters. The 2005 United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP) Report acknowledged that indeed industrialized nations are reported
to be dumping their hazardous waste in Somali territorial waters and the main reason for this practice
is cost. In 2009, it cost a European country $2.50 per tonne to dump its toxic waste in Somalia and
$250 per tonne to dump it safely in Europe. Thus, taking advantage of the lack of political security
and non enforcement of environmental security laws, the companies are dumping waste in Somali
waters (Joana Ama, 2011). Initially, vessels involved in illicit fshing or dumping were attacked
by these vigilante groups, with the end of either extracting taxes or deterring future incursions. One
way of securing reparations was to hold the vessel and its illicit cargo until compensation was
paid, and over time seizing vessels became an end in itself. Drifting further and further from
the Somali coasts, the pirates are attacking commercial freighters, pleasure craft and other vessels
that have nothing to do with Somalia (Zou, K., 2005). Rather than championing the cause of the
Somali people, pirates today attack vessels bearing the food aid on which so many Somalis depend.
On top of the ongoing confict, Somalia is also suffering from four years of catastrophic drought,
and an estimated 3.2 million Somalis, approximately 43% of the population, were dependent on
food aid in the latter part of 2008. Some 95% of international aid supplies to Somalia are shipped
by sea. The World Food Program (WFP) ships approximately 30,000 to
40,000 metric tons of food aid per month to the Horn of Africa region. As a result of the attacks on
aid-bearing ships, WFP has reported that it has become more expensive and dangerous to ship food
assistance to Mogadishu. There are some others important causes of such kind of notorious crime e.g.
no functioning maritime police, more invest in expensive land based homeland security initiative,
corruption and judicial structures, ready willingness of ship- owners to pay increasingly large sums
of money for the return of their vessels and cargoes, and the global proliferation of small arms have
provided pirates with an enhanced means to operate on a more destructive and sophisticated level.
Consequences of Piracy in the Arabian Sea:
The dangers associated with contemporary piracy are complex and multifaceted. At the most basic
level, attacks constitute a direct threat to the lives and welfare of the citizens of a variety of fag
states. Piracy also has a direct economic impact in terms of fraud, stolen cargoes, and delayed trips,
and could potentially undermine a maritime states trading ability. At the end of 2010, around 500
seafarers from more than eighteen countries were being held hostage by pirates. In the same year,
around $238 million was paid in ransoms to Somali pirates. Piracy doesnt only affect the worlds
largest trade transport industry; it actually costs the global community a lot more than just ransoms
and stolen cargo.
Maritime piracy can pose substantial risks to seaborne trades, with considerable commodities,
ranging between raw materials and energy to high value manufactured products, being shipped
between global economic power houses, like Western Europe and the Far East, through several of
the worlds most pirates-infested waters, nobody the Strait of Malacca and Gulf of Aden. These
stated waterways are often geographically constrained- narrow but strategically vital- the so called
chokepoints. Their physical landscape, the existence of various, often politically and economically
unstable developing/ underdeveloped regions in between, together with the growth of global trades,
thus high volume of maritime traffc, have made these chokepoints highly vulnerable to piracy attacks.
Under such favorable conditions, pirate hijack ships and seize cargoes onboard or prevent their
timely deliveries. For example, in April 2009, six pirates boarded and hijacked a ship underway by
using a speed boat armed with AK-47 rifes and pistols, taking control and sailing it to the coastal
town of Eyl in Somalia, with a ransom fnally paid so as to ensure the safe release of crew members
(ICC-IMB, 2009b). According to IMOs reports, in between 2004-2009, only 15% of global piracy
attacks occurred off the coast of Somalia (Abhyankar, J. 2002). But in 2009, Somali pirates were
responsible for 53% of reported attacks around the world, including 47 hijacked vessels and 867
87
seafarers held hostage.
Clearly, being a signifcant threat to world development- as peaceful maritime commerce can be
paralyzed by insecure sea lanes- maritime piracy has yet been effectively addressed. Since
2008, several major container liners had adjusted their Far East Europe routes. For example, the Grand
Alliance, a strategic shipping alliance consisting of four major container liners (Hapag- Lloyd, MISC
Berhad, NYK and OOCL) with substantial shares within the market, was among the frst to avoid
the piracy- ridden area and re-routed one of its services ( EU3 Eastbound) via the Cape of Good
Hope. In the Eastbound loop, a containership required 24 days to go from the last port- of call in
Europe to reach the frst port-of call in Asia, compared to only 16 days the other way round. Piracy
is costing the international economy from $7 to $12 billion per year (Bone, J. 2008). Therefore, it
is noted that maritime piracy in the Arabian Sea has a great impact on the international business
companies and shipping industry. Piracy in the Arabian Sea has been dangerously increasing day
by day which is created havoc in the mind of the international community.
CONCLUSION:
Piracy is a phenomenon that has affected shipping since antiquity and has become in modern times
very dangerous phenomenon, almost out of control. Recently, the rash of pirate attacks off the Horn
of Africa and the Gulf of Aden has cast into sharp light an enduring problem that affects not
only this part of the Arabian Sea but many other areas of the world. Due to the increasing of the
piracy all over the world, the danger in maritime transport has increased. Piracy in the Arabian Sea
imposes direct costs of the immediate victims of attacks- the crews, the ships and their cargoes,
and the shipping companies. Merchant seamen may be injured or killed; ships and cargoes stolen,
and higher insurance rates and operating costs borne by companies. The root causes of piracy in
the Arabian Sea on the coast of Somalia could be attributed to lack of a central government,
unemployed, organized crime and terrorism. Assisting Somalia to rebuild its central government
and re-establish the rule of law could help prevent and combat piracy.
REFERENCES:
Abhyankar, J. (2002), Piracy and maritime violence: A continuing threat to maritime industry, International Chamber
of commerce (ICC), International Maritime Bureau.
BIMCO, (2008a), Piracy guide: tips on avoiding piracy, robbery and theft, BIMCO Bulletin, Vol. 103, No. 1, 44-70.
Bone, J. (2008), Piracy costs maritime industry US $16bn+, Marine business news J. (2005), Lack of sea recruits will
cause future problems, Lloyd List
Chew, F. (2005), Piracy, maritime terrorism and regional interests, Geddes papers as a collection of essays by members
of the Australian Command and Staff College.
Dillon, D. (2005), Maritime piracy: Defning the problem, SAIS Review, Vol. 25, No 1,155-164
Donna, N. (2008), State failure and the re-emergence of maritime piracy in Africa, Hilton San Francisco, USA
Frank, J. (2008b), Somali pirates strike deeper on the high seas, Lloyd List
Grissim, J. (1997), Pirates, a growing threat with attacks worldwide showing a sharp Increase, Marine Watch, Vol.
2, No. 1, 76-80
Hand, M. (2007c), Piracy alert wrangle fuels loss of life fears, Lloyd List
Meade, R. (2008), Pirates now well funded and better equipped, Lloyd List
Mednikarov, B. (2006), Terrorism on the sea, piracy and maritime security, An International Journal, Vol. 19,
102-114
Petretto, K. (2008), Weak states off-shore- piracy in modern times, German Institute for International and Security affairs.
Pinto, A. (2005), Counting the costs of seaborne security, Lloyd List
Rodrigue, J.P. (2003), Maritime Routes and Strategic Straits, Passages and Chokepoints, Department of
Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, (N.Y.)
Sharidan, M.A. (2008), Piracy attack will result in extra costs for shippers, The Star
Talley, W. K. (2005), Piracy in shipping, Old Dominion University Norfolk , Virginia
Wallis, K. (2008), Pirates attacking vessels further off Somali coast. Lloyd List
Zou, K. (2005), Seeking effectiveness for the crackdown of piracy at sea, Journal of International Affairs Vol. 59,
Issue 1, pp. 117-126.
88
RESERVATION AND THE POLITICAL
UPLIFTMENT OF MUSLIMS IN POST-
INDEPENDENCE BIHAR
Md. Haider Ali*
ABSTRACT:
As early as the 19th century, Monstuart Elphinstone, a British administrator, put it on record that
special measures were required to uplift the backward sections of the Muslim community. Studies
conducted by the British administration led to the passage of a Government of India Act in 1935
offering Dalit Muslims reservation with Dalit Hindus.
1
The neglect of socio-economic dimensions of Muslim community was indeed a major failure
of Muslim leadership in the country. In 1955, Kaka Kalelkar Commissions Report of Backward
Classes had for the frst time recognised the Muslim OBCs at par with the Hindu counterparts. The
Report presented a list of 2399 castes and communities considered backward, 837 of these were
considered most backward requiring special attention. Thus the category, backward classes was further
bifurcated into two categories- the backwards and the most backwards. The list included not only
backward groups from amongst the Hindus, but also non-Hindus, including Muslims as well. The
Commissions Report was the frst instance wherein the presence of backward communities among
Muslims (and other religious minorities) received recognition in offcial parlance. The caste basis
did not fnd approval from the chairperson of the commission and one of the reasons cited was the
assumed castelessness of Muslims and Christians: My eyes were however open to the dangers of
the suggesting remedies on the caste basis when I discovered that it is going to have a most unhealthy
effect on the Muslim and Christian sections of the nation.
2
Abdul Qaiyum Ansari (1905-1974)
3
was one of the eleven members of the Kaka Kalelkar
Commission and the president of the All India Backward Muslim Federation for 1952.
4
The working
committee of All India Momin Conference, held in June 1966 in Patna, had appealed to the government
to draw up a comprehensive scheme towards bringing the backward Muslims at par with other citizens,
for the backward of a sizable population, it pointed out, did not confrm with the prestige of the country.
5
When the Bihar State Momin Conference negotiated for the Momins to be moved from the
Other Backward Class (Annexure II) to the Most Backward Class (Annexure I) category, the argument
was not merely of backwardness but the claim that they comprised more than half the entire Muslim
population not in Bihar but in India. The demand was accepted in 1984.
6
A similar moved by the Bihar Jamiatur Rayeen
7
to move from Annexure II to Annexure I
has been more uphill. Comprising 26 per cent of the Bihari Muslim population, just two less than the
Momins the Jamiyatur Rayeen attributes its Annexure immobility to discrimination by the Congress
on account of its association with opposition.
8
On 133 September 1977 the Janata government decided
that scholarships in educational and technical institutions, available to communities classifed in
Annexure I, would be extended to all Muslim Other Backward classes.
9
The Karpoori formula as it is popularly called allows for the bifurcation of the category
backward classes into its advanced section, the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and relatively
*Assistant Professor, Kalindi College, DU
89
more deprived, the Most Backward Classes (MBCs). The frst major effort to understand the plight
of backward classes in Bihar was undertaken when the Mungeri Lal Commission was constituted in
1971. In its report (1975), the Commission recommended the bifurcation of the backward classes into
Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Most Backward Classes (MBCs). The OBC list contained 128
castes and the MBC list had 93 castes groups. The Karpoori Thakur government in 1978 accepted the
classifcation made by the Mungeri Lal Commission. For the purposes of recruitments to jobs, 8% was
set aside for the OBCs, 12 % for the MBCs, 14% for the SCs, 10% for the STs, 3% for the women and
another 3% for the economically backward. After the carving out of Jharkhand from Bihar, the above
scheme was slightly amended. The ST quota was reduced to one %, the SC quota was now fxed at
15%, 135 for OBCs, 18% for the MBCs and 3% for backward caste women. Muslim caste groups,
depending on their level of backwardness, have been included either in the OBC or in the MBC list.
While 9 Muslim groups are in the states OBC list, 27 of them form part of the MBC list.
10
The Karpoori Thakur formula listed working class among Muslims who are now formally listed
as backward and extremely backward, provided to them not on the basis of religion but according to
their occupation. If the Tantis or Hindu weavers were in the OBC list so were the Julahas or Muslim
weavers. Similarly, Rayeen or vegetable growers were listed along with the Hindu Koeris. Likewise,
Barbers, Butchers, Washer Men, Bhangi were all included in the OBC or EBC lists regardless of
religion.
11
The second All India Backward Classes Commission, the Mandal Commission, submitted
its report in 1980. The Commission evolved eleven indicators, a mix of caste and class features, for
assessing social and educational backwardness. The Commission saw castes as the building bricks of
Hindu social structure that despite the Constitutional commitment to establish a casteless and egalitarian
society had continued to persist. It arrived an exhaustive list of 3743 castes that were declared as
backward. The Commission, in principle, accepted that occurrence of caste or caste like feature was
not restricted to the Hindu society, its infuence was also found among non-Hindu groups, Muslims,
Sikhs and Christians. Based on the data provided by 1931 since and feld survey conducted at the
instance of the commission, at least 82 different social groups among Muslims were declared OBCs.
The Commission however desisted from employing caste as a criterion to identity non- Hindu OBCs
as these religions are (were) totally egalitarian in their outlook.
12

The Commission, however, refrained from invoking poverty too as the sole criterion. The rough
and ready criteria that the Commission evolved had two conditions: (a) All untouchables converted to
any non-Hindu religion. In the Muslim case, they are the Arzals.(b) Such occupational communities
which are known by their name of their traditional hereditary occupation and whose Hindu counterparts
have been included in the list of Hindu OBCs. Among Muslims, this comprises the Ajlaf category.
By clubbing the Arzals and the Ajlafs among Muslims in an all-encompassing OBC category,
the Mandal Commission overlooked the disparity in the nature of deprivations that they faced. Being
at bottom of the social hierarchy, the Arzals are the worst off and need to be handled separately. It
would be most appropriate if they were absorbed in the SC list, or at least in a separate category, Most
Backward Classes (MBCs) carved out of the OBCs.
13
The Muslim OBCs raised their voices for application of the recommendations on the ground
of social justice and challenging the Muslim leaders on their political stand. They argued that the entire
orientation of Muslim politics in contemporary India is towards the higher class Ashrafs and Ajlafs who
used the backward class Muslims for their political goals. It is for this reason Muslim politicians take
up abstract and emotional issues rather than issues of poverty, illiteracy, and overall backwardness of
the Muslim community. In their opinion, Muslim leader acknowledged that Muslims in India are far
more educationally and economically backward than others and yet nothing is ever done to focus on
this backwardness. Indira Gandhi had appointed a high power Gopal Singh Commission to look into
the problems of Muslims. However, the Muslim leaders never bothered to look at the Gopal Singh
report
14
; instead, they spent much time on emotional issues. Another Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
formulated a 20-point programme for the upliftment of the Muslims, but no Muslim leader paid much
attention to it. If the Muslim leaders had taken these issues seriously and applied political pressure,
90
the government would have been forced to implement them for the beneft of Muslims. The Muslim
leaders indifference is usually explained by the fact that these programmes would beneft only for
the backward classes of the society. This may be considered as partially true, but there are also the
other factors, viz., minority syndrome, fear psychosis, and communal tension under majority-minority
relationship of the country. The rise of OBC Muslims has radical repercussion in Muslim politics, as
they constituted the majority within the Muslim minority population of the country. The Muslim politics
gradually has become more grass roots and issue oriented. This basic shift in Muslim politics may
be examined on the basis of movements or the emerging Muslim OBC organisations in the country.
15
In the same way, on 9 March 2005, the PMO (Prime Minister Offce) had issued the notifcation
for constitution of the High Level Committee
16
(Sachar Committee) for preparation of Report on the
Social, Economic, and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India. The committee was
to consolidate, collate, and analyse the above information to identify areas of intervention by the
Government of relevant issues relating to the social, economic, and educational status of the Muslim
community.
17
It was constituted by the Manmohan Singh government, and the publication of its report
in November 2006 represents, on the face of it, a continuation of the debate on the community. Even
so, on account of a variety of factors, the work of the Sachar Committee and its report have greater
signifcance and relevance than earlier initiatives.
18
Unlike Hindu OBCs, who continue their struggle against the forward castes domination,
19

the Pasmandah Muslims struggle against the Ashrafs of the community is a 1990s phenomenon.
Although these lower and middle castes got enlisted by the state government in the Most Backward
Caste/OBC lists, frst in 1951 and then in 1978 for preferential treatment
20
it is only after the
implementation of the Mandal Commission that the backward caste Muslims began to organise
themselves in a real sense. The All India Muslim OBC (Other Backward Classes) Sangathan, taking a
pioneering step, organised its frst national convention in Delhi on 29 August 1996. This Convention
was for the frst time able to rope in Muslims having similar socio-economic status based on caste.
The Julaha of Uttar Pradesh, Bakho of Bihar, Ghanchi of Gujarat, Dhunia of West Bengal, and Barber
of Andhra Pradesh have shown similar interests.
The meeting successfully ended with the demands that include, predictably,
extension of Mandal Commission Recommendations to all Muslim OBCs,
more scholarship, etc.; and less predictably, land reforms, funding for small
entrepreneurs and restoration of concessions to Scheduled Caste i.e., non-OBC
Muslims which were withdrawn in 1950.
21
In states like Bihar where caste has been involved in every sphere of life, the self-realisation
of their vast strength between OBC and Dalit Muslims quickly began to organise them.
In Bihar, to raise the consciousness of backward Muslims and unite them to fght for their
rights, many organisations came into existence. Dr. Ejaz Ali set up the All India Backward Muslim
Morcha (AIBMM) in 1994 in Patna.
22
The importance of the Backward Muslim Morcha lies in the
context of the lower caste Muslims extreme poverty and the continuous assault of privatisation,
which was turning these destitute masses into daily wage labourers, manual excavators, artisans, and
petty peasants. The AIBMM coined the term Dalit Muslims for the descendants of the indigenous
converted population belonging to lower castes.
23
The foremost priority for the All India Backward
Muslim Morcha is to get recognition from the Indian state for the over 100 million Dalit Muslims
as Scheduled Castes so that they can avail of the same benefts that the Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist
Scheduled Castes enjoy, including reserved government jobs, reserved seats in state legislatures and
in the Indian Parliament, special courts to try cases of atrocities against them as well as social and
economic development programmes meant especially for them.
24

Another organisation, which transforms the cause and concern of Pasmandah and Dalit
91
Muslims into a movement, is the Pasmandah Muslim Mahaz (PMM) organised by Ali Anwar
25
in
1998. The Pasmandah Muslim Mahaz like the AIBMM is an umbrella organisation of a number of
Dalit and Backward Caste Muslim organisations from different states of India, particularly Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Delhi. The Mahaz since its existence in 1998 has been
pressing the demand that the state should include Dalit Muslims and Dalit Christians in the scheduled
castes list. In this regard, Sachar Committee also drew attention:
While the Asharafs and the Ajlafs occupy the highest and the middle positions
in the Muslim social structure, The Arzals are the lowest comprising of those
having similar traditional occupation as their Hindu counterparts in the list
of Schedule Caste. It is widely believed that these communities are converts
from the untouchables among Hindus---
Their exclusion from the SC list dates back to 1936 when the Imperial
(Scheduled caste) Order rejected Sc status to Christians and Bhuddhists of
similar origins. Depressed classes among the Muslims such as Halalkhors
were included in the list but were barred from availing the benefts. This
colonial decree remained the basis on which thw government of Independent
India, through the Constitutional (Scheduled caste) Order, 1950, has denied
them the status in accordance with the deprivations that they face. The order,
however, has been amended twice; once in 1956 to include the SCs among
the Sikhs and later in 1990 to include the neo-Bhuddists. Thus practically
only the Muslims and Christians of such origins continue to be denied the
status. As a result, such Muslim groups namely, Gadheris, Gorkuns, Mehtars
or Halakhors, Muslim Dhobis, Bakhos, Nats, Pamarias, Lalbegis and others
remain impoverished and marganalized. Their inclusion in the OBC list
has failed to make any impact as they are clubbed with the more advanced
middle castes.
26
However, Muslims and Christians are still excluded from it. So, Ali Anwar argued that Dalit
Muslims and Dalit Christians should be included in the list of scheduled castes. To realise the aim, the
Pasmandah Muslim Mahaz participated in several peoples struggles through staging demonstrations,
presenting memorandums, and bringing out publications. These organisations (AIBMM and PMM)
received a positive response from the Muslim masses and were able to generate pressure on the Bihar
government to provide SC status to Dalit Muslims. Responding to the raised demand, in July 2000,
the Legislative Assembly of Bihar passed a resolution, which has been sent to the President of India
for approval. The movement continued to awaken the ignorant masses through seminars, meetings,
and rallies in each district and talks of Bihar. Decal Society has made attempt in this direction by
organising a seminar in association with the Heinrich Boll Foundation, titled Marginalization of Dalit
Muslims with Special Reference to Democracy, Identity, and livelihood. Organised on 14 July 2002
in Patna, the entire seminar strove to refect the fact that the Dalit Muslims were a separate class
within the Muslim society, and attempted to fore ground various aspects of Muslim society vis--vis
the Dalit class as no less signifcant. On 20 March 2004, the PMM organised the Pasmandah Jagao
Mulk Bachao rally in Patna, which was also attended by national and international social activists.
27
The organisational effort for the frst time in post-independent India stirred the psychological
bondage of Dalit and OBC Muslims. They began to speak against the reactionary politics of Ashraf
Muslim leaders and started demanding their long delayed rights from the state.
28
It refects the aspirations of millions of underprivileged Indian Muslims, who have been
prevented from getting the help of the government that other Dalits get under Article 341 of the
Constitution. As the Assembly elections approached, the Muslim vote became a major concern for
all the political parties to form the government. On the other hand, the backward and Dalit Muslims
92
as a conscious mass (both politically and socially) were ready to take on the forward castes politics.
This election was a test for the Pasmandah Muslim movement in Bihar. Vote hamara fatwa tuatara,
Nai chalega (your dictate on our vote will not work) and jo Pasmandah ki baat karega, wahi Bihar
pe raaj karega (those who concede the demand of Pasmandah will rule Bihar) and other political
slogans refected the mood of the poor masses. Just before the election, the Pasmandah Muslim Mahaz
along with the Bihar Momin Welfare Society called a meeting on 23 July 2005, in Shri Krishna
Memorial Hall on the issue of reservation for Dalit Muslims. Both Laloo Prasad Yadav and Nitish
Kumar attended that meeting. On 8 October 2005, in a joint statement by the representatives of
the Bihar Momin Welfare Society (Danapur), All India Momin Welfare Oraganisation (Hajipur),
Momin Ekta Munch (Momin Unity Forum, Aara), Bihar Pradesh Momin Youth Majlis (Patna), A.Q.
Ansari Memorial Committee (Patna), and All India Pasmandah Muslim Mahaz (Biharunit), it was
mentioned that during the ffteen years of rule, Laloo Prasad Yadav had done nothing for the poor
Muslims, and thus announced the need to defeat the RJD in the upcoming election.
29
According
to these pressure groups, after the defeat of the Congress, Laloo Prasad Yadav took over power in
1990 to carry forward his politics on the notion of social justice and secularism for Dalits, OBCs,
and Muslims, respectively. However, nothing substantial was delivered by his government for the
backward Muslims. Laloo Prasad Yadav in the name of M-Y (Muslim-Yadav) alliance has promoted
the FM-Y (Forward Muslim-Yadav) alliance, where Ashraf Muslims cornered major benefts in
the name of the community. Similarly, appointment to government posts like teachers, posts in the
police department and in minority institutions were allotted to the Ashraf. In turn, Laloo received
blessings from religious leaders belonging to the upper castes for his electoral victory.
30
Therefore, a
large junk of the lower caste Muslim shifted towards Nitish Kumar led Janata Dal (U) in Legislative
Assembly election 2005 and 2010 as well.
In conclusion, it has been argued that the backward/lower caste Muslims are asserting
themselves in the social as well as political spheres. By clubbing the Arzals and the Ajlafs among
Muslims in an all-encompassing OBC category, the Mungeri Lal Commission and the Mandal
Commission overlooked the disparity in the nature of deprivations that they faced. Being at the bottom
of the social hierarchy, the Arzals are the worst off and need to be handled separately. It would be most
appropriate if they were absorbed in the SC list, or at least in a separate category - Most Backward
Classes (MBCs) carved out of the OBCs.
(Endnotes)
1 Venkitesh Ramakrishnan, Community On The Margins, The Frontline, Volume 23 - Issue 24, Dec. 02-15,
2006, P.1.
2 Cited in Report of the Backward Classes Commission (B.P.Mandal, Chairman), Government of India Press, New
Delhi, 1980, Vol.I, p.3.
3 Abdul Qaiyum Ansari born at Dehri, Shahabad district, He served the Indian national Congress. He wholeheartedly
opposed the separatist tendency of Muslim League, opposed the formation of Pakistan, and fought against the
Muslim League within the Momin Conference as well as outside it. Abdul Qaiyums great contribution lies in
organizing and promoting the educational and economic status of the Momins. He gave leadership to Momin
Conference in the capacity of its chairman till his death-1974. It was he who got Momins included in Most
Backward Caste (Annexure II) which entitled them to enjoy all the facilities given to backward caste. See, S.P.
Sen (ed.), Dictionary of National Biography, Institute of Historical Studies, Calcutta, 1972, Vol.I, p.64.
4 Report of the Backward Classes Commission (B.P.Mandal, Chairman), Vol. II. Part 1, p.67.
5 Hasan Nishat Ansari, The Momin- Congress Relation (A Socio-Historical Analysis), Bihar Momin Intellectuals
Forum, Patna, 1989, p.28.
6 Government of Bihar, Dept. of Personnel and Administrative Reform, Resolution No. 11/S, 1-105/84, 14 November
1984 for the enlistment. The resolution justifes the change in the light of having received several representations
to the effect.
93
7 Signifcantly, the Rayeens as also the Mansoors had not been keen during the 1940s to be part of a collective
together with the Idrisis and Quraishes that the Momin Conference had tried to foat.
8 The reference is to Ghulam Sarwar being active in JP Movement. Also, see the BJR representation to Laloo Yadav,
February (n.d.) 1991. Ye Poori Abadi Vipaksh Ke Khemay Mein Rahi Hai. Cited by Papiya Ghosh, Partitios
Biharis, in Papiya Ghosh (ed.), Community and Nation: Essays on Identity and Politics in Eastern India, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2008, p.165.
9 Papiya Ghosh, Partitions Biharis, p. 153.
10 Cited in Social, Economic, and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India: A Report (Sachar Committee
Report), p. 198.
11 Mungeri Lal Commission Report, Government of Bihar, Patna, 1975.
12 Report of the Backward Classes Commission (B.P.Mandal, Chairman) Vol. II, Government of India Press, New
Delhi, 1980, p.55.
13 Cited in Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India; A Report (Sachar Committee
Report), p.195.
14 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi constituted a ten-member High Power Panel on minorities, headed by Dr. Gopal
Singh. its report submitted on June 14, 1983, the Dr. Gopal Singh Committee maintained that there was a sense
of discrimination prevailing among the minorities and that it must be eliminated, root and branch if we want
the minorities to form an effective part of the mainstream.
15 Report of the Backward Classes Commission (K.Kalelkar, Chairman) Vol. III, Government of India Press,
Shimla, 1955. See, Also, Report of the Second Backward Classes Commission (B.P.Mandal, Chairman), Part 2,
Vol.VII, Government of India Press, New Delhi, 1980.
16 It was seven members High Level Committee; The Committee had the following composition: Justice Rajendra
Sachar-Chairman, Saiyed Hamid- Member, Dr.T.K.Ooman- Member, M.A. Basith-member, Dr. Rakesh Basant-
Member, Dr. Akhtar Majeed- Member, Dr. Abu Saleh Shariff- Member Secretary.
17 Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India: A Report (Sachar Committee
Report), p. iii.
18 Venkitesh Ramakrishnan, Community on the Margins, The Frontline, Volume 23 - Issue 24, Dec. 02-15,
2006. P.2
19 Hindu OBCs had their fght against the forward caste prior to Independence through different caste forums.
Yadavs, Kurmis, and Kooris of North India formed the Triveni Sangh in the 1930s to challenge the forward
castes political domination. The Sangh also contested municipal election during 1930s.
20 In the year 1951, through an order, the government gave some facilities and seats in educational institutions to
some 79 Most Backward Castes and 30 Backward Castes, which included lower and middle Muslim castes.
With the coming of Karpoori Thakur a backward as state CM through a Government order. in November 1978,
he implemented the Mungeri Lal Commission recommendations. For the purpose of recruitment to jobs, 8 per
cent and 12 per cent seats were reserved for the OBCs and MBC, respectively.
21 Bidwai, Praful , Age of Empowerment: Muslim OBCs Discover Mandal, Times of India, 12 September 1996.
22 Manjur Ali, Politics of Pasmandah Muslims: A Case Study of Bihar History and Sociology of South Asia,
Vol. IV, No. 2, 2010, p. 138.
23 Yoginder Sikand interviews Dr. Ejaz Ali, Dalit Muslim, Outlook (weekly general), June 20, 2002.
24 Yoginder Sikand,. Islam, Caste and Dalit-Muslim Relations in India Global Media Publication, New Delhi
2004,p. 52.
25 A well-known Hindi journalist; he is the author of Masawat ki Jang (2001) (The struggle for equality) and Dalit
Musalman (2004) (Dalit Muslims) and writes regularly on issues related to Backward Caste / Dalit Muslims,
who form the majority of the Muslim population in India; see Ali Anwar, Masawat ki Jung, New Delhi, Vani
Prakashan, 2001 and Ali Anwar, Dalit Musalman, New Delhi, Vani Prakashan, 2004.
26 Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India; A Report (Sachar Committee
Report), Government of India, New Delhi, 2006, pp.202-203.
27 Manjur Ali, pp. 139-140.
28 Praful Bidwai, Age of Empowerment Muslim OBCs Discover Mandal, The Times of India, September 12,
1996.
29 Manish K. Jha and Pushpendra, Governing Caste and Managing Confict - Bihar, 1990-2011, Policies and
Practices, Vol. 48, Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group, Kolkata, March 2012, p.23.
30 Purnima Tripathi, Bihar on the Edge, Frontline, October 21, 2005.
94
CHANGING GEARS FROM PRODUCT TO PROCESS
APPROACH TO WRITING.
Zeba Farooqi
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the Cognitive Approach to Writing. The cognitive or the process approach to
writing is entirely different from the traditional product approach which advocated passive learning.
The process approach focused on the composing processes of writers as they accomplished a writing
task. Generally, the writing process is seen as consisting of three stages- pre- writing, writing, and
revising/and editing. These stages are overlapping as writers may use them in a non- linear manner.
The process Approach: an Introduction
Vivian Zamel (1976) was one of the proponents to introduce the notion of writing as a process to
second language context. She emphasized that pedagogy rooted in the process writing would beneft
the second language learners. The process approach to writing instruction has gained enormous support
and popularity during the past two decades in the English academic community in many western
universities. The process approach to writing recognizes writing as a complex process which extends
itself in various ways facilitating preparations, drafting, revising, editing and planning in a non- linear
recursive manner. The failure of the product approach in the teaching of writing both to native English
speakers and to ESL students lead to the birth of new, comprehensive, learner-centered approach to
teaching writing i.e. the process approach. Unlike the product approach, which restricted students
freedom in actively participating in the learning process, the process approach liberated the learners
in becoming autonomous and taking charge of their own work, making them the owners and creators
of their writing rather than mere passive recipients in the writing classroom.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRODUCT AND PROCESS APPROACHES
Many features distinguished both approaches to teaching writing. The product approach which
preceded the process approach unduly over emphasized the mastery of grammatical and syntactical
structures and advocated imitating models. In doing so, it overemphasized correctness and form of
the fnished product. Moreover, neglecting audiences as an important element, it diminishes writing as
a purposeless activity which can be carried out through repetition and imitation. Rooted in behaviorist
theory of learning, writing was viewed as a habit- formation activity not going beyond sentence and
paragraph level. Form was more important than content and errors were discouraged. Richards and
Rogers (1986: 50) states that good habits are formed by giving a correct response rather than making
mistakes. Pincas (1962: 185-86) informed that The learner is not allowed to create in the target
language at all [T]he use of language is the manipulation of fxed patterns; those patterns are learned
by imitation; and not until they have been learned can originality occur Students accordingly
were not meaningfully involved in the writing endeavor and as Silva (1990: 13) explains that the act
of writing was reduced as an exercise in habit formation resulting in mindless copies of a particular
organizational plan or style (Eschholz,1980: 24). Product- oriented approach to writing instruction
strongly advocates the use of a model approach in writing classrooms. Mindless, repetitive mimicking
Department of English, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
95
of these models leaves the students powerless and paralyses them. White (1988)
1
defnes these models
as too long and too remote from student (writers) own writing problems. Ignoring the process, the
fnished product gets priority. Moreover, style is sacrifced over form of the written product. Eschholz
(1980: 24) puts it in this way By studying forms and organizational patterns frst students come to
see form as a mould into which content is somehow poured Students have no commitment to what
they are writing, and care only for how they write it. Flower and Hayes (1977) were dissatisfed with
the modeling as a problem- solving technique and asserted that we help our students analyze the
product, but we leave the process of writing up to inspiration. Eschholz (1980) viewed model based
approach as to be stullifying and inhibiting rather than empowering and liberating. Watson (1982:
9) further adds that the classic product approach to writing involved students more or less copying
or manipulating the model in various ways: turning declaratives into interrogatives, for example. As
a result, not only is the language produced patently inauthentic, but the risk of boredom is great.
The teacher dictates much of the classroom activities and is the sole authority correcting students
work. There is no fexibility in the way students worked. Johns (1997: 7) gives the portrait of such a
classroom where the learner is a passive recipient of expert knowledge and direction. Not surprisingly,
the role of the teacher is that of expert and authority, the person who directs all students learning for
traditional theories, language and textual forms are central.
In sharp contrast, process oriented approach views writing as a thinking activity which involves
writers making choices and decisions refecting on the ownership of their work. Thinking is central
to learning to write. In fact, writing and thinking are inter woven. Writing is a non- linear, recursive,
developmental process that engages the writer in creating meaning. The process approach to writing
gives writers the autonomy to make choices as they write and focuses upon the awareness of what
writers actually do. Unlike its precedent which overly concerns itself with the mechanical aspects of
writing, this approach requires writers to think of such elements as purpose, audience, experience,
meaning, voice in making informed choices and sound decisions in communicating. Fluency, creation
of meaning, expression of thought, and communication are important concerns of this approach to
teaching pedagogy. Therefore, what is written is more important than how it is written. Writing is a
purposeful activity during which ideas are developed and formulated in writing. Writing as a process
involves many fuid and overlapping stages like prewriting, rewriting, revising and publishing. The
writer not only writes meaningfully but also organizes his ideas into coherent and logical forms.
Writing is not isolated from other communication skills but integrates itself with speaking, listening,
and reading.
The process approach empowers its students by involving them into whole writing process from start
to end. The activities associated with such an approach like group discussion, peer- editing, brain
storming, clustering, etc. requires students to actively participate in the composition classroom. Errors
are tolerated or ignored and students are not penalized for the mistakes that they commit as they
learn to write. Errors are not seen as hindrance to learning but they point out the efforts the students
make in learning to write along with informing teachers with the areas of weaknesses that they need
to focus. Accordingly, with such change in attitude and practices, teachers role also transforms
from being an authoritative fgure to a guide facilitating the writing process for the student- writers
providing them timely and formative feedback during the process of each students composition. The
teacher not only corrects and rates the students fnished products but also becomes a concerned reader
assisting, conferencing and interviewing students each time they fnd something diffcult. The teachers
positively respond to students work in the form of marginal and end comments. The process approach
to writing provides positive environment in which students collaborate and cooperate willingly. In
this way, writing becomes much of an interaction and builds on a positive attitude in students. Flower
and Hayes (1981: 366) states that writing is best understood as a set of distinctive thinking process
which writers organize or orchestrate during the act of writing.
Importantly, the students are taught to write for an audience: who is he writing for? What is important
for the reader to know? The students are free to choose their own topics and genre, bring in their own
1
96
experiences and observations in the writing assignments.
The EAP literature advocates the application of the process approach owing to its recursiveness and
cyclical nature that the writers employ as they compose in which writers constantly plan (pre-write),
and revise (re- write) while they write. Planning being a distinct thinking process is used by the
writer over and over again during composition. After planning, good writers, according to White
(1988), write their frst draft without worrying about detail and accuracy. After the frst draft is written,
students read it for fuency and meaning before rewriting their papers.
Therefore, research has changed its gears and focuses more on process than on product, more on
composing than on composition. The process approach emphasizes the cognitive processes that writers
employ as they compose a text. Two different trends emerged within the process movement, each
trend defning the process in its own way: the expressivist and the cognitivist (Faigley, 1986). The
expressivist view writing as a personal endeavor in which the writer freely expresses his/her feeling
without worrying about the form. For the cognitivist, writing is a refned skill which is acquired in the
later stages of the process of learning. It concerns itself with the study and investigation of the mental
operations that writers make use of in order to generate, express and refne ideas for the text production.
Second language learners are very different than native English speakers. To begin with, they already
have their mother tongue at their disposal. They come from different educational backgrounds, social
classes, speak different languages, have different literacy skills in their frst language, and have varied
contact with and exposure to English etc. Characteristically, the process approach is ideally suited to
the second language learner as it integrates other important skills with it and accommodates a number
of variables in it making it a dynamic teaching pedagogy.
Stages in Writing Process
There are three stages to process writing which the writer may use in a non-linear manner:
STAGE 1: Prewriting
Pre- writing stage is the most important stage in which the writer draws a rough plan on which he
shapes his draft. Most of the ideas are created, discovered, and developed in the prewriting stage.
The teacher assists the students in collecting all the prior memories, experiences, observations, and
interactions that can help him to identify, develop ideas and ease his thinking process. The teacher may
assist students to free write or to discuss in groups or may give students some brainstorming exercises
to motivate them and trigger their thinking. Ideas keep fowing into the writers mind.
Pre Writing Techniques
A number of techniques and ways correspond to each stage to nurture the writing skills in students and
develop them as good writers. Below are mentioned some of the pre writing techniques for thinking
and planning activities.
Free writing
Free writing is a great technique to generate ideas without stopping to correct mistakes or errors. Here,
the writer is in the state of stream of consciousness and his sole purpose is to write for himself
without being concerned with any other thing. Free writing as defned by Tucker and Costello (1985)
is non- stop writing that can be compared to warm up exercises athletes do before a competition
and that free writings purpose is to loosen up the muscles of your brain, while encouraging you
to relax and to see that writing is a process that includes many stages. Chastain (1988: 24) points
out that the goal of free writing is to write. The writer should entirely concentrate on the creative
process. He should not even consider criticizing what he is saying because criticism hinders the fow
of ideas and results in hesitation and blockage of ideas. Free writing stimulates the fow of thought
and encourages it to continue uninterrupted.
Elbow (1981: 13) appreciating free writing mentions that free writing is the best way to learn to
separate the producing process from the revision process and further elaborates that free writing is
the easiest way to get words on paper, where the writer writes for fve to ten minutes.
97
Brainstorming
Teacher assists students to brain storm as many ideas as possible within a short time period. Unlike
free writing, this is personal and meant for the writer himself/ herself, the teacher brainstorms with
students to generate quality and creative ideas using which the writer writes his/ her draft. Raimes
(1983: 10) informs that Brainstorming can be done out aloud in a class or a group, or individually on
a paper. Messenger and Taylor (1989: 29) add that Even just two or three people bouncing ideas
off one another can generate an astonishing amount of material in short time. The teacher stimulates
students thinking using some leading questions about the concerned topic. Like free writing it is an
apt technique to keep ideas fowing without being concerned about organization or grammar. Not only
does it ease idea development but also breakdown mental blocks and barriers to thinking resulting in
some really useful chain of ideas woven by each student participant. In this way, students collaborate
as they write and writing becomes a thinking activity granting ownership to each student and making
writing a joint venture. Brain storming can take many forms:
Bubbling
A great technique for visual learners in which a word or a phrase is picked from the topic and ideas
are generated. The teacher puts the phrase in a circle and soon related ideas began to generate. For
example, the topic Harmful effects of video games can be explored using the technique of bubbling.
Soon, multiple circles are drawn containing varied ideas produced during the discussion radiating
from the main circle.

Figure 1: Bubbling diagram on the topic Harmful effects of video games.
And so on. Not only helpful for generating ideas, bubble maps helps in organizing ideas as well,
because things that should be linked together in the paper will be linked on the bubble map.
Clustering
Very similar to bubbling, Pica (1986: 17) defnes clustering as non- linear brain storming process
that generate ideas, images and feelings around a stimulus word until a pattern becomes discernible.
The main idea is written on the centre of the page and the associated ideas are arranged around the
frst word.
Looping
Looping is another great technique which student writer uses to generate ideas and resembles much
free writing. Like free writing, the student- writer rapidly and freely writes on a given or chosen topic
for fve to ten minutes ignoring grammaticality or accuracy. After authentic free writing, he/she reads
the fnished product, underlining important points in his/her writing.
After the main or controlling statement is derived, student- writer repeats the same process- this time
Harmful
Effects of Video Games
of Video Games
Video Games
Wastage of time
Harmful for eyes and
health
Makes children lazy
and dull
Leads to addiction of
more games
Harmful
Effects of
Video Games
Violent and
destructive themes
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expanding the new concise controlling statement. Following the similar process, many loops can be
formed resulting in new important controlling ideas and its elaborations. Spack (1984: 656) defnes
loop writing as an invention technique in which the writer abides by a non-stop writing in the
absence of self censorship.
STAGE 2: Drafting
After the students have generated suffcient ideas in the pre-writing stage, they set to write their draft
using some of the ideas, languages and structures generated during the prewriting activities. The
frst draft does not necessarily need to be perfect and that its purpose is to get words on paper without
worrying much about form. Spellings and grammatical accuracy are not paid much attention. Students
may add or delete a certain sentence or idea, refne or modify the existing ones or they may stop to
change the order of their main support or rearrange their ideas in a new way. However, the writing
process being recursive, student-writers may explore and discover new ideas- thus re- engaging in
prewriting. The focus of the drafting stage is to concentrate on meaning. Organization or mechanics
are taken care of once the meaning or content are clear. The writer checks to see whether the ideas
are coherent, all the necessary details have been included, the major point is effciently supported by
the minor ones etc. Hence, the frst draft is not the fnal draft and this takes us to the third stage of
the writing process.
STAGE 3: Revising/ editing and proof reading
After writing the frst draft, the writer reads it for revision, proof reading and editing. This stage is
primarily devoted to check the quality of the fnished product. In other words, the form of the fnished
product is focused and formal accuracy, organization, and mechanics are the areas that are dealt with.
Teachers help students with revision and proof reading and may also give organizational advice.
There is a difference between revision and editing. Whereas revision is done at the level of ideas
to see what you write, proof reading, on the other hand, confrms the grammatical accuracy, i.e.,
how you write. Students edit/ revise for ideas, content, logical unity, coherence and organization,
introductory and ending sentences. Students proof read for spelling, punctuation, capitalization, lack
of parallelism, faws in the style (formal/ informal), structure and grammar mistakes etc. Students
may exchange their drafts with that of their peers. Students should be provided with a self- assessment
checklist on which they can read and analyze their written work.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the cognitive approach to writing stresses the recursive and cyclical nature of composing
in arriving at a fnished product. The process approach is ideally suited to the second language learners
in mastering the skills of writing in a target language. Techniques such as brain storming, group
discussion, and peer review etc. empower the students and make the writing classroom a fun place
where students and teachers collaborate as they learn to write.
REFERENCES
1. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice. Prentice: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
2. Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with power: Techniques for mastering the writing process. New York: Oxford
University Press.
3. Eschholaz, P. A. (1980). The prose models approach: Using products in the process. In T R Donovan
and BWMc Clell (eds.) Eight approaches to teaching composition. Urbana: National Council of
Teachers of English.
4. Flower, L. and Hayes J. R. (1977). Problem- Solving Strategies and the Writing Process. College
English, 39 (4), pp. 449-464.
5. Flower, L. and J. R. Hayes (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and
Communication, 32, pp. 365-387.
99
6. Johns, A. (1997). Text, role, and context: Developing academic literacies. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
7. Messenger, W.E. & Taylor, P.A. (1989). Essentials of Writing. Prentice Hall.
8. Pica, T. (1986). An Interactional approach to the teaching of writing. English Teaching Forum, 24 (3),
pp. 6-10.
9. Pincas, A. (1962). Structural linguistics and systematic composition teaching to students of English as
a second language. Language Learning 12, pp. 185-194.
10. Raimes, A. (1983). Tradition and Revolution in ESL Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 535- 552.
11. Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
12. Silva, T. (1990). Second language composition instruction: Developments, issues, and directions in
ESL. In Kroll, B. (ed.). Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
13. Spack, R. (1984). Invention strategies and the ESL composition student. TESOL Quarterly, 18, pp.
649- 670.
14. Tucker, A. and Costello, J. (1985). The random house writing course for ESL students- New York:
Random House.
15. Watson, C. B. (1982). The use and abuse of models in the ESL writing class. TESOL Quarterly, 16
(1): pp. 5-14.
16. White, R. V. (1988). Academic writing process and product, in Pauline C. Robinson, Academic Writing:
Process and Product. ELT Document. 129, pp. 4-16.
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CONCEPT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
OF PANCHAYATI RAJ IN INDIA BEFORE
INDEPENDENCE
Firoj Ansari*
ABSTRACT:
Panchayati Raj is the product of modern democracy. It refers to a three tier structure of rural self-
government in a district level, PanchayatSamiti at the block level, village panchayat at the village
level. Historically, it has evolved out of Community Development Programme (CDP) introduced
in 1952. In the olden days every village community in India maintained some type of panchayats
which were known as sabhaor samiti and consisted of the village elders who were responsible
for overall judicial, legislative and revenue work of the area. This paper deals with the Panchayati
Raj in India before independence. it also concern about the concept of panchayati raj .in this paper
we also mentioned about the panchayati raj during the different period like ancient period, Muslim
period, and British period. In this paper we have tried to explain the importance, and function of the
panchayati raj during ancient, Muslim and British period.

Key word: Panchayati raj, Village Panchayat, India,
CONCEPT OF PANCHAYATI RAJ:
Panchayati raj literally means the rule of fve or government of elders and elected by village
people. The panchayat system is a precious heritage which has passed down to us from the ancient
times. It represents the system, under which the innumerable village republics of were governed. The
village council called the panchayat is old as Indian history and is a part of Indian tradition.The
powers of the old panchayats were limited; they were confned to those disputes which arose amongst
the members of their castes. But the modern concept and function of panchayati raj are not the same
as that of the ancient rural unit of local government.
The term panchayati raj is the product of modern democracy.It refers to a three tier structure of rural
self- government in a district level, KshetraSamiti at the block level, village panchayat at the village
level. Historically, it has evolved out of Community Development Programme(CDP)introduced in 1952.
After independence it was thought that the majority of people living in village had not seen the light of
modernization and enlighten if, they remained in slumber, India would certainly be in dermises and
could not keep its freedom without the solid economy and politics, which in turn demands economics
as well as social democracy, Keeping these things in mind Government made every effort to raise
village community and villagers from the age old conservation through effcient social, cultural and
economic programmes. The Indian people were familiar with the name of panchayats, therefore it
was thought that they will hesitate to adopt the traditional but modifed system of panchayatiraj,which
aims at infusing amongst the village people a spirit of self- help, to bring about changes in attitudes
and outlook among the facilities living in the country side , and an awareness for a change in the
*Research Scholar, Department of Politcal Science, AMU, Aligarh Email: aligfroj@gmail.com
101
surroundings to ensure a better social, cultural and economical life in the ruralareas,This institution
has to perform various function and undertake activities relating to almost all the spheresof village
life and has assumed well- defned shape and is vested with jurisdiction clearly laid down by laws.
Indeed, panchayati raj is the system of rural communities move or less self- suffcient in the matters
of their basic needs. They are autonomous for all purpose including the administration of justice and
are responsive for keeping peace in the locality as for as consistent with the unity of the state. If one
look into the socio-economic history ofIndia during the past and even the present, one shall notice
that if has been a country of village whose occupation has been mainly agriculture.
In the olden days every village community in India maintained some type of panchayats which were
known as sabhaor samiti and consisted of the village elders who wereresponsible for overall
judicial, legislative and revenue work of the area. Although, ancient panchayat discharged multifarious
functions affecting the life ofvillage community, they worked in relative isolation from the impact of
social political changes outside. This body administered the affairs of the village and functioned as
an advisory council to a village headman. It administered justice and peace, maintained local order
by watch and ward, provided for sanitation, public works, such as construction and maintenance of
buildings, roads tank wells and all other common amenities collected and distributed aims to the poor
for fnance, these villages common land. Thus, these villages were self-supporting units irrespective
of the form of government at the centre.
PANCHAYATI RAJ DURING ANCIENT PERIOD:
In India the system of village panchayat is very old. In ancient times the village formed the basic unit
of social and economic life in India. The social contacts were more intimate, personal and lasting. The
people not only knew each other, but belong to each other. There was little social mobility, horizontal,
vertical or geographical. People live and died in the class in which they were born, in the profession
they which had inherited and in the area in which they had lived. Thus, the villages were self-suffcient
and the standard of living was satisfactory. There was peace and the people were happy and were
enjoying best of their lives. The institution of the panchayat is said to have guided and controlled of
villages of India since time immoral. Some historians have maintained that panchayati raj was existed
in India even before the migration of Aryans. At the time of invasion of Alexander the Great, these
small panchayats were functioning quite effciently. The system of panchayatiraj and decentralization
which they manifested was present in India during Vedic and pre-Vedic periods.
In the Vedic India which was pre-dominantly rural and agricultural there were many Vedic hymens
praying for the prosperity of villages. It seems the village administration was existed in the early
period. This contention can be supported by the frequent use of the word Gramini (senior person
of Village) in Vedas, Janpads in Valmikis Ramayana. Gramsanghs (village union) and Gram
Sabha(village assemblies) after find important place in Mahabharata, Manusmiriti and even
BudhistJatakas. KautilyasArtshastra and ShankracharyasNistargive a lucid account of the working
of rural communities based on the principles of autonomous self- governing. Kautilya was undoubtly
a strong believer in an effcient and strongly centralized monarchy. But his famous book Arthshastra
the only important sources of information reveal that the law which was promulgated commanded the
active co-operation of the whole village. The villages were collectively responsible for the maintenance
of law and order. They had their own customs and their tradition and violation was a cause of action for
a civil suit. Any sort of intimidation, provocation and defamation of village were regarded as a crime.
Besides, an exposition of the village institutions is found in shruties and smirities.Social organization
in shape of gana and puja occupies an important place in Dharamshastra.
The gram Vridhas were of chosen by an Assembly of village. The Mukhiya was the executive authority.
During the Mauryas period (322 to 185 B.C.)alsovillage panchayats were the key factor in the rural
development of ancientIndia. Thus the system of self-rule in the shape of small and independent units
came in India with the down of civilization.Thus during both period Vedic and pre-Vedic, most of the
village in India were autonomous units different villages combined together and formed provincial
units had a close and strong relationship. In times of emergency they formed into a strong united front
102
to words off all types of danger. At that time, each village used to produce only what was necessary for
its inhabitants and production was not made for export. In this way such villages was self-suffcient
in its requirements and by and large there was contentment. From the most ancient timesvillage in
India have been axis administration. Indeed, the village inancient India attained a decisive importance
in the administrative machinery because of the close unity in which they were knit together by the
panchayati institution and the keen interest taken by inhabitants regarding their rights and duties.In
addition, Factors like high of justice, fairplay and effciency at which the panchayats functioned as
well as the confdence they commanded along with the zest they inspired among the village body
were responsible for popularizing the panchayats in ancient India.
PANCHAYATI RAJ DURING MUSLIM PERIOD:
The conquest of Sindh was made by Mohammad Bin Qasim,as early as 712 A.D. and Subuktigin
invaded the country in 991 A.D., and successive Muslim inventions, showed that they were nothing
more than Pseudo-religious adventure, plundering with no intention what so ever to established a stable
government some sort of a settled government into evidence from the time of Slave dynasty (1206-1290
A.D) and continued during the reigns of Khilji monarchs (1290-1321), the Tuglak dynasty (1321-
1413), theLadhi dynasty (1451-1535 A.D.) and even onwards. Duringthis period settled government
established in India, and elaborated administrative and judicial systems were set up for enhancing
the effciency of the government.
The sultans had divided the Empire in Subhas,Sarkars and Praganas. Sher shah sub-divided into
Mahals or Group of Village for revenue purposes. Thisarrangementhowever had no effect upon the
indigenous rural judicial administration.Thepanchayats continued as before Sher Shah the pioneer of
reforms established throughout his kingdom unprecedented security. He built his police system on
the basic principles of local responsibility. The headman and Muqaddams, for instance, of a village
were held responsible for the safety of the area within their village. If they were unable to trace the
thief or the robber, they were thrown into the prison and made to compensate for the stolen property.
If amurderer went untraced, theheadman wastoo hanged instead. Whatsoever might have been Sher
Shahs justifcation for the severity, the internal life of a village community remained cohesive and
undistributed. Thechanges for the village community were little more than ripples on the surface
beneath which the water continued to fow steadily.
The fact that the villages were not neglected and were never despised is also conformed from special
instruction issued to the provincial authorities from time to time by every Emperor from Sher Shah
Akbar downwards to every single monarch, directing them to pay attention to the improvement of
agriculture and the conditions of the cultivators, The Ain-i-Akbari, the Shahi-Farmans, and the Dustur-
ul-amals contained clear instruction for the extension of cultivation, collection of revenue and help to
be given to peasantsApart from this, inducements and encouragements such as rewarded and various
models of assessments were used to with a view to improved cultivation, In times of distress or the
national calamity such as families.The emperor did all that was possible in order to relieve the human
being and to encourage in improving agriculture by every possible means. It can, thus be deduced
that village community was not disintegrated even in Aurangzebs time when central authority at its
peak and also the land basically remained the property of the community under the guardianship of
the headman. The cultivating peasants were however the defector owners of their respective plots.
One of the main objectives of the Muslim rule was to make Indian as their home with least interface in
the life of the masses. It was defnitely an act of conscious foresight and political expediency on the part
of the Muslim rulers that they did not attempt to interfere with, alter or modify the local government
of the village community in any manner. The geographical factor too could not be ignored. Most of
the Muslim Kingdoms extended over vast region divided by Mountains Rivers and dense forests. The
vastness of the country would have compelled them to maintain a big administrativeforce. Since the
success of their administrative depended much on the co-operation of the people, it was necessary to
give them considerable authority.
PANCHAYATI RAJ DURING BRITISH PERIOD:
103
Although, the panchayati raj in India existed in ancient times, in its present structure and style of
functioning, it owes existence to the British rule in India. The establishment East India Company slows
but steady disintegration of these village panchayats. The excessive centralization and judicial powers
in the hands of the government offcials deprived the village functionaries of their age long powers
and functions. Indeed the British rulers did the greatest disservice to this country by destroying the
ancient tradition of village panchayats and trying to replace them by their offcers. British government
formulated new policies which created new outlook among the people, weekend the community spirit
of the villagers. The most important characteristic of theseBritish policies was to establish more direct
and intimate connection between the central and provincial governments on the one hand and the
inhabitants of each village on the other. The changes introduced were in the sphere of land revenue,
maintenance of irrigation works, relief of the people in the time of famine, laying roads, the payment
of grantin-aid of village school, the right of village to cut grass for their cattles in the forest, the
position of agricultural credit and so on. The functioned performed by panchayats were given to
administrative and judicial offcers. It means that the work associated to panchayats was done by
offcially agencies from outside.
British troops were moving from village to village to create an impact of authority on them and to
impress upon humble villagers that India was now in the hands of White Masers. This military
strategy together with western technique of bureaucratic administration gave a heavy blow to village
autonomy. As a result of this, the enthusiasm of panchayats cooled down for many years to come. The
emergence of British rule was in itself a very important phenomenon. The mode of production in India
was at very elementary stage and hence, the resulting institutions too, were rudimentary with British
invasion came some beneft, which have secured to the British from the revolution. The old art and
craft could not face the machine made goods, and had to give way to modern industrial imports from
abroad. This deprived many of their livelihood and they had fall back on agriculture.
The highly centralized systems gave those means of communication, introduced modern education,
civil and judicial courts and police organization and in turn look away their powers which give a
strong blow to the panchayats and thus the self-suffcient and autonomous village lost signifcant and
supremacy. The feature which led to weakling the community spirit in the village was the educational
system in the country introduced by Britishers.It made the educated men look away from the village
which deprived the rural areas of enlightened leadership. They made efforts to introduce rural-self-
governmentin 1882, but could not achieve the success. The improvement was frst introduced in
urban areas.
As early as 1832, Sir Charles Metacalfe, recognized the utility of the village panchayats and remarkable
in the report of the House of Commons, the village committee in India are little republic having
everything they can want, within themselves and almost independent of any foreign relation. This
union of village communities, each one farming a separate kittle state in itself, has conceive contributed
more than any other cause to the preservation of the people of India, through all the revolution changes
which they have suffered and is in a high edger conducive to the happiness and to the enjoyment of
a great portion of freedom and independence.
RIPON RESOLUTION 1882:
LordRipon wade remarkable contribution to the development of local-government. In 1882 he
abandoned the existing system of local government by the offcial nominated people. According to his
local-self-government plan, the local boards were split into smaller units to achieved greater effciency.
In order to ensure popular participation he introduced an election system for the local boards.
Royal Commission on Decentralization:
Another signifcant stage in the history of local government was the publication in 1909 of the report
of the royal commission upon decentralization set-up in 1907. It devoted on full chapter to the village
organization. The commission made a number of detailed proposed to enlarge power of local bodies
and to make them more democratic. The commission attributed the failure of local self-government
to factor like artifcial character of local areas, absence of genuine election, lack of fnance, excessive
104
control of the government and inadequate control of the local bodies over services. The pronouncement
of the government of India on these recommendations was embodied in a resolution issued by them
in 1915 in which they referred to the development of the local self-government.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919:
To make local self-government really representative and responsible the Montague-Chelmsford report
on Indian constitutional reforms dated 22 April, 1918, suggested many ideas. Montague Chelmsford
reforms were passed in the year 1919. Make local self-government both fully representatives and
responsible for authors of joint report on the Indian constitutional reform suggested the following
formula: there should be as for as possible complete popular control in local bodies and in the largest
possible independent for them of outside control.
Government of India Act 1919:
The government of India act issued a resolution on May 6
th
, 1918,which fully supported the principle
enunciated long before, by lord Ripon and the decentralization commission. This resolution affrmed the
policy of maximum interference in the affaires in the local bodies. The government of India act 1919,
made local self-government a transferred subject and hence the responsibility of popular ministers.
This was the beginning of the growth of these bodies in British India under elected ministers. This
period is notable for the fnals establishment of local self-government institution to smallest unit of
the rural areas i.e. village.
Government of India Act 1935:
This is considered as another important stage in the evolution of panchayats in British India. With
popularity elected government in the provinces, almost all provincial administrations felt duty bound
to enact legislation for further democratization of local self-government institution, including village
panchayats. Although the popular government in the provinces governed by the congress vacated offces
following the declaration of the Second World War in 1939, the Position as regards local government
institutions remained unchanged till August 1947, when the country attained independence.
REFERENCE:
1. B.S. Khanna; Panchyati Raj in India, Rural Local self government, Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi, 1994
2. S.N. Agarwala; Gandhian Constitution for the India, Kitabsthan Press, Allahabad, 1946
3. U. Gurumurthy; Panchayati Raj and the Weaker sections, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1987
4. M. Aslam; Panchayati Raj in India, National Book Trust, New Delhi, 2007
5. George Mathew; Status of Panchayat Raj in the States of India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1994
6. S. Maheswari; Local Government in India, Oriented Longman Publication, New Delhi, 1977
7. T.H. Qureshi; the Administrative of Sultanate of Delhi, Evergreen Press Lahore, 1972
8. A.S. Altekar; History of Village Communities in Western India, MotilalBanarsi Das
Publication, Allahabad1997
9. R.S. Rajput and D.R. Meghe ; Panchayati Raj in India; Democracy at Grassroots (eds), Deep
And Deep Publication, New Delhi, 1984
10. V.K.Rao; Local Self Government in India, S.Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi, 1980
11. RajeshwarDayal; Panchayati Raj in India, Metropolitan Book Company Pvt. Ltd. Delhi,
1970
12. RathnaGhosh, A.K. Praminik ;Panchayat System in India, Historical Constitutional and
Financial Analysis (eds), Kanishka Publication, New Delhi, 1999
105
CONCEPT OF SOUL
Naseema Bano
ABSTRACT
The concept of soul has been defned differently different scholars and illustrated in innumerable
ways. Sometimes it is considered as spiritual or immaterial part of a person, and at other place it is
regarded as moral, emotional and intellectual nature of a person. This paper highlights the concept
of soul as envisaged by the philosophers and by the authentic sources of religion.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of soul has been defned differently different scholars and illustrated in innumerable
ways. Sometimes it is considered as spiritual or immaterial part of a person, and at other place it is
regarded as moral, emotional and intellectual nature of a person. Even personifcation of human being
is also ruminated as soul or something similar to it. But in all such observation, soul is found to be
an integral part of life which controls or commands major mental activities. It is intangible in nature
and cannot stay limited any specifc part of the body.
The concept of soul is discussed by almost all the prominent scholars and even in the holy book of
every religion. The holy Quran regarding soul says, O mankind reverence your lord, who created
you from a single soul and from it created its mate and from them twain both scattered and countless
men and woman(4:1). Again while mentioning the teaching to Allah, the holy Quran highlights, O
ye who believe Guard your own souls, if ye follow (right) guidance, no hurt can come to you from
those who stray. The goal of you all is to God: it is He that will show you the truth of all that ye
do (5:105). Thus, the holy Quran speaks to men about their creation from one soul and then guides
them to the path of Allah. The point to be pondered over here is that the holy Quran talks about the
guidance of soul and not directly men. Thus, it means that soul is an integral part of a human being
and it supervises men to act and perform.
Even the Bhagwad Gita describes, I say to thee weapons reach not the life;
Flame burns it not, waters cannot oerwhelm,
Nor dry winds wither it. Impenetrable,
Unentered, unassailed, unharmed, untouched,
Immortal, all- arriving, stable, sure,
Invisible, ineffable, by word
And thought uncompassed, ever all itself,
Thus is the soul declared.
1
Likewise the holy Quran focuses soul as an intrinsic part of human body, the Bhagwad Gita also
affrms the existence of soul and describes its attributes, and ultimately calls for men to consider soul
an intaglio, which is already present in the body and it immortal, indivisible etc.
Imam Ghazali talks about the soul and states, It is by means of soul that man is the best of creations
as it by means of soul that man acquires the knowledge of God and His attributes are by no other
Department of Philosophy Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh
106
organs of the body. It is by means of soul that man can go to the nearness of God and make efforts to
realize Him. So soul is the king of the body and its different organs are its servants to carry out its
orders and commands. It is accepted by God when it remains free from things other than God, it drifts
away from God. It is the soul which will be asked and rebuked. It becomes fortunate if it is purifed
and cleansed, and it becomes unfortunate if it is kept impure. It is the knowledge of soul which is the
root of the knowledge of God. When man does not know himself he does not know God.
2
One can easily make out quintessence in the words of Imam Ghazali and the teaching of the holy
Quran. The way the holy Quran has discussed rather proclaimed soul as a fundamental part, Imam
Ghazali, similarly, calls soul, as the king of the body. He presents soul as the one on which the whole
human body is dependent. Not only the human body but the human deed is also dependent on the
soul, and men will be rewarded, on the Day of Judgment, according to how they sculpt their soul,
believes Imam Ghazali.
Not only have Imam Ghazali follow the same view, as that of the holy Quran, but sheikh Nur-ud-din
Wali, holds a similar view with respect to soul. He says:-
Perplexed am I of my baser self
Surely it is the devil in me
Lest it may not demolish the cawsey of my virtuous deeds;
Lured am I to inferno because of it.
3
Sheikh Nur-ud-din is also displaying souls attributes and its contribution in making both heaven and
hell. When he says, he is afraid if he is following Satans path, then he anticipates soul as the follower
of Satan, and it would carry him to hell. Had been on the righteous path, it could have brought to him,
the heaven, speaks Sheikh Nur-ud-din.
Now, the question which has been in debate since long is, where the soul is? The physician turned
writer, Anton Chekhov wrote to his friend Suvorin, I think that when dissecting a corpse, the most
inveterate spiritualist will be bound to ask himself. Where is the soul here? And if one knows how
great is the likeness between the bodily and mental diseases, and that both are treated by the same
remedies, one cant help refusing to separate the soul from the body.
4
At other place Pythagoras had
described while talking about the soul and location of the soul, that, the soul consists of three parts-
intelligence, reason and passion. The seat of the soul extended from the heart to the brain, passion
being located in the heart and reason and intelligence in the brain.
5
One can easily fgure out two
different concepts over here about the souls location, the one being the whole body, as said by Anton
Chekov, and the other being the heart and brain. But we can look into more the discussion about the
souls location. Lancisi says, The soul must lie deep within the brain, in the midline and in impaired
structure, but favoured the corpus callosum. He felt the vital spirits could fow in the fbers of the
medial striac. These forms a pathway for the stream of the soul or perhaps consciousness between
the anterior part of the corpus callosum and the anterior column of the fornix and the posterior part
of the corpus and the thalami a sort of connection between the scat of the soul and peripheral organs,
between the soul and the body.
6
Thus we have witnessed even a more broader feld of corpus collosum
and other peripheral organs, where soul is hidden. Imam Ghazali, with reference to the soul gives a
distinguishing idea about Nafs, Ruh, qalb and aql. However many philosophers consider nafs
as soul but rest of the ideas i.e. Ruh, Qalb and Aql are expected to have incorporated soul in it.
Ghazali, while discussing these concepts say:-
Qalb: Qalb has got two meanings. It means frst as piece of fesh in the left breast called heart which
is hollow. In the interior which is flled up with black blood and which is again a source of Ruh or
life. Heart is the mine for the circulation of blood. The detailed description of heart is to be found in
anatomy. The second meaning of Qalb is soul with which we are concerned here. It is an immaterial
thing or formless Latifa or basic subtle element which has got connection with the material heart.
It is just like unseen electricity. It is the principal thing in a man. It catches knowledge of God and
spiritual world.
7
Ghazali suggests the two meaning of Qalb and accordingly to him, it is heart in one
hand and soul on the other. One may conclude that if both are Qalb. Then soul is supposed to have
107
been presented in the heart itself.
Ruh: It has also got two meanings. It means frst a material thing within the heart which vibrates the
whole body like current of electricity and which runs through the veins of the body. It is called life.
It has got the power of touch, hearing, sight, smell, and the power of the other links of the body. The
second meaning of Ruh an immaterial subtle thing which called soul and not life. God says, they
ask you about Ruh say, it is a command from my lord.
8
Again, Ghazali considers Ruh also as soul
than the consensus would be, if ruh is soul, then it is located in not any defned location, it is rather
comprised in the frst meaning of Ruh itself.
Nafs: According to Ghazali, it has also got two meanings. He says, The frst meaning is passion or
baser and lower self.passion is a comprehensive word consisting of greed, anger, and other evil
attributes. The second meaning of Nafs is soul. When Nafs assumes and has removed passion. It is
termed Nafs Mutmainnah or satisfed soul. In the frst meaning, Nafs is with the party of devil. When
the calm nature of Nafs does not become perfect, it is called Nafs Lawwamah or self accusing soul
as such a soul rebukes one for neglect in divine duties. If soul gives up prophets and surrenders itself
to the devil, it is called Nafs Ammarah or passion addicted to evils.
9
Ghazali tries to classify that soul
is what makes us do something good or bad and it is present there in our passion. And for this, he
recommends three major ideas of Nafs i.e. Nafs Mutmainnah, Nafs lawwamah and Nafs Ammarah.
Even other scholars also recommend these three stages of soul. For them Ammarah is prone to evil,
and if it is not controlled, then it will be revined. Nafs Lawwamah, for them, is the one which is
conscious of evil and it resists in such situation when Satan deceives. It seeks pardon from God. And
the last one is the highest stage, which is relaxed and satisfed.
In its frst stages of relating to the body, the soul is the plant soul, which is a primary perfection for
an organic natural body, in as much as this body can take nourishment, grow and reproduce. The plant
soul is the power human being and other animals shave with plants.
10
Here, the nature of the soul has
been discussed and shown how souls assorts human being. Further it is added that, The sensitive
power has both external and internal senses. The external senses are in priority of existence, touch,
taste, smell, hearing and sight. The frst three are said to be necessary for survival and the last two for
well being
11
. Ibn Rushd asserts that the fve external senses may be in potentiality, as in infancy and
sleep, or in actually, or in daily seeing or hearing. He also argues that there cannot be any external
sense other than these fve because there would be no function for it. Ibn Sina enumerates fve internal
senses i.e. common sense, representational power, imagination, estimation power and memory.
12
Here
with the help of Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd, the quintessence of soul with internal and external senses
has been established, about which the holy Quran says, On no soul does God place a burden greater
than it can bear (in terms of material wealth or spiritual duty).
Based on all such arguments one can fgure out a much sharpened view about soul. Sheikh Nur-ud-
din Wali speaks about the deeds, good and bad, and ensures that soul is all responsible, which was
considered Nafs Ammarah by Ghazali Sheikh says:-
Elephantine is my carnal appetite gargantuan
Tricks did it play to escape my grip
One in a thousand can evade from its wrath
Else it trampled all under foot
Abstemiousness will fame it to urbanity
Else what bait wilt thou use to change its boisterous aptitude.
12
Sheikh discerns a familiar attribute and agrees to the affrmation given by the holy Quran. He considers
souls as the whole benefactor of mans deeds and says that one in hundred conquers over Nafs Ammarah
and follows not the path of devil but God.
As it has already been mentioned that various philosophers argue differently with respect to the soul
and thus they have developed a number of theories, e.g. the Greek notion of soul, pre-Socratic thinking
about the soul, Platos theories of soul and many more.
The Greek Notion of Soul: The Homeric poems, with which most ancient writers can safely be
108
assumed to be intimately familiar, use the word soul in two distinguishable, probably related, ways.
The soul is, on the one hand, something that a human being risks in battle and loses in death. On the
other hand, it is what at the time of death deports from the persons limbs and travels to the underworld,
where it has more or less pitiful afterlife as a shade or image of the deceased person. It should be noted
that in Homeric persons, only human beings are said to have (and to lose souls). Some signifcance
developments occured in the ways Greek thought and spoke about the soul. In ordinary 5
th
century
Greek, having soul is simply being alive, hence, the emergence at about this time of the adjective
ensouled as the standard meaning alive.
13
Pre-Socratic Thinking about Soul: The semantic expansion of soul in the 6
th
and 5
th
century is
refected in the philosophical writings of the period. For instance, once it becomes natural to speak
of soul as what distinguishes the animate, from the inanimate rather than as something restricted to
human. There is, moreover philosophical activity, notably Pythagorean speculation, contributed to the
semantic expansion of soul. To make the continued existence of soul, according to Pythagoreanism,
is signifcant as the continued existence of the person in question at least some of the states activities,
operations and the like that seemed crucial to the identity of the person had to be attributed to the soul.
14
Socrates and the Human Soul: According to Socrates, the human soul possesses the attribute of
being invisible and immortal. He says,
Well, now, said Socrates, are we not part body, part soul?
Certainly,
Then to which class do we say that the body.
Would have the closer resemblance and relation,
Quite obviously to the visible and the soul, it is visible or invisible.
15
He further quotes, I have a frm hope that there is something in store for those who have died, and,
as we have been told for many years, something much better for the good than for the wicked.
16
Even science argues about the existence of soul, and proves it with the help of Modus Tollens. Modus
Tollens is a valid form of argument in propositional calculus in which P and Q are propositions. If p
implies Q, and Q is false, then P is false. It is also as an indirect proof by contra positive. It is written
as follows:-
He argues with reference to theistic evolution and other views in biology and says, The classical
religious teaching about God are comfortable with the modern scientifc understanding for biological
evolution, special creation and intelligent design do not negate the presence of free human will. The
quantum physics may try to explain free will on the basis of quantum fuctuation and the bundling of
the wave function of the electron however it could never be the source of free will. In mathematics,
human thinking is not analogous to that of a digital computer.
17
Thus, it can be concluded that soul acquainted by all the prospects including ancient theories, science
and other philosophical. And all such rational explanation stands familiar to the thought of Sheikh
Nur-ud-din Wali, who in his work, has again and again highlighted soul and discussed all its attributes
and the deeds of the human being. It can be justifed more by his writings. He says,
Scandalized am I, through my baser self.
Disgraced have been I, through my carnal appetite.
Unconscious thy soul is, allow not it to trample thy conscience.
Divinity attained he, who subdued it, by and by.
18
And he again exclaims:
Besieged by neglect Im, though conscious I was
Now, not my soul will be consistent
Legal forsaken I adopted illicit
Disgraced will be I in my lords court.
19
Therefore, the ultimate consensus is that soul, in the words of Sheikh Nou-ru-ddin cannot be separated
from human being and hence, it is responsible for his worldly life and he Day of Judgment. He, by
his own examples, signifes that if the soul is not controlled and man let it go destructed, it must be
109
remembered that such souls shall be disgraced by the God, on the Day of Judgment and vice versa.
LIFE HEREAFTER:
God created this universe and sent His creatures to spend their life according to the will of God and
to perform good deeds and prohibited evil deeds. In this content, it is crystal dear that all the creatures
have been sent here as novice or on trial and then God has planned everyones death after a fxed period
of time which only God is aware about. The holy Quran also says, Every soul is to taste death. Here
soul denotes every creature and that every creature will have to depart from this evanescent world
because this world is temporary and transitory. God further commands that one day the whole will
be devastated, that they will be the dooms day. Then will occur the Day of Judgment when every
creature will reborn in a new world on a complete different pattern, and resurrected. That life will be
life hereafter. That world will surely be an eternal world and to believe in life hereafter is one of the
most important pillars of Eeman.
One of the prominent scholars Imam Ghazali speaks about the day of resurrection and says, The
prophet said: on the resurrection day, men will be gathered together in such a feld which is white, clean
and round like a loaf. There will be no sign therein. The narrator explained that the whiteness is not
like that of snow. Clean means there will be no structure or building wherein recourse is taken. There
will no distance out of sight. Think not that the ground will be like this ground. God says, when this
world and the will be changed to another world will then be full of darkness. The sky will fall down
into pieces and fow like molten silver. Everybody will stand up naked.
20
Ghazali is trying to briefy
portray the Day of Judgment. He quotes what God had explained in the holy Quran and the Prophet
(SAW) describes about the day, that the ground will be like a loaf and clean and everyone will stand
naked altogether and many more.
Thus, when the holy Quran and the Prophet (SAW) testifes and asserts the Day of Judgment, then
ofcourse the life hereafter cannot be denied. He further adds, The prophet said: Remember the day
when the whole mankind will stand up before the lord, even some of them will be drowned up their
ears. The prophet also said: On the resurrection day there will be perspiration of men, so much so
that it will rise upto the height of seventy cubits and up to their ears. The prophet also said: they
will stand up working towards the sky for 40 years and owing to excessive heat, perspiration will
almost drown them.
21
Ghazali consistently highlights the words of the Prophet (SAW) to decipher
and embark the reality of the Day of Judgment. Different scholars might describe the resurrection
in various different ways but they out to be contingent on what has actually been stated by the holy
Quran and the Prophet (SAW).
On the other hand, another prominent scholar, Maulana Wahiduddin Khan describes the life hereafter
and says, The frst thing that this concept of the other world presupposes is that man and the universe
in their present form are not eternal. From the entire array of human knowledge up to the present, this
fact stands out as indisputable. We all know, beyond any shadow of a doubt, that for both man and
the universe, death is an inescapable fate. The greatest desire of those who do not believe in the other
world is to convert this world into a heaven of eternal bliss. Maulana again presents the same nature
of this world, as stated by Imam Ghazali in the light of the holy Quran, that this world is not eternal
and it has to be destroyed one day. And he further asserts that no one can escape death and hereafter
everyone will be gathered again on the judgment day. So, one can in no care doubt the ultimate end of
this world and those who deny the fact, they are ignorant and they want to make this world a heaven.
He further elucidates the reality of death after which will the Day of Judgment occur and says, Why
does death occur? About two hundred explanations have been put forward as to its causes. Organic
decay in the body, the exhaustion of constituents, the atrophying of veins, the replacement of dynamic
albumens by less dynamic ones; the wearing out of the tissues; the secretion of poison by intestinal
bacteria which is spread throughout the body and so on. An American chemist Dr.card Linus (b-1901),
recipient of two noble prizes, one of chemistry in 1954 and the noble peace prize in 1962 has pointed
out that, theoretically man is cast to a great extent in an eternal mould, cells in the human body being
just like machines which automatically remove their own defects. In spite of this, man does grow old,
110
and he does die.
22
Maulana targets the concept of death and proves that it has to come, for the sake of
these people who do believe the hereafter. He makes it evident according to science. Maulana, moreover
talks about the probable life of human body and says Another explanation has it that cells are the
cause of death because they remain unchanged throughout life and are never replaced. The number of
nerve cells in a human body thus decline year after year, thereby weakening the nervous system as a
whole. If it is correct to say that the nervous system is the Archilles heel of the human body, I should
conversely be correct to say that a body having no nervous system at all should be able to survive for
the longest period of time. But observation does not support this view. A true, which is devoid of a
nervous system does survive much longer than a man, and in fact, survives the longest of all forms
of plant life. But wheat which likewise has no nervous system, survives for only one year. And the
amoeba, with a minute nervous system survives for only half an hour. Those examples would appear to
imply the reverse that is animals belonging to the higher species, with perfect nervous system, should
live longer. But that is not the case either creatures relatively lower down the evolutionary scale, like
crocodiles, turtles and fshes, are the ones who survive the longer. Dr. Alexis Carrel, a French noble
prize winner, describes that men will never tire of seeking immortality. He will not attain it because
he is bound by certain laws of his organic constitution. He may succeed in retarding perhaps even
in reversing in some measure, the inexorable advance of physiological time. Never will he vanquish
death. The fact still remains that one day all human beings will have to die.
23
Maulana while discussing the reality about death, affairs how the human being or the human will
reach the point of cessation one day. The compares it with other organisms and creatures to build the
evidence of death or decay of human body.
Sheikh Nur-ud-din Wali, one of the great Suf scholars talks about death and proceedings after death
and says,
Sheikh in his work refers to a kind of offcial, who is none other than Mulk-ul-Mout, who will come
and take back the soul of human being and carry him to the Almighty, where he is suffered to put
forward his good and bad deeds. And that his deeds will be presented in its original form by Kiraman
Katibeen. Sheikh intends to point out the pragmatic approach of death and the felicitation of mankind
according to their deeds Sheikh ensures that they will reap those who sow. He urges mankind to
perform good deeds so that they could get better rewards. Thus, the matter to concentrate here also is
death and then the life hereafter. Even Sheikh is supporting the profound reality as done by Imam
Ghazali and Maulana Wahiduddin Khan. Thus, it is undoubtedly true that everyone will have to die
and face the real life.
Sheikh again presents the verisimilitude and says:-
24
Here again, we can see the stress on the reality, when Sheikh says that the moment of death and its
dissimulation cannot be predicted and it has been that how took in its course even the most invaluable
creatures, which Mirza Ghalib has described as,
Thus, death is sure and it has been repeatedly discussed in every literature, and even Maulana Abul
Azad writes, That the things are most precious and adored and are highly tenacious if created
especially or in a distinguishable manner, and the best artist is the one who value his techniques and
skill. In the light of this fact, men are born the best of all creatures and men possess the highest stature.
And when God is the creator, he may not have this remarkable for this world, because is short-lived,
but He will never let it go like this, and He will never ignore this excellence of this might.
25
This
implies that when God has created man and He will not let men go futile, and he must have some other
provisions. What could that provision be? This is the same provision of the life hereafter which has
been discussed earlier. This is the eternal subsistence which everyone will have to witness after death.
Maulana Azad further adds, Every individual could think about his existence he had no existence
yet he has come into being and persist, and that too, with the help of a sperm. So, if he could come
into being this way, then, when he is into complete actually and existence, could he not re-exist with
the help of merely this being?
26
This is a straight forward question to those who doubt the fact that
everyone will be given his soul back and then everyone will be gathered on the resurrection day. This
111
gives a clear signifcance of the power of God and assures that He is the only one who create human
being and all other human being according to His wills. Maulana Wahiduddin discusses Qiyamah
or the fnal Day and writes, Once Qiyamah (the fnal day) has been accepted as a probability, the
second question, that must be asked is, is there any life after death? The answer to this tonds nowadays
to be in the negative because we are so used to thinking of life in terms of all the material elements
of which it is apparently composed. We think of life developing when all the aforesaid elements are
arranged in a particular order, and as a corollary to that we think of death as shattering that order, and
in consequence, obviating all possibility of life after death.
27
He moreover presents the assumptions
of material particles of a human body, and the process of metabolism, and then on the basis of these
testimony, he adds, Our bodies are so constantly undergoing changes that a time comes when all
the bricks in our bodies have been eroded and replaced by new ones. This process of death and
decomposition goes on continually. Whereas, the inner man survives in his original form. Now, if
along with the death of body, the man inhabiting it died too, he should be diminished or depleted in
some way by his total replacements of his cells. But he remains quite distinct from and independent
of the body, and retains his identity notwithstanding the death and decay of the body.
28
Thus, with
the help of these biological truth, Maulana presents the decay and rebirth of human body and hence
proves that how on ultimate occasion, he will have ceased quite fnally to live?
Likewise, Sheikh Nur-ud-din Wali depicts the proceedings after death. The question is how will the
proceeding take place? And where will men give their facts about deeds? And there are many more
such question. As Maulana Wahiduddin predicted the presented the facts about life after, it can be
estimated even on the basis on the bases of logics and understanding. The proceeding which Sheikh
is talking about will obviously occur on the Day of Judgment, before the God Sheikh says:-
And a similar essence of reality could be found in another verses of Sheikh where he writes:-
Though Sheikh represents heaven and hell and the deeds of human being accordingly, yet, the matter
to ponder over is, how and when will ibadah or namaz protect or look after human being? Logically,
it could happen only if there is a possibility of another world or another life after death. And, yes
this is the same proceedings which will start from grave and continue till the Day of Judgment about
which the holy Quran says, Nay (behold), ye prefer the life of this world; But the Hereafter is better
and more enduring.
29

And Maulana Azad, about the same proceedings discusses and says, The basic fundamental Deen
implies that life of human being ends not in this world only, there is a life hereafter. And, in that life,
men will be felicitated or rewarded according to the deeds performed in this world. The holy Quran
highlights that everything in this world has to come across some common or proper consequences or
results and similarly will men do. And we cannot assume or imagine the other world, for the other
world exists beyond our imagination.
30

REFERENCES
1. Arnold E. the song celestial or Bhagavad-Gita (from the Mahabharat) Being a Discourse Between
Arjuna, prince of India, and the Supreme Being under the form of Krishna. New York: Truslove, Hanson
and Comba; 1900
2. Imam Ghazalis, Ihya ulum-id-din Islamic Book service new delhi,vol 3 (2011) pp 7.
3. Adfar G.N, Alchemy of light kitab garh lal chowk Srinagar(2011)pp282
4. Pandya Sunil k, Understanding Brain, Mind and Soul: contributions from Neurology and Neurosurgery.
Retrieve from http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/chekhov/anton/c51lt/chapter24.htmlaccessed on 6
December,2010.
5. Pandya Sunil k, Understanding Brain, Mind and Soul: contributions from Neurology and Neurosurgery.
Retrieve from, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21694966.
6. Imam Ghazalis, Ihya ulum-id-din Islamic Book service new delhi,vol 3 (2011) pp 8
112
7. Ibid pp8
8. Ibid pp8.
9. Soul in Islamic philosophy, retrieve from, www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H010.htm.
10. Soul in Islamic philosophy, retrieve from www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H010.htm
11. Soul in Islamic philosophy, retrieve from www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H010.htm
12. Adfar G.N, Alchemy of light kitab garh lal chowk Srinagar (2011) pp 280-281.
13. Ancient theories of soul retrieve from htt//plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul.
14. Ancient theories of soul, retrieve from htt//plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul.
15. Socrates and the human soul. Retrieve from htt://cneuroscience.org/content/Socrates-human-soul.
16. Plato, phaedo, In: the collected Dialogues of Plato including the Letters, Editors: E Hamilton and
H.Cairns, Bollingen Series LXXI, Princeton university press, Princeton,NJ, 1961,46[63c].
17. Dr Qudoos farhat Amtul, Human soul and Science retrieve from www.alislam.org/egazette/articles/
human-soul-and-science 201009.pdf.
18. Adfar G.N, Alchemy of light kitab garh lal chowk Srinagar(2011)pp277
19. Ibid pp 276.
20. Imam Ghazalis, Ihya ulum-id-din Islamic Book service new delhi,vol 4 (2011) pp 450.
21. Ibid pp 451.
22. Wahiduddin khan Maulana, God Arises Goodword Books New Delhi (2008) pp 114.
23. Ibid pp 116
24. Ibid pp117.
25. Azad Abu Kalam Maulana, akhirat ki zindagiadeeb publisher new Delhi (2008) pp 22.
26. Ibid pp 23.
27. Wahiduddin khan Maulana, God Arises Goodword Books New Delhi (2008) pp 120.
28. Ibid pp 121.
29. Surah al Aala (87:16-17)
30. Azad Abu Kalam Maulana, akhirat ki zindagiadeeb publisher new Delhi (2008) pp 34.

113
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH
EDUCATION IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Jameel Ahmed*
ABSTRACT :
Education is considered as a landmark for women empowerment because it is instrumental to bring
vital changes in the status of women therefore, the role of education with respect to the women
empowerment can not be ignored. It is generally seen that educated women with some skills, technical
expertise, knowledge and an earning hand had been ensured almost equal participation in all walks
of life. Education promotes equity and necessitates women empowerment.
Women education in Jammu and Kashmir has been a major concern of both the government and
civil society as educated women plays a very prominent role in the overall development of the nation.
Present paper is a study of the role played by education in empowering women and the particular
focus is laid upon scenario of women empowerment through education in the state of Jammu and
Kashmir. This study is generally based on the secondary sources.
KEYWORDS: Education, Empowerment, Women Empowerment, Women literacy rate
INTRODUCTION
In order to awaken people, it is the woman who has to be awakened, once she moves, the
country moves and thus we build the India of tomorrow.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
Women constitute almost half of the worlds population and play a vital role in the development
of the nation but the worth of womens work and their contribution to the economy and society has
largely been ignored or undervalued for a long time in almost all societies mainly because of their
involvement largely in informal, unorganised and household activities. They have been subject to
discrimination, exploitation and domination by men that has resulted in gender disparity in almost
all spheres of social life.
The rise of various feminist movements has, however led to the remarkable improvement
in the condition of women all over the world in recent times. Right to equality particularly in the
domain of education has been one of the most pressing demands of these feminist movements. Women
education in India has also been a major concern of both the government and civil society as educated
women can play a very prominent role in the overall development of the nation. Education of women
has a long lasting impact on the status of women in a society. Apart from providing basic knowledge
and skills to get independent earning opportunities to raise their economic status, it enables them to
participate actively in the developmental process.
EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Historically, the education of women in the state of Jammu and Kashmir was very low as
compared to other states of the country. Women of Jammu and Kashmir were generally subjected to
discrimination, exploitation, oppression and inequality. Their role remained confned to household
*Research scholar Department of Sociology Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
114
activities and they were also excluded from education. Christian missionaries taken the initiative to
open the school for Kashmiri women but the strong opposition was started against this step by the
people who were conservative in their outlook. After Christian missionaries various Welfare Trust
and committees came into existence and made a signifcant contribution in the promotion of female
education. However, after independence both state and central government of India has taken various
policies and programme to provide education to women. Therefore, the literacy rate of women has
grown over the three decades and the increase of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of
male literacy rate in India. While in 1961 only 15.35% of Indian women were literate, by the end of
2011 65.46% were literate in India as per 2011 census. In Jammu and Kashmir, the female literacy
rate in 1961 was 5.05% and it grew up to 58.01% in 2011 as per the census of 2011. The literacy rate
of women in Jammu and Kashmir is still low as compared to all over India.
IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN EDUCATION
Educated women play a very prominent role in the overall development of the nation. Educating
a female benefts a person, a family and on the whole to the entire society. Women constitute almost
half of the worlds population and not only help in the development of half of the human resources,
but in improving the quality of life at home and outside the home. Women education has a more
signifcant impact on reduction of poverty and development than males education. Educated women
not only concentrate on the education of daughters, but also on the education of sons and provide
better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women follow the norms of family planning,
reduce the growth of population and infant mortality rate.
EDUCATION AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The concept Empowerment defned by The Asian and Pacifc Centre for Women and Development
is as a process that aims at creating the conditions for the self-determination of a particular people
or group. The concept Women Empowerment was introduced frst time in the International Women
Conference at Nairobi in 1995 and it was defned as a relocation of social control and power in
support of women. In this sense, empowerment is a multidimensional process which enables women
to recognize their full potential and powers in all the spheres of life. Education is landmark of women
empowerment because it enables them to control over their lives and be strong enough to challenge
and change their subordinate position in the society. Education of women has a long lasting impact on
the status of women in a society. Apart from providing basic knowledge and skills to get independent
earning opportunities to raise their economic status, it enables them to participate actively in the
developmental process. Education means not only reading, writing, and arithmetic but it also means
to raising the self-awareness and creating the critical analysis of various structures; and acquiring
knowledge for empowerment at all levels. Empowerment can be regarded as a process of awareness
and capacity building that leads to greater participation and realizing the goals of human liberation,
freedom and equality of opportunities in all spheres of social life. The literacy rate of women in
Jammu and Kashmir has risen very sharply from 5.05% in 1961 to 58.01% in 2011, as per the census
of 2011. Despite the importance of women education unfortunately there is wide gap between men
and women education, only 58.01% of females are literate as compared to 78.26% of the male. The
government of India has undertook various steps to empower the women, such as Social Education,
Farmers Functional Literacy Programme, Non-Formal Education, National Literacy Mission, Total
Literacy campaign, Early Child Care Education Centres, National Programme on Education for Girls
at Elementary Level, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Mahila Samakhya
(Education for Womens Equality) and innovative scheme for the adolescent girls etc. From the ffth
fve year plan to onwards there is a remarkable shift in the approach to womens issues from welfare
to development. At present, the empowerment of women has been acknowledged as the central issue
in determining the status of women in society. The government of India declared 2001 as the Year of
Womens Empowerment and in the same year the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women
came into existence. The National Commission of Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990
to safeguard the legal rights of women. In the constitution of India, the 73
rd
and 74
th
Amendments
115
have provided reservation of seats in the local bodies of panchayats and Municipalities for women to
take participation in decision making at the local level. These programmes have a signifcant impact
on women to raise their educational status in society.
WOMENS EDUCATION PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
In spite of the various policies and programme made by the state and central government over
the last 65 years with regard to the uplift of women education, the scenario is still in the state of a
misery in India for several reasons. Women in India face various socio-religious and cultural problems
while getting education in the formal educational institution. The 2011 Census clearly indicates that
the literacy rate of women in India and Jammu and Kashmir is even much lower to national average
levels. The increase of womens education in rural areas is very low. This clearly means that still large
numbers of women of our country are backward, weak, exploited and illiterate. Gender inequality
still exists in India and Jammu and Kashmir is no exception to it, which is proved by the fact that the
literacy of the female is only 65.46% against 82.16% of male in India and in Jammu and Kashmir the
female literacy rate is 58.01% against 78.26% of male as per 2011 Census.
Table 1: Literacy rate in India and Jammu &Kashmir
India -1951 to 2011 Jammu and Kashmir
Year Persons
%
Male
%
Female
%
Male-female gap in literacy
rate
Year Persons
%
Male
%
1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30 1951 N.A N.A
1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05 1961 12.95 19.75
1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.98 1971 12.71 31.01
1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62 1981 33.02 44.55
1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84 1991 N.A N.A
2001 64.83 75.26 53.67 21.59 2001 55.52 66.60
2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68 2011 68.74 78.26
Source: Census of India (provisional) 2011.
Note: - literacy rates for 1961, 1971 &1981 related to population aged 5 years above. The literacy
rates for the years 2001 & 2011 related to the population aged 7 years and above.
This table is clearly depicting that the overall literacy has increased from 64.8% in 2001 to
74.04% in India and in Jammu and Kashmir the overall literacy rate has increased more rapidly than
the national level 55.52% in 2001 to 68.74% in 2011. The improvement in female literacy has been
more rapid than the male literacy in both India and Jammu and Kashmir and the gender gap has
declined to 16.68% in 2011 from 21.59% points in 2001. From this examination, one can understand
that still the women literacy rate is lagging behind men literacy rate. This higher rate of women
illiteracy is certainly attributing for women dependency on men and to play a minor role in the family.
Women pause behind man in various social indicators like education, political, health and economic
opportunities. Therefore, they require special attention due to their weakness and short of access to
resources. Illiteracy is the root cause of female exploitation and oppression. So promoting education
among female is of immense importance in empowering them to attain their goals at same level with
males in different spheres of life. Therefore, the table given above is clearly depicting that there is a
gender disparity in education, both in India and in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
EDUCATION FOR EQUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT
The contacts between gender egalitarianism and sustainable development are obvious in
areas like health, political participation, education etc. Most of the studies, which is conducted in
developing countries, showed that more access to women education can give more positive returns in
improved family health, reduced family size and greater productivity in economic felds. Therefore, the
educational status of women increased day by day, a major improvement in the area of enrolment of
girls and boys in school also increased. Thus, the higher participation of female in literacy campaigns,
116
the gender gap in literacy levels has gradually decreased. There has been an expansion of awareness
throughout the nation among families and women on need for education. Therefore, the educated
women take participation in economic activities and pay the way for overall development of the nation.
Table 2: Districts wise-literacy rate of Jammu and Kashmir, 2011
Rank District Persons % Males % Females%
1 Kupwara 66.92 77.10 54.79
2 Badgam 57.98 68.18 46.60
3 Leh 80.48 89.39 64.52
4 Kargil 74.49 86.73 58.05
5 Punch 68.69 81.04 54.80
6 Rajouri 68.54 78.38 57.20
7 Kathua 73.50 81.40 64.56
8 Baramula 66.93 77.35 55.01
9 Bandipore 57.82 68.41 46.24
10 Srinagar 71.21 78.01 63.47
11 Ganderbal 59.99 70.74 47.62
12 Pulwama 65.00 75.41 53.81
13 Shupiyan 62.49 71.86 52.77
14 Anantnag 64.32 74.13 54.15
15 Kulgam 60.35 70.59 49.74
16 Doda 65.97 80.36 50.34
17 Ramban 56.90 71.97 40.04
18 Kishtwar 58.54 71.75 44.13
19 Udhampur 69.90 79.93 58.22
22 Reasi 59.42 69.93 47.55
21 Jammu 83.98 89.77 77.41
22 Samba 82.48 89.76 74.39
J & K 68.74 78.26 58.01
Source: census of India, provisional, paper 1 of 2011 Jammu and Kashmir.
According to the table-2 the districts wise male and female literacy rate had an average of 78.26%
of male and 58.01% of female in Jammu and Kashmir. This table is clearly shows that male literacy
rate is higher than female literacy rate in Jammu and Kashmir. Further analysis of the table depicts
that the Jammu district has high female literacy rate 77.41% as compared to other districts of the state.
There is no doubt; woman literacy rate has increased from the last two decades but still far away from
the national average levels. State and central Government of India has been taken various initiatives
to educate women.
CONCLUSION
Empowerment is a multidimensional process, which enables women to recognize their full potential
and powers in all the spheres of life. Education is a landmark of women empowerment because it
enables them to control over their lives and be strong enough to challenge and change their subordinate
position in the society. Education of women has a long lasting impact on the status of women in a
society. Apart from providing basic knowledge and skills to get independent earning opportunities
to raise their economic status, it enables them to participate actively in the developmental process.
Educated women could lead new socio-economic life by acquiring social awareness, increase in self-
confdence and personality development and improve their status in the family. Therefore, there is a
signifcant impact on the women through the education programmes in empowering them.
117
REFERENCES
1. Agerwal, Usha (1995). Indian Women Education and Development, The Indian Publications, Ambala.
2. Somasekhar, k. (2007). Empowerment of women: A look into the Impact of Education Programmes, in
Lakshmipati Raju Madunuri and Venkateswarlu Vankayapati (ed.): Women Empowerment Challenges
and Strategies. Regal Publication, New Delhi,
3. Sharma, Ajai Pal (2013). Rural Women Empowerment An analytcal View, Kurukshetra, A Journal on
Rural development, Vol.61, No.10, Pages 52, August 2013
4. Government of India, provisional Census of India 2011
5. Khan, F. A. (2005). Other Communities, Other Histories: A Study of Women and Education in Kashmir,
in Zoya Hassan and Ritu Menon (ed.): In A Minority: Essays on Muslim Women in India. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi,
6. Suguna, M. (2011). Education and Women Empowerment in India,International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research Vol.1 Issue 8, December 2011,

118
KASHMIRI STONE PELTERS: A PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Shar-Ul-Nisa-Haroon* & Amrita Sharma* Roomana N. Siddiqui**
ABSTRACT
In the history of the Kashmir agitation a marked change was visible in recent times. From armed
protests there was a shift towards stone pelting. The perception of Kashmiris in relation to the rest of
the country still remained the same, that is, a sense of dejection and frustration at the lack of facility.
It was the realization that armed protest for a consistently long duration did not bring in the desired
results hence the outlet of frustration changed from extreme form of aggression to a symbolic form
that of stone pelting. The present study attempts to investigate the real motives behind this new form
of agitation in the Kashmir valley. The data was collected from (15) protesters directly while they
were pelting stones. It was a qualitative study where a photograph of a boy holding a stone in hand
was shown to the participants and they were asked to narrate a story relating to that picture. Once
the participants narrated the story they were asked some direct open ended questions relating to
stone pelting. The content analysis revealed that the youths of Kashmir realized that militancy was
not helping them further their demand for a separate state. However, it was instrumental in labelling
them as terrorist so they picked up the stone that became a symbol of resistance against exploitation.
Keywords: Stone pelting, frustration, aggression
Kashmiri stone pelters: A psychological perspective
Jammu and Kashmir, a paradise on earth witnessed decades of violence in the form of
militancy or insurgency. Militancy started in 1989, with hundreds of young men going across the
border or succumbing to violence. Militancy is a consequence of a vacuum created by the collapse
of politics in Kashmir (Puri, 1995). The turmoil in the region has resulted not only in thousands of
deaths but inficted serious wounds on the mind, body and hearts of those exposed to it both directly
and indirectly. It further tormented the identity as well as the psyche of people that has long-term
consequences. As the region is strategically placed in the geopolitical sense, militancy led to heavy
militarization, which further escalated the sense of insecurity. Jammu and Kashmir civil coalitation
society (JKCCS Report,2010) categorized Kashmir as the most heavily militarized place in the world
as there were 500,000-700,000 soldiers with roughly one soldier for every ten civilians. According to
report among 35-lakh population 55% are armed forces giving Kashmiris a sense of trepidation. As
history reveals, From January 1989 to 31 March 2010, the total number of killing by the armed forces
reached 93,544, numbers of custodial killings 6982 and number of civilian arrested 118,874(JKCCS
Report 2010). The heavy presence of armed forces with their special powers along with the increasing
social turmoil choked the voices of people. It is this subjugation and voiceless-ness that has brewed
Research scholar*, Department. of Psychology
Associate professor**, Department of Psychology
Professor***, Department of Psychology
119
up a fury amongst the young generation, which needed a channel for venting. The expression of their
anger and frustration in recent times came up in the form of a stone war called stone pelting.
Stone pelting became a routine feature of street protests in Kashmir since the summer of 2008 following
the decision of the state government to transfer 100 acres (0.40 km2) of land to a trust which runs
the Hindu Amarnath shrine in the Muslim-majority Kashmir valley. As a mark of protest massive
demonstrations were witnessed. In the narrow lanes of Kashmir, stones and bricks few like focks
of birds, followed by gun shots and tear smoke canisters fred from automatic rifes pitting medieval
fghters against modern warfare. It gained greater momentum after April 2010, when three youth were
allegedly killed in fake encounters in Machhil. The death of a schoolboy namely Tufail Matto was
a trigger that ignited a gargantuan explosion of resentment, something that Kashmir had never seen.
Though the resentment had been brewing up for a long time, it was the death of a boy due to teargas
that served as a fashpoint in the ongoing protests. The entire valley was on blaze, as mass protest
erupted all over. In June 2010 alone Kashmir witnessed more than 111 deaths that were caused by
the armed forces fring upon the protesting crowds and leading people to more agony and frustration.
As history reveals stone pelting was not new to Kashmir, during the Quit Kashmir movement in
the 1930s Kashmiris frst expressed their anger on the streets of Srinagar. The fourth generation of
Kashmir is today doing what the frst generation did some sixty to seventy years ago; they were venting
their anger and frustration against the political system through street resistance. Resistance is most
readily thought to refer to social movements (or the even broader categories of protest (Jasper, 1997)
and contentious politics (McAdam et al., 2001); therefore, many activities traditionally associated
with these phenomena, such as marches, picketing, and the formation of organizations fall into this
category (Dunaway, 1996; Hughes et al., 1995; McAdam, 1982; Morris, 1984; Rapone and Simpson,
1996; Robinson, 1995; Rupp and Taylor, 1987; Silva, 1997). It would be appropriate to say that in
this environment of political and economic suffocation, this street resistance means psychological
catharsis (Naqvi & Motta, 2010). There is a clear action and reaction pattern involved. The pent
up anger, frustration and aspiration of entire generation gets crystallized into the brick, a boulder or
a pebble. Stone pelting may happen sporadically in the event of mass protest especially when the
protestors reach an escalating point with the authorities mainly law enforcing agencies. But in the
Kashmir problem as also seen in the Palestine movement stone pelting were not sporadic events
triggered by the context. They appear to be well organized and considered a strategically viable tool
to confront the authorities. Stone pelting is known as Stone Movement against Bullets. It is this
juxtaposition that gives an edge to the protestors. Pitted against the bullet they get the sympathy of
the audience and at the same time they are able to put forward their point of view by compelling the
authorities to take cognizance of their demands.
Purpose of the study
Since the summer of 2008 stone-pelting became a regular feature on the streets and was a new
phenomenon witnessed in the valley in recent times. The protestors engaged in stone pelting were
very young adolescents who wore masks and mobilized quickly in the streets. It is this alacrity and
enthusiasm for stone pelting by the young generation of kashmiris that led us to investigate the view
point of those involved in the act. This research mainly tries to explore how the young protestors on
the street saw this strategy vis a vis the ongoing Kashmir issue. Did they understand its signifcance
as a strategy or was it just a form of street protest for local issue. The main objective of the study was
to fnd out the reasons of stone pelting from the protestors themselves.
Method
Sample
The present study was conducted on ffteen protesters in the age range of 16-25 years. These were
120
Kashmiri youth who were directly involved in stone pelting. All the 15 participants were male as
there was no involvement of female in such protests. The respondent came from different residential
background as 12 of them came from urban area and 3 belonged to rural. The educational background
of the 15 participants indicate that 3 were perusing Masters, 9 were graduates, 2 belonged to the 12
th

standard and 1 was from the10th standard.
Measure
The study aimed to understand the stone pelters and the meaning of stone pelting from the stone
pelters perspective; hence the qualitative method was used. The investigation attempts to explore the
real motives behind the agitation. For the purpose of data collection a photograph of a stone pelter
with stone in hand was used. The respondent was shown the picture and they were asked open-ended
questions relating to the reasons behind stone pelting and also tried to explore the meaning of the
stone for them. Each respondent were asked the following questions:
1) What is your dream in life?
2) What is your dream for Kashmir?
3) What is your contribution as a stone pelter in the development of valley?
4) What are the reasons for engaging in stone pelting?
5) What does stone meant for you?
6) Will stone pelting lead to desired changes?
Procedure
For data collection, protesters were personally approached in District Baramulla and Srinagar that were
highly tense areas during these agitations. The protesters were identifed and assessed for their daily
involvement in the protests. They were convinced about the purpose of the study and were assured
about the confdentiality of their responses. They were assured that the study was purely for research
purpose only. Once they agreed to participate they were shown the photograph (Boy with stone in
hand) individually and were asked to narrate the story about the boy. They were also encouraged to
answer some open-ended questions. The data was collected from the scene of action, where one such
demonstration was going on. Each protester was requested to participate in the study. As it was not
possible to contact many respondents from the same scene so different protesters were approached
at different places, but from different scenes the respondents were the active participants of ongoing
agitation. After obtaining their response the participants were thanked for their cooperation and
participation.
Results
Content analysis
The data collected for this study was qualitative in nature. All the ffteen response sheets were analyzed
and the percentage of each emerging theme was calculated. Based on the content analysis the results are
being presented. The main focus is to highlight the highly endorsed and the least endorsed categories
across the responses.
Table1. Highly endorsed responses of stone pelters
Responses % of responses
121
Separate country 57%
Proving that we are not
terrorists
39%
Table 1 depicts percentage of highly endorsed response in the narration of the photograph Boy holding
stone in hand. If a particular theme occurred more than once in a narration it was counted as a separate
response. The table shows that the most of the respondents have the opinion that the boy became a
stone pelter for furthering the Kashmiris demand of a separate country (57%). It is further clear that
another recurrent theme was that these stone pelters want to impress that they are not terrorists (39%).
Table2. Less endorsed responses of stone pelters
Pride and honors 2 %
Indian imperialism 2 %
Table 2 indicates that stone pelting was not for the pride and honor of Kashmiri people or in any
way against the Indian imperialism. They are highly affected by identity factor not by any other. The
respondents are themselves the sufferers and they narrated their motives in the form of narration. It
shows that terrorism, as a tool for separatism seems to have lost its appeal in Jammu and Kashmir.
Table3. Highly endorsed responses on their dream in life
Move freely 74%
Join politics 15%
Table 3 presents highly endorsed responses of the question asking about the dream of subjects life.
The most strongly endorsed response appears to be the desire for free movement (74%) followed
by a desire to take active part in politics (15%).
Table4. Less endorsed response for their dream in life
Enjoy rights 6%
Freedom fghters 5%
Table 4 present the less endorsed responses of the question asking for their dream in life. Despite the
fact that they reported that they wanted a separate state but enjoying rights (6%) was a least endorsed
response. This was followed by the desire of being a martyr or freedom fghter (5%), which often
appears to be the main motive in ongoing separatist movements.
Table5.Highly endorsed responses for their dream for Kashmir
Independent 52%
No armed force 23%
Free from exploitation 13%
122
Table 5 indicates the high endorsed responses for the question related to the dream for Kashmir that
the youth wanted an independent state (52%) with no armed forces in Kashmir valley (23%) and a
state which should be the free from exploitation (13%).
Table6. Less endorsed responses for their dream for Kashmir
Developed state 8%
Proper administration 4%
Table 6 presents the least endorsed responses on question of dream of protesters for Kashmir and it
is surprisingly development (8%) and proper administration of the state (4%).
Table7. Highly endorsed responses for the contribution of stone pelting in the development of
Kashmir
Resistance 61%
Leading government in proper
hands
32%
Table 7 shows the high endorsed reposes for question asked about how stone pelting will contribute
to the development of Kashmir a large number of response said that stone pelting was a mark of
resistance against the lethargy of government. It was basically used as a pressure tactic against the
lack of willpower on the part of the government for proper development. The second highly endorsed
response also is a pointer to the frst where the stone pelters feels that it will help them to transfer
power of governance into those hands that will provide good governance.
Table8.Less endorsed responses for the contribution of stone pelting in the development of Kashmir
Message to others 5%
Standing against a cause 2%
Table 8 shows in comparison to the highly endorsed response the less endorsed response (in table
8) depicts that sending a message to others or just standing for a cause was not the most important
reason that could further development.

Table9. Highly endorsed responses for the reason engaging in stone pelting
Gun label us as terrorists 69%
Repression against armed
forces
26%
Table 9 highlights the responses when protesters were asked about the reason for engaging in stone
pelting the most interesting response that happens to be the most endorsed response (69%) was that
Kashmir does not want them to be labeled as terrorist. At the same time stone pelting was an expression
against the repression of armed forces.
Table 10.Less endorsed responses for the reason engaging in stone pelting
123
Weapon for self determination 3%
Injustice 2%
Table 10 shows the less endorsed responses of participants for the reason to engage in the protest and
they responded that stone pelting was not seen as weapon for self determination or protest against
injustice in comparison to the highly endorsed responses.
Responses % o f
responses
Weapon against injustice 43%
Refection of pain 32%
Symbol of resistance 22%
Table11. Highly endorsed responses for what does stone meant for you?
Table 11 depicts the response in relation to the meaning of stone for a stone pelter. Again the highly
endorsed response shows that stone is being used as a weapon against oppression. It epitomizes the
pain of the Kashmiri youth and is used as a symbol for resistance.
Table12. Less endorsed responses for what does stone meant for you?
Message 2%
Atom bomb 1%
Table 12 clearly highlights that the protestors do not associate it with any message or they do not
view it as atom bomb a clear departure from the days of armed resistance.
Table13. Highly endorsed responses for question will this stone pelting lead to desired changes?
Caused deaf to hear 42%
Indian forces will leave the state 29%
Delegation and talks will be
possible
15%
Table 14 shows while responding to the question of how stone pelting will bring about the desired
results the youth felt their act of stone pelting will force the government or concerned authorities to
at least hear their problems followed by the need to free the state of the presence of heavy armed
forces. They felt that it would also open dialogues with concerned people.
Table14. Less endorsed responses for the question will this stone pelting lead to desired changes?
124
Shake the government 8%
Aware people 6%
Table 14 shows that the least endorsed response is not of shaking the establishment or spreading
awareness about the issue for which they were protesting.
DISCUSSION
The study aimed at unraveling the psychological dynamics behind the stone-pelting phenomenon that
became a recurrent form of protest in the Kashmir valley. Looking back retrospectively one can see
a gradual change in the manner of protests, from armed uprising, to organized targeting of political
establishment to peaceful closures of entire valley and then stone pelting. The movement for self
determination and freedom have not changed, only the rhetoric and the strategy around it has taken
a new form. Much has been written on the Kashmir problem in terms of cause and consequences but
little focus has been on the changing pattern of strategies adopted by the leaders and the masses. One
crucial problem generally ignored in the earlier literature on movements has been that of movement
strategy (Turner, 1970). We generally focus on the aim of movement and ignore the strategy used.
This study tries to focus on the change in strategy that is before it was gun which got replaced by
stones.
Going through the responses of the protestors it appears that it is simply a change in the attitude and
strategy to get self-determination. Kashmiris still dream for an independent land and they feel that
the stone will serve as a catalyst in this demand. Long protracted armed uprising have not yielded the
desired results. It not only resulted in heavy casualties, in terms of life and property, but has also led to
stereotyping in terms of being labeled as a terrorist. This had wide personal and social implications
for them and their families. Steele, (1997) rightly points out that societal stereotypes about groups
can infuence the intellectual functioning and identity development of individual group members. As
a consequence of this label they regularly confront prejudice and discrimination and receive less help
(Crosby, Bromley, & Saxe 1980) and face glass ceilings in terms of career advancement (Morrison
and Von Glinow 1990), fewer positive nonverbal cues (Word, Zanna, & Cooper 1974) and encounter
awkward social interactions more frequently (Hebl, Tickel, & Heatherton 2000).
The stone for these protestors epitomized as a symbol of resistance. It also served as a catharsis where
they could vent up their pent up frustrations and aggression against the system, which they held
responsible for their current state both individually and collectively. For long residents of Kashmir
have felt betrayed and discriminated in comparison to other parts of the country. This has resulted
in a sense of alienation and betrayal. Gurr (1970) noted that violence tended to occur when groups
perceived a gap between what they believe they are entitled to from their political system and what they
receive. When a group is absolutely or relatively deprived they rebel (Murphy, 2001; Kristof, 2002).
This perception of deprivation and helplessness amongst the young generation of Kashmiris serve as
a breeding ground for protest. As a result they participated in great numbers in these street protest. The
stone according to them provides a voice to the common man against exploitation without harming
their identity and with the full support of their community. These youngsters were very clear that the
decision of using stones in place of guns was to avoid being stigmatized as terrorists, and at the same
time make the deaf authorities take cognizance of their demands. Lipsky (1968) pointed out that acts
of protest are a signifcant way to secure public support. At the time of the interview a delegation was
send by the government of India to talk with the separatist and the common man of Kashmir to get a
real perspective on the issue. This was seen as a moment of victory by the stone pelters as they felt
that this unassuming way of protest did atleast compel the authorities to pay attention to their cause.
The highly endorsed responses give a clear indication that these young students did not see the present
social and political condition in the region as conducive for a better and free life. Due to the presence
of armed forces with special powers along with the restrictions imposed by them on a regular basis
125
these youths were feeling stifed. As a result they dreamt of free movement where they will be no
armed forces. They are also concerned about their future and aspirations. Most of them felt that by
joining politics they might be able to bring about the desired change. The positive sign in this study
was that though the protestors felt that the political system was not responsive and sensitive to their
problems and issues but they were aware that political means and not militancy might be the right
way forward. The recurrent emphasis was on changing the present nature of the political system as a
considerable number of them endorsed the response of leading the government in the correct hands.
They desired to have a corruption free administration that could help them realize their dreams and
that was not exploitative in nature.
Looking at the least endorsed response one gets a sense that as the respondents were young students
their understanding of the ideology behind the protest was not very crystallized. In response to one
question the highly endorsed response was to have a separate country and independence but in response
to another question the least endorsed response was freedom fghters or stone as weapon for self-
determination. At one end they felt that this form of protest will help them change the government
but on the other hand they also felt that the protest was not elated to issue of proper administration
and injustice. Autobiographies and studies of activists (e.g. Biko, 1988; Burns, 1990; Cluster, 1979;
Haley, 1980, Teske, 1997) repeatedly show that people do not enter collective movements with full-
fedged movement ideologies but that they develop their understanding of society and who they are
within it as a consequence of participation. It appears that these boys were also trying to understand
the signifcance of the movement and its wider ramifcation for their community.
In conclusion on can say that stone pelting appears a strategic move where the message is given in a
manner, which is not considered anti social or antinational. At the same time the boys do not have to
face the wrath of their family members as the mob shields their identity. Le Bon, Masterman (1910)
claimed that personality which individuals displayed in the crowd is to be explained as a consequence
of the lowering of the sense of personal, moral responsibility which crowd activity engendered.
This anonymity not only empowers them but also wins the support of the mass. According to these
youngsters they are more infuential in mobs as they can move masses. Mobs give them a perceived
support and encourage a diffusion of responsibility. While engaging for the community they also are
conscious of their personal lives, as they dont want to be targeted or stigmatized.
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Biko, S. (1988). I Write What I Like. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
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Zargar, S.A., (2010, August 8).Who will cry for them? Greater Kashmir Srinagar (Special).
127
RELIGIOSITY AND MODERNISM AMONG YOUTH
Iram Feroz and Asma Parveen
ABSTRACT
In the present study an attempt has been made to fnd the relationship between religiosity and modernism
amongst male and female youths, randomly selected from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The
sample consists of 200 youths- both male and female. In all 100 male and 100 female youths aged
between 18 to 25 years were sampled using Religious attitude scale developed by R. Krishnaraj and
P.S. Balasubramariam and modernism scale developed by Francisco et. al,. Data collected were
juxtaposed with each other and analyzed by mean of correlation method. Findings thus accrued
revealed a signifcantly positive relationship between religiosity and modernism amongst male and
female youths. The present study emphasized that religiosity fosters modernism by providing a structure
of belief with which to make sense of ones life.
Key words: Religiosity, Modernism, Youth
INTRODUCTION
Religion is a set of beliefs and practices often organized around supernatural and moral claims,
and codifed as prayer, ritual and religious laws. Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural
traditions, writings, history, and mythology, as well as personal faith and mystic experiences. The
term religion refers to both personal practices related to communal faith and to group rituals and
communication stemming from sheer conviction.
Religion is an element of culture that pervades every aspect of a society and permeates the life
of individuals whether one is a believer or a non-believer. Cultural dimensions are very dynamic in a
society, but religious tenets form a stable and static pillar in the society. Emmons (1999) argued that
religion, as authoritative faith traditions, are systems of information that provide individuals with
knowledge and resources for living a life of purpose and direction.
According to Johnson and Sandage (1999) religion should be defned functionally besides being
defned in terms of certain human activities such as ritualistic behavior.
Contemporarily, the impact of religion on public domain, as on politics and economy has
been weakened. However, their impacts on private domain like attitudes of people, norms, and family
is still continuing and they become more modern (Halman, Pettersson, and Verweij, 1999; Thomas
and Cornwall, 1990). Religion has had a fundamental role in the destiny of all periods of history and
society, including the modern world.
Modernism, in its broadest defnition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifcally,
the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements,
originally arising from wide scale and far reaching changes to society in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Modernism was a revolt against the conservative values of realism (John Barth 1979 and
Gerald Graff 1975).The term modernism encompasses the activities and output of those who felt
*
Research Scholar, Deptt. of Psychology, A.M.U., Aligarh
**
Associate Professor in Psychology, A.M.U., Aligarh
128
the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life
were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an emerging fully
industrialized world.
Modernism can be defned as the emergence of a global, scientifc technological culture since
the industrial revolution, and especially during the latter half of the twentieth century (Kurtz, 1995).
Modernity is not a matter of personal opinion or taste and being modern cannot be translated into
some kind of psychological or ethical state of being. Although it is true that the modern youth is the
one who adapts to the call and changes of his times, however, the age and times of modernity cannot
really be confned to a limited time period.
Modernism is the process of social transition, which includes not only modernization of social
objects but also that of social subjects. The modernization of social subjects means the modernization
of peoples thoughts, opinions, attitudes and behavior which refects the youth modernization or youth
modernity. Each complements another, as there is an interaction between them.
Youth modernity refers to the modernization of youths thoughts, viewpoints, and attitudes and
behavior. Youth period is considered the period of highest susceptibility to the social and political
forces they encounter (Alwin, et, al 1991;Schuman and Rieger 1992; Schuman and Rodgers 2004;
Schuman & Scott 1989; Pennebaker and Banasik 1997).
As the time went by, there arose another need no less important than the earlier one. Since, for a
variety of reasons, the youth had been estranged from its own tradition, especially from the intellectual
heritage of its own civilization, the need to understand the West was coupled with an equally imperative
requirement to explain and present the Islamic civilization to them in a manner that would enable
them to really appreciate its sacred character and intellectual richness and profundity. It is important
to understand that in contrast to modern movements within the Western world and especially America,
which try to equate man and woman in a quantitative way as if there were no differences between them.
Accordingly, understanding the factors that shape the attitudes and value orientations during
formative periods of youth provides insights into critical processes such as the rise of religious
fundamentalism. This is especially important for male and female youth in countries those currently
undergoing severe social and political stress, where religion plays a dominant role and modernism
rejected the lingering certainty of enlightenment thinking, and also that of the existence of a
compassionate, all powerful Creator ( Pericles Lewis 2000; Taylor and Francis 1990).
A critical dimension that shapes attitudes toward religion is the degree to which one relies on
religious authorities as a source of knowledge about the sociopolitical role of religion. A person who
relies on religious authorities may be more willing to espouse religious fundamentalist beliefs and
attitudes than one who relies on potentially more secular sources such as friends, teachers and the
media. Under religious pluralism, youth are subject to different and often diverse religious ideas. In
such a context, they have the opportunity to assess these ideas and select from among different religious
goods and services in order to satisfy their spiritual needs (Finke and Stark 1988).
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
1. To identify gender difference on religious attitude.
2. To identify the gender difference on modernism.
3. To identify the relationship between religious attitude and modernism among youth.
HYPOTHESES:
1. There would be a gender difference in religious attitude.
2. There would be a gender difference in modernism.
3. There would be relationship between religious attitude and modernism among youth.
METHOD:
Participants: The sample was comprised of 200 youths out of which 100 were male and 100 were
female with age range 18 to 25 years. Total sample was randomly selected from the students of Aligarh
Muslim University Aligarh.
Measures:
129
Modernism Questionnaire: It is developed by Francisco and his associates. It has 56 items. It is a
Likert type 5 point scale with response categories ranging from I disagree strongly, I disagree, I
dont agree nor disagree, I agree, to I agree strongly.
Religious Attitude Scale: This scale is developed by R. Krishnaraj and P.S. Balasubramanian. It has
34 items and it is also a Likert type 5 point scale with 5 response categories- strongly agree, agree,
undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree.
Data Analysis: t test was applied to see the comparison of means between two groups of youth
on religious attitude and modernism. Further researcher used correlation to measure relationship
between religious attitude and modernism among female and male youths.
Results and Discussion: Results were obtained to analyze the objective of the study i.e. to see
comparison between male and female youths on religious attitude and modernism and to fnd out
relationship between religious attitude and modernism among male and female youths.
Table 1: Comparison between Female and Male Youths on Religious Attitude
Group N Mean SD t Level of
signifcance
Female 100 176.12 20.76 10.11 .05
Male 100 153.86 21.25
Table 1 shows that both female and male youths differ signifcantly with each other on religious
attitude, it means both groups of youths have different levels of religious attitude. The mean and
SD score of female youths was 176.12 and 20.76 respectively while the mean and SD score of male
youths was 153.86 and 21.25 respectively. The higher mean score of female youths showed that they
have high religious attitude as compared to male youths. Signifcant value oft indicates that both
the groups differ signifcantly with each other. These results are supported by the studies conducted
by Miller and Hoffmann, 1995; Warburg, Luchau, and Andersen, 1999; who found that a higher
proportion of females than males report a greater interest in religion, that they believe in God, have
a stronger religious commitment, and attend religious services more frequently.
Two key explanations have been offered for these fndings. The frst concerns the different societal
roles of men and women. This explanation suggests that lower participation in the labor force and
greater responsibility for the upbringing of children lead women toward greater involvement in
religion. Womens roles are often viewed as including the transmission of religious values to the next
generation (Warburg, Luchau, and Andersen, 1999). In addition, lower participation in the labor force
implies that females have more time for religious activities and a greater need for a source of personal
identity (Miller and Hoffmann, 1995).
Another possible explanation for the perceived relationship between religiosity and gender involves
the different socialization of men and women. It has been argued that females are taught to be more
obedient and nurturing than males and such characteristics are related to higher degrees of religiosity
(Miller and Hoffmann, 1995).
Table 2: Comparison between Female and Male Youths on Modernism
Group N Mean SD t Level of
signifcance
Female 100 82.33 21.74 5.22 .05
Male 100 67.21 19.43
Is evident from table 2 that both female and male youth differs signifcantly from each other
on modernism, it means both group of youths have different levels of modernism. The mean and SD
score of female youths was 82.33 and 21.74 respectively while the mean and SD score of male youths
130
was 67.21 and 19.43 respectively. The higher mean score of female youths showed that they have
high inclination towards modernism as compared to male youths. Signifcant value of t indicates
that both the groups differ signifcantly with each other on modernism.
Present fnding is supported by the study of Ghosh and Roy, 1997, modernization has contributed
to better conditions for female, who have had greater educational and employment opportunities than
in the past. Modernization process in India would have promoted gender equality and exposed female
to not only increased education and employment opportunities, but also to the same competitive
pressures as male experience (Mayer, 2000,).
Table 3: Correlation between Religious attitude and Modernism among youths
Variables Correlation coeffcient (r)
Female
Correlation coeffcient (r)
Male
Religious Attitude
0.51*
0.42*
Modernism
*P< 0.05

Table 3 indicates correlation coeffcient between religious attitude and modernism for female youth.
Correlation coeffcient (r) is 0.51 which depicts a positive correlation between religious attitude and
modernism. It means the increase in religious attitude lead the increase in modernism in female youth.
Table 3 also shows correlation coeffcient between religious attitude and modernism for male
youth. Again a positive correlation was found between religious attitude and modernism among male
youths with the r value of 0.42 which is signifcant at 0.05 level. It means when religious attitude
increases modernism also increases in male youth. Miller and Hoffmann, (1995) also cited similar
fnding that the perceived relationship between religiosity and gender involves the different levels of
modernization for females and males. It has been argued that females are taught to be more obedient
and nurturing than males and such characteristics are related to higher degrees of religiosity.
CONCLUSION:
Religion will prevail and is preserved in all times, including the age of modernity. Even though at
the time when modernity appears to stand strong and powerful, religion is seems to be providing the
main base for modern man to stand upon and face the stress and strains of modern life style. In short,
Religion is working as a bulwark against all negative strands that modern life style is embroiling the
modern youth into.
REFERENCES:
Emmons, R. A. (1999). Religion in the psychology of personality: An introduction.
Journal of Personality, 67, 873888.
Gerald Graff (1975). Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, Tri Quarterly,
No. 33, pp. 307-37.
Ghosh, R. N., and Roy, K. C. (1997). The changing status of women in India: Impact of urbanization and
development. International Journal of Social Economics, 24, 902918.
Halman, L., Pettersson, T., and Verweij, J. (1999). The religious factor in contemporary
society. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 40, 141160.
John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book(1984).
Johnson, E., and Sandage, S. J. (1999). A postmodern reconstruction of psychotherapy:
131
Orienteering, religion and the healing of the soul. Psychotherapy, 36, 115.
Kurtz, Lester (1995), Modernism: Crisis and response , Gods in the global village: The
worlds religions in sociological perspective, Thousand Oaks, CA: pineforge Press.
Mayer, P. (2000). Development, gender equality and suicide rates. Psychological Reports, 87, 367372.
Miller, A. S., and Hoffmann, J. P. (1995). Risk and religion: An explanation of gender differences in religiosity.
Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion, 34, 63-75.
Pericles Lewis (2000), Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel, pp 38-39. Cambridge University Press
Taylor and Francis (1990), Modernism. p 60. Cambridge University Press
Thomas, D. L., and Cornwall, M. (1990). Religion and family in the 1980s: Discovery and development. Journal
of Marriage and the Family, 52, 983992.
Warburg, M., Luchau, P., and Andersen, P. B. (1999). Gender, profession, and non-conformal religiosity. Journal
of Contemporary Religion, 14, 277-290.
Websites:
www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijms/article/download/8123/6158. 20/2/2011
http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/oct94/7.htm 24/2/2011
http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2011/Feb/7/iqbal-sir-syed-and-the-islamic-modernism-21.asp 11/3/2011
http://epress.anu.edu.au/islamic/morality/pdf/ch06.pdf 14/3/2011
http://www.alhassanain.com/english/articles/articles/beliefs_library/religious_and_sects/religion_and_
modernity/001.html 14/3/2011
132
ETHICS VERSUS SCIENCE
M.K. SHARMA* AND ILIYAS KHAN**
I was perplexed seeing the current status of Ethics, as nobody was interested in it. People were not
willing to take this subject up as their main subject. The young- gesters began to abuse its teachings
given in the form of a story.
There was a time when the mothers, at night, used to tell the stories to their children to make them all
asleep. Besides this, our forefathers brought in existence the concepts of Namaskar, Salam, touching
the feet as a humble offering, the tradition of veil, sitting in a corner of a cot, selecting the suitable
boys and girls to get them married. Eating the food before the husband formidable, not to take any
decision without consent of the head of the family, solving the matters by the head etc. From my stand
point, they were the great people of their time; they did what they felt right. Their thinking and ideas
were quite good. But today, when I see the new generation going against their traditions, I feel very
sad and have nothing to stop them from violating the system of their forefathers. I ask you a question
i.e. is there any such new thing as introduced by the people of the old time. They made people learn
Namaskar, Salam, touching the feet etc. How great those people were! I salute them for introducing
such wonderful concepts to run the society properly.
The new generations do not feel comfortable with the traditions, brought in the existence by their
forefathers. They happily call them narrow minded and nonsense. They dont take much time to destroy
the dignity of their family, reason being there, they want to get married with those girls whom they
like and love. They dont want to touch the feet of their parents, as it is nothing but a useless thing
in their eyes, what beneft it brings to ones life, simply nothing, but wastage of time. Touching the
feet, according to them is nothing but wastage of time.
At present, Ethics has died because of the shortage of its lovers. There are few people whom we
may call its lovers, otherwise most of the people have taken their interest away and love to study
Science, which is a reason based subject. Science is such a subject in which everything is proved in
the laboratory using the equipments. Scientifc explanation is there, which is considered authentic to
prove the validity of a thing. Science has dominated everywhere. Everybody is showing his interest in
it. It should be clear here how science has overcome Ethics. Those who have their interest in science
have been found saying that Ethics is nothing but storage of stories, to them, hearing these stories,
which leaves the different messages, is wasting time over useless things.
Hindus, Muslims and Christians are trying to attach their religions with science that their religions
are scientifcally proved, which a nuisance is. I have seen many people saying that the things, which
are stated in their holy books, are scientifcally true and authentic. But it is a pity that there is no
scientifc explanation of the things, stated in Ethics, as we know well, it is a set of rules which implies
how one can survive in a society.
People in 21
st
century consider Namaskar, Salam and touching the feet a useless thing, according to
them, what saying Salam and Namaskar brings, simply nothing but fulflling the formalities to follow
the traditions. They hate all the things of society, as these things dont have scientifc implications.
They often ask this question why we are following the things of the old time. They want the elimination
*Research Scholars, Department of Philosophy, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
133
of the following things from their lives, are:
i) Saying Salam, Namaskar, touching the feet, hearing the unnecessary lecture based on the
traditions should be restricted for a better life.
ii) Women should be allowed to act as per their choice. No rules and regulations should be
imposed on them, to stop them from developing their personalities.
iii) They should be allowed to marry to the man, whom they have understood a lot spending
some time in his company, whom they call their love. But let me state here, at present,
love is nothing, but a physical desire which compels one to break the traditions to quench
this desire. Let me give an example, which will make my point clear in this regard. A
girl, whose dream is to be an actress, goes to Mumbai, having this view in her mind? She
faces many problems there, namely, way of talking, deliverance of the dialogues, status;
even then she is selected to work in a movie. Here, she compromises with all the terms
and conditions, to become an actress. Here what is she doing? She is deceiving herself
and her parents as well.
iv) I, as a student of Philosophy, would like to mention one thing here that the progresses
and the promotions should be there in ones life, but not by compromising with life, not
by surpassing the voice of conscience. One, who compromises with life, can succeed in
ones life, but for a while.
v) I am in a fx why the people have gone crazy and at large, are breaking the rules and
regulation of society. Through this piece of paper I am leaving a message that has hunger
but never hurt the soul, to fnish this hunger and desire. When you are in some trouble,
people will come forward to help you out, but remember this point; nobody will ask you
how you are!
vi) When you have sold your society stature in the hope of promotion and progress.
Concluding Remarks:
I request you all, to come forward, to save the dignity of Ethics, as day by day its importance is
declining, which is very hurting. There must be rules and regulations in ones life, otherwise life
will be like a vagabond.
134
ROLE AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AS
AN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE IN INDIA AND ITS
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
Firoz Ahmad*
ABSTRACT
The history of English language started in India in 1600s by the arrival of Englishmen in
Mughal court. By the passes of time it started gaining popularity because of the expansion
of British Empire in India. At beginning it was limited to Englishmen and elite section of
Indian society, but social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Rajunath Hari Navelkar
persuaded British government to make it the language of higher education because of the
vast literary and scientifc treasures available in English language. In 1835 English was
made offcial language by British government. After independence English became offcial
language with Hindi side by side for 15 years. But later Offcial Language Act 1963 kept
previous status of English as well as made it the language of UPSC, judiciary and central
governments acts and bills with a authorised Hindi translation. The paper will evaluate the
development of English as an offcial language in India and its status in Indian Constitution.
Key words: English, History, Offcial Language, Constitution.
Introduction: India is a multilingual country having more than one thousand native and
foreign languages and their dialects. But the most important language of the country is
English. It is the lingua franca of the country. It is the language of commerce, trade, business,
higher education, administration, judiciary, media and communication. English language
became integral part of Indian culture and society. Now in India more people speak English
than its birth place England. English was brought in India by colonizers, at beginning it
was considered their language but gradually Indians started learning it. In 1835 English was
made offcial language as well as language of higher education. After independence Hindi
in Devanagri script was made offcial language of Indian Union. It was planned that within
15 years Hindi will take place of English but it never happened, because of protests in many
states. Now the importance of English is increasing day by day because of its demand in
national and international markets.
History of English in India: Vasco da Gama was the frst European who searched a direct sea
route between Europe and India. He was a Portuguese, who landed at Calicut on 20 may 1498.
He obtained permission to trade in the city from the Raja. In 1502 Portuguese established frst
European trading center at Kollam, Kerala. The trading rivalries among Europeans brought
*Research scholar Dept. of education.A.M.U Aligarh. Email: froz5655@gmail.com
135
other European powers in India. For them India was a land of spice and marvels, they were
not ready to loose profts from trading with India. Portuguese monopoly was challenged by
Dutch and English. In 1580 Portugal was annexed to Spain. Spain was busy in the New World
and did not give attention toward the East as a result the control of the East fell through their
hands. Thus the route to the east was opened to the Dutch and English.
The Dutch arrived in India in 1595. The Dutch East India Company was chartered in 1602.
The document establishing the British contact with Indian subcontinent was the Charter of
December 31, 1600 granted by Queen Elizabeth I. It granted a monopoly on trade with India
and the East to some merchants of London. Thus the English (later British) East India Company
was formed (Kachru 1982: 353). The companys objective was the spice of Indonesia, but
because of Dutch opposition (e.g. massacre of Ambonia in 1623), they decided to change plan
and go to India instead. The English won victory over some Portuguese territory in India as
well as they got permission from Mughal court, to trade and to establish factories in return for
goods and rarities from European markets. They established factories at Surat (1612), Madras
(1639), Bombay (1668) and Calcutta (1690). The English trade became more proftable than
that of the Dutch and the region gradually fell under British control and domination. French
also challenged British supremacy over India. But after many Anglo-French wars British were
able to gain control on Indian Subcontinent.
Introduction of English in India can be divided into three phases. The frst phase started in
1610s by the Christian missionaries. They taught people English language so that they can
understand Christianity in better way. The second phase started at the end of eighteenth and
at the beginning of nineteenth century when intellectuals became aware about the modern
education, natural philosophy and scientifc discoveries of the West. And only way to access
these treasures of knowledge was learning English language. As a result, private enterprise
colleges began to spring up in Bengal teaching western knowledge in English. Thus the spread
of English was the result of the demand and willingness of local people to learn the language.
There were prominent spokesmen like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Rajunath Hari Navelkar
among others who persuaded the offcials of the East India Company to give instruction in
English rather than in Sanskrit or Arabic. They thought that English would open the way for
people to fnd out about scientifc development of the West, the knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian,
and Arabic or of Indian vernaculars would not contribute to this goal (Kachru, 1983: 67-68).
A letter of Raja Ram Mohan Roy addressed to Lord Amherst (1773-1857) from the year
1823 is often presented as an evidence of local demand for English. Roy embraced European
learning and in his opinion English provided with the key to all knowledge, all the really
useful knowledge which the world contains. In the letter Roy, expressed his opinion that the
available funds should be used for employing of talent and education to instruct the native
of India in mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy and other useful science,
which the natives of Europe have cared to a degree of perfection that has reused them above
the inhabitant of other part of the world (quoted in Kachru 1983: 68).Roys letter has been
claimed to be responsible for starting the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, the controversy
over which educational policy would be suitable for India.
The third and most important phase of the introduction of English in India starts in 1835 when
English was made language of administration, higher law courts and higher education by
English Education Act 1835. The act is often quoted as the real beginning of bilingualism in
India. The act was brought by the efforts of Macaulay, who was an Anglicist. His famous and
136
controversial minute namely Manifesto of English Education in India gave very important
arguments in favour of using English for education and administration. Thus English was
established frmly as the medium of instruction and administration. The English language
became popular because it opened the path for employment and government services.
Need for an Offcial Language
Selection of offcial language offered severe problem to the makers of the constitution
simply because of the plurality of languages used by the vast population of the country. It
is somewhat bewildering to think that no less than 1,652 spoken languages including 63
non-Indian languages are current in this sub-continent. The makers of the constitution had
therefore, to select some of these languages as the constitutional languages. The number of
people speaking each of these 1,652 languages was not anything like proportionate and some
22 languages could easily be picked up as the major languages of India, used by 91 percent
of the total population of country. Eighth schedule of our constitution includes 22 languages.
Hindi, including its kindred variants Urdu and Hindustani could claim 46 per cent. Hindi in
Devanagri script was accordingly prescribed as the offcial language of the Union (subject to
the continence of English for the same purpose for the limited period of 15 years. Art. 351).
Offcial Language: The constitution of India states that The offcial language of the Union
shall be Hindi in Devanagri script but for a period of 15 years from the commencement of
this constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the offcial purpose of
the union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement even after the
expiry of the above period of 15 years. Parliament may by law provide for the use of English
language or Devanagri form of numeral, for such purpose as may be specifed as law. (The
Constitution of India, Art. 343)
English would continue to be the offcial language of the Union side by side with
Hindi, until 1969. Thereafter the use of English for any purpose will depend on Parliamentary
legislation. Parliament has made this law by enacting the offcial language act, 1963 which
will be presently noted.
Offcial language Commission: Article 344 provided for the setting up of a language
commission after fve years and thereafter every ten years to make recommendation to the
President
(i) The progressive use of Hindi for offcial purpose.
(ii) Restricting the use of English for offcial purpose.
(iii) The language to be used in High court and Supreme Court.
(iv) Form of numeral to be used.
(v) And any matter regarding the offcial language of the union and a state or between
the states.
First Offcial Language Commission: The frst offcial language commission was appointed
in 1956 under the chairmanship of B.G. Kher. It submitted its report in 1956. The report was
presented to the parliament in 1957 and examined by Joint parliamentary committee JPC (a
committee of 30 members of two Houses of the parliament). Recommendations of the report
of the commission were as follows.
English should be the principal offcial language and Hindi the subsidiary offcial
language till 1965. After 1965 when Hindi becomes the principle offcial language of Union,
137
English should continue as the subsidiary offcial language.
No restriction should be imposed for the present on the use of English for any of the
purposes of the Union and provision should be made in term of Clause 37 of Art. 343 for the
continued use of English even after 1965 for purposes to be specifed by parliament by law
as long as may be necessary.
The Standing Commission: In pursuance of the Joint Parliamentary Committees
recommendations President issued an order on April 27, 1960. Under this order two commission
were constituted, one under the Ministry of Education and other under the Ministry of Law
to evolve Hindi equivalent.
Following inter alia were adopted in the presidents order:
(i) English shall continue to be the medium of the examination for the recruitment
through the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). After some time, Hindi may
be admitted as an alternative medium. Thus both Hindi and English being available
as the medium of the examinations for the candidates.
(ii) Parliamentary legislation may continue to be in English but an authorized translation
should be provided in Hindi. For this purpose the ministry of law has been directed to
provide such translation and also to initiate legislation to provide an authorized Hindi
translation of the text of the acts passed by the Parliament.
(iii) Where the original text of bills introduced or acts passed by a state legislature is in a
language other than the Hindi, a Hindi translation may be published with it besides
an English translation as provided in Clause (3) of Art. 348.
(iv) When the time comes for the changeover, Hindi shall be the language of the Supreme
Court.
(v) Similarly, when the time comes, Hindi shall ordinarily be the language of judgments,
decrees or orders of the court in all regions. But after undertaking necessary legislation,
the use of a regional offcial language may be made of optional instead of Hindi, with
the previous consent of the President.
Inter-state Communication: Article 345 seeks to tackle the issue of offcial language for
the inter-state communication at the governmental level. The Legislature of a state may by
law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the state or Hindi for all or any of the
offcial purposes and until that is done, English may continue to be used as hitherto in force.
The language authorized to be used as the offcial language for communication between the
states and between a state and the union. But two or more states were free to agree to use
Hindi for communication themselves (Article 346).
The 1963 offcial language Act provides that for purpose of the communication
between the union and the non-Hindi states English shall be used. Where Hindi is used
for communication between Hindi and non-Hindi states, such communication shall be
accompanied by an English translation.
All proceeding in the Supreme Court and in every high court,
(a) The Authoritative texts
(i) Of all bills to be introduced or amendments there to be moved in either House
of legislature of a state
(ii) Of all acts passed by parliament or the Legislature of a state and of all
ordinances promulgated by the President or the Governor of a state, and
(iii) Of all orders, rules, regulation and by laws issued under this constitution or
under any law made by Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the
138
High Court and for Acts, Bills, etc.parliament or the large stature of the state,
Shall be in the English
Proceedings in the High Court of the state, but not in judgment, decree or orders which
must continue to be in English until parliament by law otherwise provides) (Art. 348)
The foregoing provision of the constitution are now to be read to be subject to the
modifcation made by the offcial language act, 1963 and the authorized Translation (Central
Law) Act 1973 the new Art 394A, inserted in the constitution in 1987.
Offcial language Act, 1963
The provision of offcial language act (amended as)
(1) Continuance of English language for offcial purposes of the Union and for use in
parliament.
(A) Notwithstanding the expiration of the period of 15 years from the commencement of
the constitution. The English language may, as from the appointed day, continue to be used,
in addition to Hindi
(ii) For all the offcial purposes of the union for which it was being used immediately before
that day; and
(iii) for the transaction of business in Parliament
Authorized Hindi translation of Central Acts etc.
(1) A translation in Hindi published under the Authority in offcial gazettee on and after
the appointed day.
(a) Of Any central Act or of any Ordinance promulgated by the President, or
(b) Of any order, rule, regulation or by-law issued under the constitution or under any
Central Act, shall be deemed to be the Authoritative text therefore in Hindi.
(2) As from the appointed day, the authoritative text in the English language of all bills to
be introduced or amendment thereto be moved in either house of parliament shall be
accompanied by a translation of the same in Hindi authorized n such manner as may be
prescribed by rule made under this Act.
Authorized Hindi translation of state Acts in certain cases
Where the legislature of a state has prescribed any language other than Hindi for the use in
Act passed by the legislature of the state or in the ordinance promulgated by the governor of
the state. A translation of the same in Hindi in addition to a translation thereof in the English
language as required by Clause (3) of Art. 348 of the Constitution may be published on or
after the appointed day under the authority of the Governor of the state n the Offcial
gazette of that state and in such a case, the translation in Hindi of any such act or
ordinance shall be deemed to be the authoritative text theory in the Hindi language.
(3) Optional use of Hindi or other offcial language in judgment, etc. of High court :
As from appointed day or any day thereafter, the government of state may, with
the previous consent of the President, authorized the use of Hindi or the offcial
language of the state, in addition to the English language, for the purposes of any
judgment, decree or order is passed or made n any such language (other than the
English language), it shall be accompanied by a translation of the same in the
English language issued under the authority of High Court.
139
(4) Inter-state communication: (a) English shall be used for the purposes of
communication between the Union and a state which has not adopted Hindi as
its offcial language. (b) Where the Hindi is used for purposes of communication
between one sate and another which has not adopted Hind as its offcial language,
such communication in Hindi shall be accompanied by an English translation
theory.
REFERENCES:
Kashyap, Subhash C. Our Constitution. New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2001.
Basu, Durga Das. Introduction to the Constitution of India. Gurgaon: LexisNexis, 2013.
Laxmikant, M. Indian Polity. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hills, 2011.
Thirumalai,M.S.ed.The Constitution Of India: Provisions Relating To Languages in Language In India
Volume 2: 2 April 2002. Available at www.languageinindia.com/april2002/constitutionofndia.html
Thirumalai.M.S.ed. The Offcial Language Act, 1963 (As Amended,!967) in Language In India Volume
2: 2 April 2002. Available at www.languageinindia.com/april2002/offciallanguagesact.html
Mahmood, Syed. A history of English education in India. Aligarh: M.A.O College, 1895.
140
ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCIENCE OF MEDIEVAL
INDIAN RULERS
Akhtar Hassan*
ABSTRACT
History of science is the history of mans efforts to understand the world around him. This he did
by employing his powers of observation and logical deduction which gave rise to a whole system of
empirical scholastic methodology. This remained the basic instrument of scientifc investigation until
society developed within itself economic, political, cultural and etiological forces conducive to the
growth of a truly scientifc approach.
India unlike many other great civilizations has had a long and fairly continuous tradition
of science. Recorded history of it though is traceable as far back as 1500 BC, the date ascribed to
the writing of the Vedas.
1
The empirical thought that the great Indian sages had developed over the
centuries, reached a point of stagnation roughly by the end of the 12
th
century A.D.
2
The rise and expansion of Islamic civilization form one of the greatest milestones in world
history. In the course of the last fourteen centuries, Muslim philosophers and poets artists and scientists,
rules and labors together created a unique culture that has directly and indirectly infuenced societies
on every continent. Perhaps the most striking features of medieval cultures have been the fundamental
unity of their thought systems despite a vast diversity in their literature, religious and political traditions.
As a matter of fact, all scientifc traditions have originated and grown as a result of the natural human
urge to fght biological limitations and to implicitly through the use of intellect, the vast resources of
nature.
Arabic science was the most advanced in the world from 8
th
to the 14
th
centuries. The Arab had
access to the Greek Scientifc heritage which was lost to the west after the fall of the Roman empire.
The great works of Greece and other cultures were translated into Arabic. Along with this the Arabs
borrowed the Hindu numeral system. Islamic sciences are related to the Quran, the traditions of the
Prophets (Hadith), legal knowledge (fqh), theology (kalma), poetry, and the Arabic language. The
Quran introduced a new and vigorous language, Arabic, which was destined to become the international
language of knowledge and culture and of sciences, in particular, for several centuries. The Quran is
a book of ilm, Allah has repeatedly commented in Quran to use Aql or intelligence and be sensible,
reasonable and rational. So we fnd that all Muslims intellectual activity in its widest sense had its
starting point in the Quran, which gave birth to various sciences. The early Muslims extended their
knowledge to profane sciences Islam of itself, did not offer any kind of opposition to scientifc research
except feeble efforts by some narrow minded theologians to check it. On the contrary, the Quran
provided the stimulus for scientifc research since God was glorifed by the wonder of His creations.
The Muslim conquest of the North India plains set afoot the process of a massive infow of
scientifc theories which had been developed in the Hellenistic and later, in the Islamic civilizations.
India began to attract leading scholars of the Islamic world at a time when the latter was at the height
*Assistant professor(adhoc) Shivaji college,DU
141
of its glory and could boast of illustrious scientists like Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Ibn Sina, Ibn Yunus, Ibn
Rushed, Al-Battani, Al-Damiri, Al-Idrisi, Al-Masudi, Nassiruddin Tusi and of course Al-Biruni whose
original contribution in astronomy, trigonometry, mineralogy, mensuration etc. as well as his role as
transmitted and synthesizer of Indo-Muslim scientifc learning cannot be over-emphasized.
3
The exodus of leading scholars and a Persianization process was continued until the heyday
of the great Mughal whose patronage promised fame and fortune. Further during the course of the four
centuries preceding the establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526 AD there had come into being
an entire class of intellectuals who could claim to be of Indian origin through centuries of domicile
and interbreeding. They continued to master mainly the Graeco-Muslim sciences.
4
While the native
Indian genius nurtured in the Vedic and classical tradition, retained its distinct identity. Both these
traditions continued to fourish in co-existence with their respective linguistic parameters. The complete
synthesis never took place between these two (Hindu and Muslim) thought systems due to a radical
difference in the demands placed on basic sciences such as astronomy, alchemy and medicine or was
it primarily due to the diversity in cultural and religious institutions
5
or even to any other factor, are
questions which await extensive investigation.
6
However attempts to understand each other were not
wanting. Muslim scholars both independently as well as under the royal instruction tried to discover
the unity of the sciences.
With the consolidation of Muhammadan power in India a new pattern was woven slowly but
surely in the educational fabric of India. Medieval Indian rulers have taken much interest to establish
madrasah and imparting education through it which was in the pattern of central Asia and Iran in
the eleventh century. The Pre-Akbari syllabi dealt largely with religious studies the elements of the
Quran, the Hadith, logic argumentation, Mathematics, Geometry, Persian prose and poetry as well as
the Arabicized version of Greek philosophy or falsafa etc.
Firoz Shah Tughluq for this purpose took much interest to build a large Madrasah at Delhi
whose splendid building still stands. Ziya Baranis description it would seem that teaching here was
mainly confned to the Quran, commentary, the Prophets saying and Muslim law (Fiqh).
7
But the
Sirat-I-Firoz Shahi gives the following list of subjects which were taught at the Firozi Madrasah.
8
1. Fiqh (Jurisprudence)
2. Qirat (method of recitation of the Quran)
3. Usul-i Kalam (Principles of scholasticism)
4. Usul-i Fiqh (Principles of Jurisprudence)
5. Tafsir (Exegesis)
6. Ahadis (Traditions of the Prophet)
7. Maani-o-Bayan (Rhetoric)
8. Nahv-o-sarf (syntax)
9. Ilm-i Nazar (Science of observation)
10. Ilm-i Riyaazi (Mathematics)
11. Tabii (Physical Sciences)
12. Illahi (Theology)
13. Ilm-i Tibb (Medicine)
14. Tahrir-o Khatt (Calligraph)
In the above syllabus other than the religious subjects even rational subjects are included but
there is no mention of kimiya in this list. Firoz Tughluq had great interest to collect books on different
felds and for this purpose he deposited a large number of books on astronomy and establishes in the
Royal Library (Kitab Khana-i Khas) desired that these be made available to all those who wished to
make use of them.
9
The Mughals maintained and extended the educational activities of the Sultanate periods.
Humayun was a bibliophile with a special interest in the sciences. He encouraged the study of
142
Mathematics, Astronomy and Geography and constructed observatories (rasad khanahs). A great
change came upon the syllabus of the medieval institutions. When Akbar declared No one should
be allowed to neglect those things which the present time requires. He also ordered the inclusion of
subjects such as the elements of agriculture, geography, astronomy, medicine, logic, natural philosophy
(tabaiyyat), the religious sciences and the Vedanta as well as Patanjali.
10

The establishment of Madrasah and the promotion of scientifc education gave the impetus
to translation of Sanskrit sources into Persian and spread the knowledge among the Muslim masses
also. The earliest translations of a Sanskrit work into Persian in India was that of Varahamihiras work
entitled Tarjuma-e-Barah (Cir 1330 A.D.). Its translator, Shams Siraj Aff was the court historian
of Firoz Shah Tughluq. It was also during Firoz shahs reign that a Sanskrit treatise entitled yantraraj
was written on the astrolabe.
11
Acceptance of this work by the Hindu astronomers in Firoz Shahs
court also implied the tacit acceptance of the (Muslim) trigonometry and astronomy associated with
the astrolabe.
12
A comparative study of Unani and vedic medicinal thought was also made by Bahuwa bin
Khawas Khan, a minister of Sikandar Lodi, the Madanish shifai Sikandarashahi, is a scholarly attempt
at synthesizing the two systems of medicine. Firoz Shah Tughluq, a prominent name among the sultans
take also interest in medicine, the Tibb-I Firoz Shahi, prepared under his personal supervision.
13
He
also establishes hospital (darush Shifa) where the common people were treated. Faizi, Abul Fazls
elder brother, translated Bhaskars Lilavati the famous Indian textbook of mathematics, into Persian
at Akbars court. The book became very popular and was introduced into the syllabi of the Madrasahs.
It is in this search for areas of interaction between Graeco-Muslim and Hindu sciences that of Ain-i
Akbari of Abul Fazl (completed in 1598 A.D.) must be seen as a work of immense importance. Equally
important in this synthesis apparently continued well with the period of early colonialism, where the
works of Hakim Sharif Khan (1725-1806) who carried out extensive research on Indian pharmacology.
In technology, the medieval period was much advanced. Persian sources and painting of this
period gives the vivid information regarding the technology and crafts. Babur records assiduously,
the details about the craft traditions in India, the fruit, the cereals, the animals, the irrigation devices
(Persian wheel) and anything else, which caught his foreign eye. He also records the event when
his gun-caster Ustad Quli unable to cast a large cannon barrel in one casting, and how Babur had
to prevent the master craftsman from committing suicide
14
; So strong was the sense of failure. This
incident shows that how much technology was attached with the sentiment. Akbar, who is well known
to take much interest in the science and technology, he always visit to Karkhanas. He took personal
care and interest in testing and grading all handguns. In matters of civil engineering one merely has
to look at the entire capital that he constructed at Fatehpur Sikri and the machines that were devised
for ensuring the supply of water to the uppermost stages of his palaces, as well as to his gardens in
Agra.
15
Jahangir took great interest in veterinary sciences natural history as well as in astronomy.
16

Shah Jahans interests were focused on architecture and this has been immortalized by the Taj Mahal,
the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in New Delhi.

(Endnotes)
1 . Bose, Sen, Subbarayappa (eds.): A Concise History of Science in India, New Delhi (1972), pp,. 1-50.
2 . See the remarkably accurate observatons of Al-Biruni, on Hindu Science in his Kitab-ul Hind tr. Sachau,
E.C., S. Chand & Co. 1964, pp. 17-26.
3 . S. Maqbul Ahmad, Al Biruni as Transmiter and Synthesizer of Scientfc Knowledge, IJHS, X(2), pp.
244-8.
143
4 . It would prefer to use this term as opposed to Graeco-Arab because the later does not take into
account the contributon of the Persian and the central Asians, The Otomans etc. For a list of such
scholars see Abdul Qadir Badauni Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh (ed.) III Also see Ain, (ed.) vol. II Blochmann
(Ain 30)
5 . According to Nasr, neither in Islam, nor India nor the Far East, was the substance of nature so depleted
of a Sacramental and spiritual character, nor was the intellectual dimension of these traditons so
enfeebled, as to enable a purely secular science of Nature to develops outside the matrix of traditonal
intellectual orthodoxy. See S.H. Nasr, The Encounter of man and Nature: The Spiritual Crisis of Modern
Man, London 91968), p. 47.
6 . See Jurssitro: Encounter of cultures in the work of Al-Biruni, Studies in the History of Medicine, vol.
III, No. 3, pp. 161-172.
7 . Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Ziya Barani, ed. Sayyid Ahmad Khan et al. Calcuta 1862 (reprint with index Aligarh,
2005), p. 564.
8 . Sirat-i Firoz Shahi, Anonymous (Fasamile editon) Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna, 1999, p. 142.
9 . Ibid., p. 320.
10 . Ain-i-Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, vol. I, p. 289.
11 . For details see Pingree, David; Islamic Astronomy in Sanskrit, Journal for the History of Arabic Science,
Allepo, vol. II, No. 2, pp. 315-330.
12 . Ibid.
13 . Sirat-i Firoz Shahi, op.cit., p. 351.
14 . Khan, I.G., Technical Literature and the Mughal Elites, c. 1500-1700, U.P. History Congress, 9th Session
(1996), p. 3.
15 . Irfan Habib, Akbar and Technology, Social Scientst, Vol. 20, Nos. 9-10, Sep.-Oct. 1992.
16 . For details see, Alvi, M.A. and Rahman, Jahangir the Naturalist, New Delhi, INSA, 1972.
144
DECCAN POLICY OF THE GREAT MUGHAL
EMPEROR AKBAR
Dr.santosh kumari*
Imperialism has the habit of territorial expansion. Akbar was an ambitous ruler,so he wanted to rule
like an emperor. The History is replete with examples to prove it. His object to atack Ahmandnagar
was to have it under his possession like the and other Mohammendan rulers when he kept under his
vassalage. But they were under his subordinaton only like representatves.
Count Von Noer compared Akbar to a hunting hawk and Terry compared him to a big fsh which
always remain busy in search of their prey. The kingdom of Bahmani had divided into fve autonomous
kingdoms. The war mostly took place between Khandesh and its neighbouring state of Gujrat which
laid to the north of it.All fve Muslim states used to fght one another and also with the Hindu empire
of Vijayanagar. So Akbar thought up a plan to conquer southern India. Tha vast territory including
Baluchistan. Agfhanistan, Sindh and Kashmir had already ceded to the empire of Akbar.
In 1564 A.D., Akbar conquered Malwa, consequently, the territories of his kingdoms quite close to the
territories of Ahmadnagar, Berar, Khandesh and Gujrat But still he had to conquer the western provinces
to fulfll his aim. When Muhammad Hussain Mirza and some base persons fed towards the Deccan.
Akbar planned to send a wise person to the Deccan to show proper obedience to the emperor. According
to Akbars presumption, the ruler of the Deccan would refer the rebels to the court or drive the out of
their territories. So Akbar sent Mir Mohasin to the Deccan as an ambassador during the expendition
to Gujrat . The ruler of Ahmadnagar neither arrested nor surrendered those fugitives but he did only
this much that he gave no shelter to them in his territory. Beside doing all this the ruler of Ahmadnagar
sent a number of presents alongwith an assurance for showing his obedience to the emperor.In spite
of this, Mir Mohasin informed Akbar telling him about the restlessness and instability of the Deccan
people. To the principles of Akbar,priority was to be given to the urgent matters over the ordinary ones
and the idea of the conquest of the Deccan was postponed. In accordance with his policy, he devoted
his energies to taking over the eastern provinces under command and to suppressing the rebellion.
Therefore, he conquered Gujrat in 1572 A.D. After suppressing and crushing in 1573 A.D. the territory
of his kingdom almost merged with the territories of the Mughals. On the other hand,Murtaza Nizam
Shah merged Barar into his in 1574 A.D. and Tufal Khan, the ruler of Berar was compelled to fee.
He took shelter in Khandesh. But Miran Mubarak Shah turned Tufal Khan out because he wanted to
keep friendly relations with Murtaza and Tufal Khan was a Prisoner. At this, the rulers of Golconda,
Bijapur and Khandesh were angered, Khandesh sent its army to conquer Berar. Bijapur and Golconda
also helped4. While Murtaza was on his way to Bidar, he came now about the revolt of Mirza Suli
Khan, who killed Khairat Khan, the Nizam Shahi commander in-chief and fed to Burhanpur.5
Zain-ud-din was the minister of Miran Muhammad Khan Faruqi of Khandesh. He penetrated Berar
to support a false claimant and place him on the throne of Berar. As he reached Berar, the offcers of
the Hussain Nizam Shahi army retired from remote districts and met together at Elichpur, from where
they arrived at Gawligarh to besiege it.At Normala the army of Ahmadnagar was attacked. Khandesh
*Ph.d history
145
sent his army to Daultabad to help Nizam, seeing this Akbar diverted his attention from that side.6
Now Akbar tried to take over Khandesh before the allotted time because Khandesh was the key to
victory over Ahmadnagar and remaining parts of the south. So he sent Shihab-ud-din in 1576 A.D.
with a big army so that Khandesh might surrender.7 The fort of Burhanpur was about to fall, when
he got dispiriting news about the attack of Mirza Muzaffar Hussain on Gujrat, who separated himself
from the Mughal army and fed to Barooch and Baroda. So, Shilhab-ud-uddin raised the siege after
the surrender of Mirza and realizing a huge amount of money in the form of present and event back
towards Gujrat.8
Although this expedition proved quite unsuccessful yet the way to Ahmadnagar was cleared for Akbar.
In 1577 A.D., rebel Mirza Muzaffar Hussein took shelter in Khandesh. Akbar sent Maqsud Jauhri
with a farman and asked him to send the rebel to the imperial court. Raja Ali Khan obeyed the order.9
Murtaza Nizam Shah grew mad. He withdrew himself from public affairs. Salabat Khan, the prime-
minister took the administration in his hands. His oppressive acts caused annoyance among the nobles.
Sayyed Murtaza Khan Sabzawari, the governor of Berar and his friend Khudawanda Khan were envious
of Salabat Khan. So they proceeded towards Ahmadnagar to overthrow Salabat Khan and to the king
free from his clutches. But Salabat Khan fell upon them and they were defeated. They fed to take
help in Khandesh but Raja Ali khan refused to help them. At this, they looted and ruined Burhanpur
city. Raja Ali was annoyed, he pursued and forced them to fee towards Agra. They took shelter in the
court of Akbar where they were welcomed and granted high offcers and jagirs.10
An order was issued by Akbar to the effect that his court was open to mankind, whoever was helpless
could take refuge in his court. Behind this order, the main object Akbar was to attack Ahmadnagar
while Gujrat was a port of the Mughal empire, and Khandesh had already accepted the suzeraintly of
Akbar. Now the Territories of the Mughal empire were contiguous to the territories of Ahmadnagar.
Therefore, Akbar concentrated his attention on Ahmadnagar. His desire was to attack Ahmadnagar but
he got a favour from would the refugees because he enthroned them in Berar. They gain the favour
of his persons and it would rather be easy to attack Ahmadnagar. The Khan-i-Khanan was ordered to
punish the Deccan rulers and to place the rebels on the seat of Berar. Shihab-ud-din Ahmad,Sharif and
other Amirs of Malwa were directed to join the army. Mr. Murtaza, Khudawanda Khan, Tir Andaz,
Khan Chagtai Khan and others. Deccan offcers were ordered to join and some chief commanders
with a park of artillery and 300 war-trained elephants were also sent. An order was given that Asaf
Khan should go from Ajmer. Khwajah Fathullah was made Bakshi and Mukhbar Beg, the Diwan of
army. The title of Azdudaulah(arms of the empire) was bestowed on Fathullah, who was sent to guide
Raja Ali Khan.11
Khan-i-Azam- was sent to Hindia and arranged for an expedition. He became confused on account of
mistrust. The work fell out of gear. Shihab-ub-din Ahmad Khan was tormented amd went to his Jagir.
Khan-i-Azam came after him with the aim to fght him. Shihab-ud-din prepared for battle instead of
serving as helper. The ensuing battle was prevented by the attempts of sagacious men. The armies
stayed on the southern boundaries for six months. On the other side, all the efforts of Fathullah khan
proved to be in vain. He helped the other states of the south. So being very sad, Fathaullah khan went
to Gujarat to take help from the Khan-i-Khanan. The king of Khandesh remained quite friendly with
the Mughals only externally, but he remained an obctacle in the way of progress of the Mughals by
making an alliance with the Southern states.
Raja Ali Khan, Farhad Khan, Jamshid Khan, Azdar Khan, Mir Taqi and Amirs of Berar and Ahmadnagar
assembled and were ordered to go to battle feld. The high-ranking offcers of the imperial army were
awakened from slumber, and they gathered and made consultations as to how the achievements were
to be regularized and carried on, when it was quite a diffcult job to tell a friend from an enemy. They
thought of themselves as quite unft to have a fght. Besides, They could not do anything without facing
opposition. They turned away from opposing the foe and sent to Berar. In meantime, Khan-i-Azam
entered Berar and plundered its capital, Elichpur. A battle took place near Chandur between landlords
and the Mughal army. In this battle, the Mughal army was defeated Abdullah Sultan Kashgaari was
146
killed. He plundered at random. But Khan-i-Azam lost his nerve and the army chased him up to
Nandarbar. On the other hand, the Khan-i-Khanan sent an army under the command of Historian-
Nizam-ud-din and assured him that he would come himself. The armies of Malwa and Gujarat became
quite ready to fght a battle with the Southern states. But the rainy season had started, so the invasion
was postponed and Khan-i-Azam returned to Malwa.12. Hence, this effort also proved to be quite
unsuccessful. There were many reasons for the failures of the frst expedition-
(a) Mental misunderstanding between Shihab-ud-din and Mirza Aziz Koka,
(b) Helping the army of Ahamadnagar by Khandesh and
(c) Encountering the Mughal army with a combined force of the Deccan armies
with resoluteness.
Akbar again got an opportunity for an expedition to Ahmadnagar.Murtaza Nizam Shah became
perfectly corrupt. His inclination towards a beautiful eunuch became a cause of anger to the Amirs.
So, they entered into a conspiracy to dethrone him. Jafar, one of the Amirs, tried to enthrone his
brother, Burthan after freeing from the prison. But Burhan was defeated on 15
th
of June. He escaped
and took shelter at the Mughal Court in 1588 A.D. At this Murtaza got infuriated ad tried to kill his
son. But fortunately he was saved and he killed his father. He was also devoid of any worth. He was
also killed on the 1
st
April,1589 A.D. Now Ismail,the son of Burhan was seated on the throne but the
rule or administration came in the hands of Jamal Khan. But he was a blind fanatic. So he spread
terror in the whole kingdom. Now Akbars attention was suddenly diverted to Ahmadnagar. So he
called Burhan from Tirha. Akbar sent Burhan to Ahmadnagar in 1589 A.D. The orders were given
to the general of Malwa, Khan-i-Azam and the ruler of Khandesh, Raja Ali Khan to help Burhan but
they could not succeed in enthroning him.13
This expedition of Burhan was fated not to succeed and he came back. Khan-i-Azam received the
order of Akbar. He prepared to go with Burhan with a selected army. Burhan had evil thoughts in
his mind so he refused to go with him, Chaghtai Khan, Chanda Khan and some others with 10,000
horses and 300 musketeers. He arrived in Berar by the route of Kali Bhit. He bequeathed on his right
and marched with speed to Danapur. Jahangir Khan, the thanedar and other notables came to him in
a cringing manner. But their followers did not do so and gave battle. There was an unequal battle,
Chaghtai Khan was wounded and was confned. Burhan got requital for his evil designs.14. Thus,
this expedition also utterly failed. Akbar assisted Burhan in according to the throne,so that he might
be instrumental in helping fulfll his desire for victory of the Deccan.
Now, Burhan went to Raja Ali Khan. He helped him whole heartedly,according to the pious commands
of Akbar and he agreed with Adil Khan of Bijapur that when Adil Khan should march to Ahmadnagar,
he would also send an army from Khandesh. He sent some soldiers to entrench themselves on the
boundary to wait for their arrival, Jamal Khan, who was the general of Ahmadnagar, made many
promises that the two forces would meet. He took Ismail, the son of Burhan and hurriedly rushed to
fght with Bijapuris before Burhan could join them. He got success after a skirmish.
Azmal-ul-Mulk, Ajmad-ul-Mulk, Jahangir Khan, Shujat Khan, Aziz-ul-Mulk and other leaders
joined Burhan, when he came to Berar. Thus, he became discontented about the country. Jamal Khan
delighted in confdence. When the news reached Jamal, he marched in a hurry without any preparation.
He tried to pass through the Ghat Rohangir pass but it was closed, so he moved ahead by a more
diffcult route. A battle was faught on 13 Rajab 999A.H./27 April, 1591 A.D. Raja Ali Khan alongwith
Burhan and Jamal Khan was killed. The Deccan army was scattered after a short while, Ibrahim was
made prisoner Burhan arrived in Ahmadnagar with victory. Raja Ali Khan returned to Khandesh.15.
After his accession to the throne, Burhan indulged in luxury. Although he occupied the throne of
Ahmadnagar with the help of Akbar, yet he began to behave like an independent ruler. He granted
himself the title Burhan-ul-Mulk. He forgot all the obligations of Akbar. Akbar decided to send an
147
embassy to Raja Ali Khan to advise Burhan and the rest of the rulers of the Deccan to submit to him
and to acknowledge him as their suzerain. Akbars object was that if Burhan and other rulers of the
Deccan would have apologized to him and accepted his sovereignty, they would have been allowed
to keep their status, otherwise, an army would be dispatched to infict punishment on them. According
to this policy, Akbar sent four separate embassies to Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar and Khandesh
in 1591 A.D., July-August. He appointed Prince Murad as a governor of Malwa and honoured him
with a fag. Kettle drums and tog(a special banner).16
Sending Murad to Malwa as a governor was a part of Akbars policy vis--vis the Deccan. Actually,
he wanted to consolidate his position in Deccan.
Reference :
1. Augustus, F., The Emperor Akbar, vol.II,p.326
2. Smith, V.A., Akbar the great Mogul, p. 179, 251.
3. Abul Fazi, Akbar Nama, Vol III. P. 108-109(tr.) 77-78 (org.)Akbar sent Mir
Muhasin Rizvi(Badaoni,Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Vol.II,p.147(tr.), Mir Muhasin Rizvi was a
poet((Badaoni,Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Vol.II,p.447(tr.)323 (org.)
4. Ali Tabataba, Burhan-i-Maasir.p.461-462,466, Khwaf Khan, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab,
Vol.HI. p.208.Briggs, History of the Rise of Mahomedan Power in India.Vol.iv.p.I56.
5. Ali Tabataba, Burhan-i-Massir.p.462.
6. Ferishta, Tarikh-i-Ferishta, Vol.ll,p.140.
7. Badaoni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh,Vol ll,p.25(tr.)244(org.)Abul Fazi,Akbar Nama,
Vol.lll, p.279(tr.),197-198(org.) Nazim-ud-din, Tabqat-i-Akbari,Vol.ll,p.233(tr.)
8. Abul Fazil,Akbar Nama, Vol.111 p.289(tr.):206(org),279(tr.) Badaoni.Muntakhab-Ut-Tawarikh. Vol.ll
p.257(tr.),250(org.)Nizam-ud-din, Tabqqat-i-Akbari,Vol. ll,p.223(tr.)
Accotding to Nizam-ud-din The name was Muhammad Khan instead of Hirza Hussein Muzaffar.
Broach-On the right band of the Narmada river and midst of 2142 N,7259 E.
9. Abdul Fazi, Akbar Nama, Vol.lll.p.330(tr.),233(org)
Badaoni, Muntakhabut-Tawarikh, Vol ll,p.260-274(tr.)
Nizam-ud-din,Tabqat-i-Akbari,Vol.ll,p.236(tr.)
Qandhari. Tarikh-i-Akbar Shaki,p.397
Ferishta, Tarikh-i-Ferishta, Vol.l,p.264.
Baqsud Jauhari,Jauhari means Lapidary,perhaps,he was lapidary-Elliot and dowson,
History of India as told by its own Historians, Vol.V.p.410.
Badaoni,Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.ll.p.266(tr.),274(org)Akbar directed Raja Ali
Khan to send his son alongwith Muzaffar Hussein. (Elliot and Dowsom, History of
India as told by its own Historians, Vol. V,P.408).
10. Ali Tabataba,Burhan-i-Maasir.p548.
Abul Fazi, Akbar Nama, Vol.lH.p.686(tr.),456(org.)
Indian Antiquary. 1918,p.145.
Brings, History of the rise of the Mahomedan power in India,vol.IV,p. 322-323.
Sources:
Abul Fazi: Akbar Nama, Vol. HI, Eng.tr. by Beveridge, Delhi, 1972.
Abdui Fazi: Ain-i-Akbari, Vol.I,Eng.tr. by Blochmann,Delhi, 1964.
Ali-lbn Aziz-ul-lah Tabataba; Burhan-i-Maasir,Hyderabad,1936,Eng.tr.by Haig,W.indian
Antiquary, 1920-23.
Abdul Qadi Badaoni: Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, vol. II,Eng.tr. by Lowe,W.H.;Calcutta.
Ferishta, Muhammad Quam Hindu Shah: Tarikh-i-Ferishta of Gulshani-i-lbrahini,Nawal
148
Kishore Press, Lucknow, 1905:
Khwaji Khan,Muhammad Hashim,: Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, Vol. III,ASB, Calcutta, 1874.
Khwaja Niwazam-ud-din Ahmad: Tabqat-i-Akbari, Vol.III, Eng.tr. by B.De, Bib.Ind.Cal,
1935: Nawab Sal-ud-Daula Shah Nawaz Khan & Abdul: Maasir-ul-umar Vol.I,Cal.1885.
Qandhari. Haji Muhammad Arif: Tarik-i-Akbar Shahi. M.S, Allahabad University.
Haji-ud-Dabir: Zafar-ul-Walh, V I, Eng. Tr. By Lokhandwals, Baroda,1970;
Azad,M.H..Darbar-i-Akbar,Urdu,Lahore,1921
Augustus Frederick: Count Von of Noer, The Kaiser Akbar. Eng.tr.from German by A.S.
Beveridge, Vol.11, Patna.1973
Briggs: History of rise of the Mahommadan Power in India, Cal, 1966
Elliol.H.M. and Dowson : History of India as told by its own Historians, Vol. VI
Smith,V.A.: Akbar the great Mogul, Delhi, 1958.
149
POPULATION EXPLOSION IS THE MAIN
OBSTACLE TO THE SMOOTH DEVELOPMENT OF
THE INDIAN ECONOMY
Dr.M.S.Khan*
Abstract :
Population growth continue to increase in the world at a fast pace. As the population swells, many
experts are not only worry about this subject, but also are they concern about its hazardous results.
Famine, environmental pollution or even war is some of these threats. As a few suggestions to fght
over-population, we can rely on better education, family incentives or even stricter social legislation.
Education is the most important mean to control the population. Family control topics are quite
matured and common in many developed countries, but on the other hand is a subject of less attention
in under-developed countries. Many married women in these societies are prone to unprecedented
pregnancy which eventually leads to child birth. Lack of proper education in this scope causes these
sort of problems. There are many statistics in Africa for example, which show a rising number of
young women have searched for a post-prevention remedy after they found out about their unwanted
pregnancy.
In some developing countries, governments introduce programs to encourage families for less children.
These programs normally offer people incentives such as tax cut or special retirement benefts. In
these societies it is proven that many families will welcome family control schemes if they receive
advantages in their fnancial life. For example, in Turkey the number child birth dropped by 20 percent
after unveiling such a program in 2003.
Population growth continue to increase in the world at a fast pace. As the population swells, many
experts are not only worry about this subject, but also are they concern about its hazardous results. (I
think not only but also is misused. The frst sentence should be inversion structure and the sentence
after but also is normal style. Can u get my point? I hope so.) Famine, environmental pollution or
even war is (coz u use or before) some of these threats. As a few suggestions to fght over-population,
we can rely on better education, family incentives or and even stricter social legislation. (The thesis
sentence perhaps could be better.)
Education is the most important mean to control the population. Family control (population control?)
topics are quite matured and common in many developed countries, but on the other hand is a subject
of less attention in under-developed (developing) countries. Many married women in these societies
are prone to unprecedented pregnancy which eventually leads to child birth. Lack of proper education
in this scope causes these sort of (the oral English is not good use in essays) problems. There are many
statistics in Africa for example, which show a rising number of young women have searched for a
*Principal, Aligarh College of Educaton Aligarh
150
post-prevention remedy after they found out about their unwanted pregnancy.
In some developing countries, governments introduce programs to encourage families for less children.
These programs normally offer people incentives such as tax cut or special retirement benefts. In
these societies, it is proven that many families will welcome family control schemes if they receive
advantages in their fnancial life. For example, in Turkey the number child birth dropped by 20 percent
after unveiling such a program in 2003.
Next alternative which is less popular among families is setting hard legislation to prevent population
growth. Stopping some social benefts such as pension or having the right to vote are some of many
possible rules and regulations through which governments can control the population more exclusively.
(This sentence is quite long, u lost me. I think sty is wrong in his sentence) this scheme is often used
in highly populated countries such as India which the prior models might not work properly.
Population explosion is the main obstacle to the smooth development of the Indian economy. Since
this problem is getting intense day by day, it is obvious to take appropriate measures to keep it under
control by lowering the birth rate.
1. Rise in Per-capita Income:
Demographic history of various advanced countries shows that there is an inverse relationship between
per-capita income and a countrys birth rate. When per-capita income increases, people dont desire
more children in order supplement their income. In other words, with increase in per-capita income,
people feel more secure and do not want to depend on their children. Dumont, a noted demographer
has developed the Social Capillarity Thesis to explain this relationship between birthrate and per-
capita income. Therefore, rapid economic development is very much essential to control the already
high birth rate. However, this increase in per-capita income will have its positive impact on birth rate
after a period after a period of time.
2. Urbanization and Industrialization
In the Indian society we have joint family system which encourages a high birth rate. Hence this joint
family has to be replaced by nucleus family. A nucleus family is generally found in an urbanized and
industrialized economy. Hence our efforts should be to industrialize and urbanize our economy to
reduce the high birth rate.
3. Late Marriage
In India girls marry at an early age and a longer span of time to reduce children. Hence we have to
raise the minimum age to marriage in our country in order to control the birth rate. A UN report has
pointed out, there would be a signifcant decline of birth of seven per thousand, if the average age of
marriage of females were to rise from 16 to 20years.
4. Lowering Infant Mortality Rate
In India, infant mortality rate is very high and stands at 72 per thousand. Poor people, in order to
ensure that some children do survive, reproduce more. Therefore, widespread vaccination and proper
child and maternity care should be undertaken to reduce the infant mortality rate.
5. Spread of Education
In India, 48 percent of total population are illiterate. They regard children as the gift of God and are not
conscious about the evils of population growth. To move illiteracy and blind belief, spread of education
is very much essential. An educated man can rightly understand the beneft of a small family norm.
151
6. Women education and employment
In India, only 32.92 percent of women are literate and much less are employed. The Government,
therefore, should take effective steps to spread women education and create employment opportunities
for them so that they can understand the evils of population growth and control it by themselves.
7. Family Planning Facilities
In India, family planning facilities are available only in the urban centers and semi-urban areas. So
poor people of rural areas dont get these facilities easily. Therefore, family planning centers with
trained personnel should be set up in rural areas to prove this facility at their doorstep. This can very
much help in lowering the birth rate.
8. Incentives:
The Government should provide both monetary and real incentives to people for adopting family
planning measures. The funds for the purpose should be properly utilized.
9. Publicity
The massage of family planning should reach the people of rural areas. For this there should be
widespread publicity in the new paper, radio and T.V. people should be convinced that no birth control
device is harmful and small family is a happy family.
10. Legislation
Family planning is a voluntary measure. However, Government should enact laws for directly lowering
the birth rate. The Government can make laws in this feld of rising the minimum age of marriage,
compulsory education up to high school level, termination of pregnancy and abolition of child labor.
In fact, the Govt. of India has already enacted laws in these regards.
Conclusion -:
India is often described as a collection of many countries held together by a common destiny and a
success-full democracy. Its diverse ethnic, linguistic, geographic, religious, and demographic features
refect its rich his-Tory and shape its present and future. No fewer than 16 languages are featured on
Indian rupee notes. It is also only the second country to achieve a population of 1 billion. While it
is an emerging economic power, life remains largely rooted in its villages. Only a small fraction of
Indians are benefting from the countrys expanding industrial and information sectors. India has more
people than Europe, more than Africa, more than the entire Western Hemisphere. Indias population
will exceed that of China before 2030 to become the worlds most populous country, a distinction
it will almost certainly never lose. Just one group, Indian boys below age 5, numbers 62 million
more than the total population of France. India s annual increase of nearly 19 million contributes far
more to annual world population growth than any other country. This Population Bulletin presents a
demographic poor trait of the diverse country of India in the early years of the 21st century and offers
insight into some of the forces driving continued growth.
REFERENCE -:
Andrew, M. & Schwab, R. L. (1995). Has reform in teacher education infuenced teacher performance? An outcome
assessment of graduates of eleven teacher education programs. Action in Teacher Education, 17, 43-53.
Chen, M. J. (1997). The construction of teachers teaching effectiveness Indicators in Elementary School. Journal of
National Taiwan College of Arts, 61,
152
221-253.
Fang, L. Y. (2000). The study of the teaching effectiveness evaluation of the junior high school teachers. Unpublished
doctoral thesis, Graduate Institute of Education of National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Jean, M. F., Pang, S. M. & Li, H. X. (1998). Basic quality analysis and evaluation for junior high school and elementary
school teachers by the ministry of education in 1996. Taipei, Taiwan: Center for Educational Research of National
Taiwan Normal University.
Lin, C. T. (2001). Approach, paradigm and new trend in teacher effectiveness research. National University of Tainan
Journal of Primary Education, 14, 105-135.
Peng, S. M, (1999). Basic quality standards and teacher cultivation for junior high school and elementary school
teachers. Teacher Quality and Evaluation Seminar, Department of Education of National Kaohsiung Normal
University, Taiwan.
Wang, H. H. & Fwu, B. J. (2007). In pursuit of teacher quality in diversity: a study of the selection mechanisms of
new secondary teacher education programmers in Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development,
27(2), 166-181.
Wu, C. S. (2003). Gradually promoting teachers license change, evaluation, and upgrading. The Educator Monthly,
461, 7-11.
Lin, C. T. (2001). Approach, paradigm and new trend in teacher effectiveness research. National University of Tainan
Journal of Primary Education, 14,105-135
Shih, H. H. (2001). A study of the relationships among learning attitude of students,
teacher effcacy and schools effectiveness of comprehensive high schools. Unpublished master thesis, Department of
Industrial Education of National Changsha Normal University, Taiwan.
153
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFECTIVE
TEACHINGS
AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Dr.Dharmendra Sharma*
ABSTRACT-:
Effective teaching in developmental education is one of the most challenging jobs in the college
teaching profession. The search for teaching excellence in this feld extends beyond basic cognitive
issues to address no cognitive needs of underprepared students also. The six principles for effective
developmental education teaching reviewed in the article are the product of integrating research
fndings from successful developmental education programs and general principles for effective
teaching in undergraduate education. The principles focus on key elements that teachers may use to
support effective teaching.
Many teaching professionals spend their entire careers in search of teaching excellence. This search
may be even more important when students are underprepared adults. These students lack the foundation
and skills required for rigorous college curriculum and many of them have adult responsibilities that
place excessive demands on their time and other resources.
Key Word-: Effective teaching, developmental education teaching, excellence teaching method,
Teaching skills, demands of teaching method, presentation, learning, seminar , workshop,
conference , use of Technology.
Having high expectations
Effective teachers strive to motivate and engage all their students in learning rather than simply
accepting that some students cannot be engaged and are destined to do poorly They believe every
student is capable of achieving success at school and they do all they can to fnd ways of making each
student successful.
Effective teachers have high expectations of students in terms of both their standard of learning and
their behavior, and they help their students meet those expectations. They also have high expectations
of themselves and their own learning.
Acknowledging individual differences
Effective teachers personalize the learning for their students. They understand that students develop
at different rates and that in every classroom there will be a range of student abilities and aptitudes.
They accommodate the different needs of students in their class rather than pitch their teaching to the
middle, letting some students be bored while others struggle or are unable to do the work. Effective
teachers use techniques that have each student working on tasks that engage and challenge them to
achieve their personal best. They understand that students learn best when they are presented with new
material in a way that enables them to connect it to what they already understand and know how to do.
Effective teachers also understand that students learn best if their particular culture, background and
*Asst Professor, Aligarh College Educaton Aligarh
154
abilities are acknowledged by the teacher in the way they teach.
Using a range of pedagogies
Effective teachers use techniques that best serve the learning needs of their students. There are many
things that students can learn themselves through discovery, with the teacher structuring the learning
to suit. There also are many things that require the teacher to teach in a more direct way. Students not
only learn by being exposed to learning opportunities but they also need to be explicitly taught those
things it is important for all students to know.
Some students will learn these things quickly and with only minimal direct teaching. Other students
will need concerted direct teaching and correction by the teacher before they master the learning
required. Effective teachers help students learn on their own as well as with and from others. They
know that students learn best if they are provided with opportunities to learn not only from the teacher
but also from other students and from sources outside the school that are now more readily accessible
through various forms of technology.
Best teaching methods:
1. Lecture Method
It creates new ideas.
It is good for large class.
Students can ask if they need any clarifcation
Learn through listening
Teacher explains all points.
Students give their input
Teacher discuss whole topic in the class in easy language so
students can easily understand the topic.
It is good for large class.
Teacher provides all knowledge related to topic.
Time saving as teacher is supposed to fnish lecture in time.
Students give their views at the end of lecture.
It creates new ideas.
Teacher is experienced and has mastery on subject and can
answer all questions by students.
Teacher share information with students so it creates interest in
students.
Students are more involved and participate when teacher ask
question.
Teacher provides notes.
Students easily understand every point.
Students share knowledge with teacher.
Teacher is role model for students
2. Group discussion:
More participation of students.
Students listen to others opinion & express their opinion.
Discuss with teachers the points that were missed during discussion.
Students learn on their own & fnd out key points.
Students exchange their ideas.
Students get point of view of all and not only those who always speak.
After discussion when students give their presentation, teacher corrects
their mistakes.
155
Students can make their own notes.
The learning is more effective.
3. Individual presentation
Hamm (2008) quoted Rife; A presentation involves
motivating listeners to accept a new idea, alter an existing
opinion, or act on a given premise.
It increases confdence among students.
Good way to learn for only one student who is presenting.
Students search lot of books to collect material
Teachers supervision is important.
4. Assignment
It enhances the ability of research on any topic as the students search topic from
different books, websites etc.
Active learning.
5. Seminars
Give Chance to meet other people of same profession.
Motivate and make student active in learning.
Interested method.
6. Workshops
7. Conferences
Networking with other institutions and professionals.
8. Brain storming
More interesting
More informative
Gain knowledge
Learning is effective
More participation of students
Students give their opinion
Active learning
Creative thinking is encouraged.
Students think beyond their knowledge.
Everyone gets the chance to express their thoughts.
Simple topics can be learnt through different angles.
9. Role play
Interesting method
Students enjoy the situation
Active learning
Easy to learn
10. Case study
Active learning
156
CONCLUSION -:
Effective teachers have a sense of how each student is doing in the classes that they teach. They use
a variety of formal and informal measures to monitor and assess their pupils mastery of a concept or
skill. When a student is having diffculty, the teacher targets the knowledge or skill that is troubling
the student, and provides remediation as necessary to fll in that gap. Communication with all parties
vested in the success of the student is important since parents and instructional teams are also interested
in monitoring the students progress. Monitoring of student progress and potential need not be solely
the responsibility of the teacher; indeed, an effective teacher facilitates students understanding
of how to assess their own performance, that is, assists them in met cognition. However, ultimate
accountability does lie with each teacher, so documenting a students progress and performance needs
to be accomplished. An effective teacher who has observed and worked with a student has a sense of
the potential that student possesses, encourages the student to excel, and provides the push to motivate
the student to make a sustained effort when needed.
REFERENCE -:
Astin, A. (1984). A look at pluralism in the contemporary student population. NASPA Journal,21 (3), 2-11. Baiocco,
S.A., & DeWaters, J.N. (1998). Successful college teaching: Problem-solving strategies of distinguished professors.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Casazza, M., & Silverman, C. (1996). Learning assistance and developmental education San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Arreola, R. A. (1995). Developing a comprehensive faculty evaluation system.
Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing
Benson, L., Schroeder, P., Lantz, C., and Bird, M. (n.d.). Student Perceptions Of Effective Professors. Retrieved
July 24,2009,fromwww.usfca.edu/ess/sym2001/PDFbooks/
Braskamp, L. A., & Ory, J. C. (1994). Assessing faculty work: Enhancing individual and instructional performance.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.Centra, J. A. (1993). Refective faculty evaluation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Cohen, P. A. (1981). Student Ratings of Instruction and Student Achievement:
A Meta-Analysis of Multisection Validity Studies. Review of Educational Research. 51, 281-309.
Davis. B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.
Hoyt, M. P., & Pallett, W. H. (1999). ). Appraising teaching effectiveness:
Beyond student ratings. IDEA. Paper No. 36. Kansas State University, Center1515 for Faculty Evaluation and
Development. Retrieved June 1, 2002, from http://www.idea.ksu.edu/products/Papers.html
Kochkar, S.K. (2000). Methods And Techniques Of Teaching. New Delhi: Sterling. Svinicki, M. (2001).
ncouraging your Students to give Feedback. In Techniques and Strategies for Interpreting Student Evaluations,
Lewis. K.(Ed). Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.
Typical Teaching Situations: A handbook for Faculty and Teaching Assistants (n.d.). Retrieved July 23, 2008
from http://trc.virginia.edu/Publications/Teaching_UVA/III_Case_Method.htm# Gall, M. D. (2004). Notes
on the relationship between research and practice in teacher education, University of Oregon. Retrieved on
November 15, 2010 from http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~mgall/designmemo%231.htm Jumani, N.B.(2007).
Study on the competencies of teachers trained through distance education in Pakistan, Unpublished Post
doctoral report, Australia: Dakin University.
Glatfelter, C. T., Helen, F. L.,& Jacob, L. V. ( 2006). Teacher-student matching and the assessment of teacher
effectiveness. Journal of Human Resources 41(4): 778-820.
Glatfelter, C. T., Helen, F. L., & Jacob, L. V.(2007a). How and Why Do Teacher Credentials Matter for Student
Achievement? Working Paper #2. Washington, DC: CALDER.
Glatfelter, Charles T., Helen F. Ladd., & Jacob L. V. (2007b). Teacher credentials and student achievement in high
school: A Cross-Subject Analysis with Student Fixed Effects. Working Paper #11. Washington, DC:CALDER.
157
SOCIO-LEGAL PROBLEMS OF WORKING WOMEN
IN SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONE: A CASE STUDY OF
PATAUDI REGION OF HARYANA
Md. Zafar Mahfooz*. Nomani Mohammad Rauf**
ABSTRACT
The socio-legal problem of women has been documented in various studies but the gender based
survey of working women in Special Economic Zone (SEZ) has been sparsely touched upon to in the
process of study of Pataudi region of Haryana. The socio-legal problems of women workers in the
SEZ are based on technology and labour-intensive mechanism for short and long-term employment
contracts. Short-term contracts are used for fexible hiring and fring and for avoiding costs such
as maternity leave or pay. Women are forced to work in the night shifts, no women cell and sexual
harassment of women workers is common in the SEZ. The women workers are not paid maternity
leaves, minimum wage and a majority of workers paid a daily wage below minimum wages rule
and regulation in another words stipulated norms. They suffer from occupational hazards, irregular
period and diseases which manifest in headaches due to tension and intense concentration on work,
acute back pain, joint pains, swelling in the legs, severe abdominal pains. The womans facing new
challenges in SEZ due to fexibility of labour laws. The paper endeavors to socio-legal problems of
working women in special economic zone especially of Pataudi region of Haryana.
I: NATURE AND GROWTH
India was one of the frst countries in Asia to establish frst Export Processing Zone (EPZ) in 1965.
The main objective of EPZs was to increase foreign direct investment while boosting exports of goods
manufactured in India.
The most important factor for socio-economic development of a country is its industrialization where
SEZ create the socio-legal problems to women and harmonious construction of laws are completely
absent and whose development is vitally not linked with various welfare programmes and policies
designed to remove poverty, unemployment and backwardness of the local women.
SEZ is aimed to foster economic growth by development of infra structure and Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI).
2
This is typically based on an international business like Multi-National Corporations
(MNCs). SEZ is generally implemented to meet fscal, social, and infrastructure policy rationales.
3

The fscal goal of an SEZ is to facilitate economic growth through the use of reduced tariffs and
more effcient customs controls.
4
They are also essential tools for companies seeking to cut costs
and improve inventory effciency, and they help developing nations rework poor,
5
ineffcient trade
policies and dilapidated or non-existent infrastructure. The farmers are protesting against the forced
acquisition of their lands.
The development of SEZs increase the regional disparities and destroy the employment of farmers
whose land will be acquired and will create very little employment for high-tech or highly skilled
and net employment to be good, produced a negative result.
6
* Associate Professor & Project Director, ICSSR Major Research Project, Department of Law, Fort Road, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh.
** Assistant Professor,Vevikananda Law College, Aligarh,
158
II: METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Pataudi Region of Haryana SEZ. The sample collected on the basis of
questionnaires stratifed random method.
A site was chosen SEZ. The survey instruments covered demographics, employment conditions
and benefts, working conditions, occupational health and safety, collective bargaining, working
relationships and harassment and regional disparities in area.
III: OBJECTIVES
The government policy is to encourage greater employment an opportunity for women, working
conditions and labour policy needs to accommodate the gender specifc needs of women workers. So
the frst step in this direction would be to surface from the perspective of women themselves, their
needs and issues in the work-place.
A balanced, multi-faceted set of perspectives are therefore needed to shape future looking strategies
to improve the employment situation of women.
(1) To examine in SEZ socio-legal aspects of working women as Harassment, workload, fnance
and decision making standard etc.
(2) To underline the impact of labour laws and procedures in ensuring workers to get their due
share in the economic prosperity of the State.
(3) To evaluate the role of SEZs in technology up gradation and skill formation.
This research paper therefore examines the Socio-legal Problems of Working Women in Zone. There
are sex disparities in working conditions for women in SEZ and analysis discrimination against
women. It looks at specifc working conditions, occupational health and safety, collective bargaining
and harassment at the work place. The study also tried to surface any best practices with respect to
women workers in Pataudi area of Haryana.
IV: HYPOTHESIS
1. What kind of jobs were men and women doing.
2. Nature and Working conditions in the SEZ for women workers.
3. Whether Trade Union and Collective bargaining and other mechanisms exist in SEZ.
4. Main focuses women on nature of work, sexual harassment, maternity Beneft Act &
payment of demands.
5. Key issues of SEZ and regional disparities in area.
V: ESSENTIAL OF SEZS SCHEME
A new export promotion scheme of SEZs was introduced with a simple and transparent policy and
procedure for promotion of exports with minimum paper work. The most important feature of the
Scheme is that the SEZ area is considered essentially as a foreign territory for the purposes of women
rules and regulations in industries, trade operations, duties & tariffs.
7
Therefore, goods supplied to
SEZ from the Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) are treated as deemed exports and goods brought from SEZ
to DTA are treated as imported goods.
8
The SEZ Scheme places full trust on the units and, therefore,
import and export operations of the units in the Zone are on the basis of self-certifcation no fexible
laws for women.
9
(a) No import license required.
(b) Manufacturing or services allowed.
(c) Inland Revenue is subject to full customs duty and import policy in force.
(d) Full freedom for sub-contracting.
(e) No routine examination by customs authorities of export/import cargo.
VI: SEZ LOCATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
Haryana was carved out from the Indian State of Punjab on 1
st
November 1966. It is surrounded by
Uttar Pradesh and National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi in east, Punjab in west, Himachal Pradesh
in the North and Rajasthan in the south.
The State is divided into four divisions for administrative purposes (1) Ambala (2) Rohtak (3) Gurgaon
(4) Hissar
159
Table-1: Summery of Haryana
District Tehsil Blocks Villages SEZ Area
21 67 116 6759 39 1553 sqm
VII: GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL SETTING
(i) Study Area of Pataudi town, Gurgaon
Gurgaon is the most important commercial and business centre of Haryana which is located on the
outskirts of Delhi. Gurgaon is the second largest city of the Indian State of Haryana and is the industrial
and fnancial center of the state. Gurgaon is the IT hub & a mega centre of various BPO companies.
It is also only Indian city to have successfully distributed electricity connections to all its households.
(ii) Profle of Study area: Pataudi
The booming Indian real estate market is no longer confned to big metros like Mumbai or Delhi
but has spread into the erstwhile peripheral cities that have grown to become the new hub of Indian
realty. The NCR holds key for real estate growth in north India. The city of Gurgaon, also termed as
the Millennium City and Faridabad are the two key regions which have attracted massive real estate
development in the area in the past few years.
10
Pataudi road is now is in the vicinity of three major highways; National Highway 8, Palwal Express
way and Dwarka Expressway. The study area is divided into four major villages of Pataudi Block.
Table-2: Tabular representation of the study area
S.No Tehsils (4) Blocks(4)
01 Gurgaon, Sohna, Farukhnagar, Manesar Gur gaon, Sohna,
Farukh Nagar, Pataudi
02 Pataudi (List of survey villages)
Babra Bakipur (1) Hamirpur (2) Harsaru(4)
Pataudi is a town in Gurgaon district in Indian state of Haryana. Industrial model Township (IMT)
Manesar is just four kilometers away from Pataudi road.SEZ there by established by the Reliance
and Raheja Engineering and commercial sector. Adding to this are the governments plans to upgrade
infrastructure facilities along the belt. Some of the major developers and logistics Parks building on
this road are DLF, Ansal, Adani Logistics etc.
VIII: SOCIO-LEGAL PROBLEMS OF WORKING WOMEN
(i) Socio-legal Issues in Study Area
There are large numbers of socio-legal issues are being involved with SEZs in the area. All of these
issues are concerned with the positive and negative aspect of SEZs. From socio-legal and working
160
women point of view, it has been claimed that SEZ policy will help to create huge private and foreign
investment in manufacturing sector that will further help to generate large scale employment, increasing
exports and use of new technology in SEZ that will have a spillover effect on the frms operating in
study area. Issues related to health of working women, Working environment and social security are
some caveats related to the socio-economic aspects of SEZs.
11
The employment of women has continued to be a problem since the early days of EPZ. The employment
of women workers in modern industrial system has given rise to second class wage-earners by their
employers.
12
The environment of women employment raises the socio-legal problem as involved, the
inadequacy of family income and their desire to supplement the meager family incomes compelled
women workers to work in zone. But employment in such industries does not provide them adequate
wages.
13
The low educational qualifcations and lack of proper skill of women as compared to men
has also been responsible either in getting lower posts or non availability of higher posts.
14
The legal
protections afforded to women workers are inadequate; Work in SEZ means being available for three
shift s, including a night shift. SEZ Rules have lifted the general prohibition of the third shift for
women. By implication, young workers without a spouse and children to support would be willing to
work for the wages offered and be available to work for longer hours than older workers with family
responsibilities.
15
In its reply, SEZ however, denied taking any advantage of young and un-married
employees and pointed out that female workers are required to do only two shifts. The company
highlighted the fact that it pays workers higher salaries than required by law as well as strictly follows
the legal working hour limit of 48 hours per week. Many interviews with workers conveyed a sense
of great frustration and disillusionment with employment in SEZ upon the contract labour.
(ii) Policy Framework
SEZ were announced by the Government of India in April 2000 as a part of the Export-import policy
of India. The government realized the need to enhance foreign investment, promote exports from
the country and at the same time provide a level playing to the domestic enterprises, while ensuring
manufacturers to be competitive globally. The policy provides for setting up of SEZs in the public,
private, joint sector or by State Governments.
It was also envisaged that some of the existing EPZs would be converted into SEZs. The success of
any zone is strongly attributed to the policy framework. An attractive policy framework mainly covers
areas such as fscal incentives, zone administration, preferential police & procedures, labour laws,
fexibility in foreign investment and repatriation. Governments have on regular bases made alterations,
amendments to their policies to come up with an attractive framework to induce zone investment.
Many countries have also enacted overriding SEZs Laws/ Policies.
(iii) Labour Laws
The fexibility in labour laws such as engaging contract labour, wage setting, labour retrenchment
and closure of units in response to market farces have played an important role in attracting foreign
investment. Relaxed labour law besides giving comfort to foreign investors has provided operating
units the fexibility to alter their manufacturing activities in response to changes in the marketplace
without being constrained by restrictive local laws. Contract workers are deployed to the companies
by third-party agencies, which supply workers to several principal employers Contract Labour Act is
warped to beneft employers and allows the use of contract workers even for regular and perennial work.
The above graph shows the z-score of awareness relating to SEZ in the locality. The villager of
Wazipur are well aware from the establishment of SEZ in the village vacinity.Village of Harsaru got
second position in the awareness.
In the study area of Pataudi, the researcher researched with the help of questionnaire and asked about
the main source of income of the local peoples in the selected four villages: Wazirpur, Harsaru,
Hamirpur and Babra Bakipur villages.
Table -4: SEZ benefcial as main Sources of Income for Local people
villages
161
wazirpur 24% 39% 6% 18% 13%
harsaru 26% 36.25% 8.75% 8.75% 20%
hamirpur 36% 28% 12% 36% 8%
babra 37.14% 8.57% 8.75% 25.71% 20%
Figure-3: Employment Position of Villager in SEZ
The above depiction shows the percentage of selected respondents answer on the main source of
income. Only13% to 20% of Wazirpur & Harsaru villages of households income from the SEZ in the
area but the 36% to 39% peoples are against the SEZ as main source of income.
Figur-4: Employment in SEZ by Villager
The above graph shows the percentage of selected respondents answer on the main source of income.
Only 8% to 20% of Hamirpur & Babra villages of households income from the SEZ in the area but
the 36% to 37% peoples are against the SEZ as main source of income.
On the basis of the above study, we can thus conclude that the SEZ is not regarded by the majority of
the local village people as the main source of income.
(i) Health Hazards
Health hazards that women encounter are related basically to the tools of work and the work
environment. We found very little awareness about health hazards among workers and unions, a state
which management policies also seem to perpetuate by not providing any information on occupational)
health & safety. When women respondents were asked about the hazards at work, 33% of the women
respondents said they had no problems, while 40% mentioned the possibility of injury while at work
and other nature of work.
Figure-5: Hazards Women Face at Work
The health problems of women are also related to working in one position continuously like bending,
crouching, sitting or standing for several hours every day, over a period of time. These postures result
in backache, injury of the spinal cord, aches and pains in joints and shoulders. Of the total respondents
52 % have to standing all day to do their job, 34 % have to sit. Over a third of respondents have to
stand while working while the rest said that their work involves both 14 % standing and sitting.
Figure-6: Posture of Women at Work
In the case of standing, this can lead to varicose veins, back pain, and pain in leg muscles and in the
case of sitting, can lead to swollen feet and back pain. We noticed that a large proportion of women
experiencing reproductive health related problems were also related to their posture during work, i.e.
whether they were only standing or only sitting. The fndings showed that 44 % of those experiencing
irregular periods, 39% of those experiencing white discharge and 17% of women who have experienced
miscarriages.
Figure-7: Incidence of Reproductive Health Problems by Posture
(ii) Safety Committee in Their Work Place
When we were ask if there is a safety committee in their work place. Of the total respondents, 69%
women said no, 26 % said yes and 5% cant says.
Figure-8: Safety Committee
While some of the respondents mentioned the existence of an offcer in charge of safety, even in the
absence of a safety committee. Often the supervisor or other representatives of the management take
over the responsibility of specifying the use of the safety devices and this is perceived as the role of
a safety offcer.
Women describing the safety training provided to them said it included training in fre fghting, use
of safety devices and informal briefng by the management on the safety precautions and procedures.
70% respondents did not have any training at all. Of the remaining 16% only got fre training and
other said cant say got training in the use of safety devices.
Figure-9: Safety Training Programme
162
(iii) Bonus
In the SEZ few workers shared that if they were absent for one day in a month, they lost their attendance
bonus for that month and that managers expect to be informed in advance about absences due to
sickness, which the workers naturally fnd impossible to do.
(iv) Sexual Harassment Committee
Under Supreme Court guidelines employers have to prevent sexual harassment in the work place by
97: 3 Adopting specifc preventive measures l Establishing a sexual harassment complaints committee
A majority (97 % of the women said that there was no sexual harassment committee at their work
place. Only 3 % of them said that they had a committee.
Figure-10: Sexual Harassment Committee
All the union leaders interviewed reported no committee at all. In SEZ where there was a sexual
harassment committee, it was basically comprised of top management offcials, most workers were
not aware of it and these committees had only recommendatory powers.
Even after the Supreme Court guidelines saying that there should be a committee there are a number
of factories that do not have one. Though some management personnel, union personnel and women
workers said that they had a sexual harassment committee.
X: CATEGORY-WISE CURRENT EMPLOYMENT GENERATED BY SEZ IN THE REGION
As per the data represent in the below table only 25% to 36% people will be provided direct and
indirect employment in SEZs
Table-5: Two Villages person agree from the SEZ as main source of income
Q 7
Village Name Agree (AG) Strongly Disagree
(SD)
Neither Agree nor disagree (NR)
Wazirpur 18.00% 24% 6%
Harsaru 8.00% 36% 8%
Hamirpur 36.00% 36% 12%
B a b r a
Bakipur
25.00% 37% 9%
(Source: Data compiled on the basis of Survey by reseacher)
Figur-11: Main Source of Income from SEZ area
The above graph represents the main source of income of the villages of Wazirpur, Harsaru, Hamirpur
and Babra Bakipur. One of the foremost objectives of SEZ Policy is to generate gainful employment.
As per survey data, so far in Hamirpur village, 36 % persons of locality have been employed in SEZs.
The claims are to create more than 60% job to the local peoples in next three years.
(i) Inter-Village Disparities of SEZ
The SEZ has adopted the view that if the project is implemented in a time-bound fashion, it will
completely change the socio-economic conditions of the local area. There are many agitations against
the SEZ by farmers and even those farmers who had surrendered part of their land for the SEZ have
now changed their mind and had submitted anti-SEZ opinions as we dont want the project as farmers
in the area and are not keen to part with our land for SEZ. On the other hand the Revenue Minister
has strongly defended the Govt. on SEZ by saying that the scheme will beneft the farmers and create
new avenue for the future generations. SEZs should be proposed only in land areas which dont yield
much. The farmers can reap rich dividends from the land deal. It can create more job opportunities
for the new generation.
163
Note: Q7=Have you main sources of income from SEZ? .Q8= The establishment of SEZ has obstructed
in your livelihood and agricultural land. Q9= SEZ has provided you employment in place of acquisition
of land. Q10= The villagers has sizably employed in SEZ
Every evicted family should receive appropriate accommodation; house, basic amenities to compensate
loss of housing. The government must pay regular income to the evicted families or jobs to compensate
for the loss of profession. The rental cost of the land to the Zones should refect these costs of
rehabilitations. The evicted people also would have priority in employment in SEZs.
Figur-12: Economic Position of Wazirpur
The above graph indicates the actual position of the Village of Wazirpur as how much of resident
of the village are happy from the SEZ in the locality. The graph shows the four main question of
the locality. 39% of the local people of the village of Wazirpur are disagreeing on the question of
main source of income from the SEZ of locality.
Table-7: Village of Harsaru: SEZ provide employment in place of acquisition
Village Harsaru
Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
Strongly Disagree 26.25% 9% 26% 7%
Disagree 36.25% 26% 27% 11%
Neither Agree nor disagree 8.75% 10% 13% 13%
Agree 8.25% 28% 15% 40%
Strongly Agree 20.00% 28% 16% 28%
Note: Q7=Have you main sources of income from SEZ? .Q8= The establishment of
SEZ has obstructed in your livelihood and agricultural land. Q9= SEZ has provided
you employment in place of acquisition of land. Q10= The villagers has sizably
employed in SEZ
In the Village of Harsaru 15% of the respondents are agreeing that SEZ provided employment in
place of acquisition of land.
Figure-13: Employment in SEZ jurisdiction
The above depiction based on the four main questions on employment. Firstly Q7 represent the main
source of income from SEZ, direct or indirect. Secondly Q8 represent establishment of SEZ and
obstacles, Thirdly Q9 represent the SEZ provide employment in place of land acquisition .Lastly Q10
represent the villagers has sizably employed in SEZ.
Table-8: Village of Hamirpur: villagers has sizably employed in SEZ
Village Hamirpur
Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
Disagree 28.00% 28% 36% 8%
Agree 36.00% 20% 16% 36%
Strongly Agree 8.00% 20% 8% 24%
Note: Q7=Have you main sources of income from SEZ? .Q8= The establishment of SEZ has obstructed
in your livelihood and agricultural land. Q9= SEZ has provided you employment in place of acquisition
164
of land. Q10= The villagers has sizably employed in SEZ
In the above table the employment position of village of Hamirpur in the SEZ shows that it may be
direct or indirect employment. The Q10 show the villagers has sizably employed in SEZ
Figure-14: Socio-economic Impact f SEZ in area
Table-9: Village of Babra Bakipur: Main source of income from SEZ
Village Babra Bakipur
Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
Disagree 8.00% 11% 15% 12%
Agree 25.00% 27% 15% 17%
Strongly Agree 20.00% 15% 25% 34%
Note: Q7=Have you main sources of income from SEZ? .Q8= The establishment of SEZ has
obstructed in your livelihood and agricultural land. Q9= SEZ has provided you employment in
place of acquisition of land. Q10= The villagers has sizably employed in SEZ
Above table represent the 37% negative response on main source of income from SEZ. The 34%
response on the strongly agree when we asked that villagers has sizably employed in SEZ.
XI: REGIONAL DISPARITIES
The law provides for single window clearance mechanism for developers and operators to ensure
orderly development of SEZs where the responsibilities are assigned to the Board approval, formed
by the Union Government. The Union Government can set up a SEZ on its own or on the basis
of proposals from the state government or private clients. At the regional level, the Development
Commissioner and his/her offce exercise administrative control of SEZ. An approval committee can
reject change proposals for the establishment of companies in SEZ. All suits of civil nature and the
crime in designated SEZs will be tried and charged by specially designated courts, and parties can
appeal to the high courts against the decisions of the designated courts.
16
In Lakshmiprecision Screws Ltd. V. Ram Bhagat
17
the Court held that procedure prescribed for
depriving a person of his livelihood, must meet the challenges of Article 14 and must be just fair
and not arbitrary, fanciful or oppressive The said Act may be judged in violation of the concept of
equality. By the virtue of Section 3 of the Act the procedure of making the proposal to establish the
SEZ, has been laid down.
Figure-15: Socio-economic Impact of SEZ
The above graph indicate problems and perspective of the Babra Bakipur village . 37% response
against the SEZ as the main source of employment and 34% also negative in case of villagers has
sizably employed in SEZ.
Figure-16: SEZs Impact on Society
II
Gender Inequality
& poor Labour
Standard
Impact on Ecology
Social Aspects Employment
Women & working
Hours
(i) Income and Decision Power of Workingwomen
165
Workingwomen do use and spend their income by permission of the husband is necessary for the
purpose. However when it comes to making investments, they often leave it to their husband or other
male member of the family to invest on their behalf. Many of them do not take decision even in case
of important investments, like, life insurance, national saving schemes or other tax saving investments.
Workingwomen do feel concerned about the economic needs of the family but when not consulted in
such matters, they regret being ignored especially when they contribute monetarily towards economic
well being of the family.
Table-10: Decision Power of Workingwomen
Yes No No
Spend Their Income 30% 61% 9%
Decision Making 27% 55% 18%
Globalization Enhance Women 37% 42% 21%
Figure-17: Decision Power of Workingwomen
XII: CONCLUSION
The SEZs could improve the economic activity in the country make the countrys export competitive
and globally noticeable. But this should not be done at the cost of women exploitation and bad working
hours system these activities against the social aspects and increase the regional disparities thus, Land
grabbing and real estate mafa should be properly regulated so that the common man is not the net
sufferer to get the net foreign exchange earner up and running. The most serious problem in a SEZ is
the self-certifcation of compliance with labour legislation. SEZ companies are responsible for fling
a self-certifed Consolidated Annual Report with the Development Commissioner (not the Labour
Commissioner) on the implementation of the most fundamental labour laws such as the Factories
Act of 1948, Minimum Wages Act of 1948, Payment of Wages Act of 1936, Workman Compensation
Act of 1923, Maternity Benefts Act of 1961, Payment of Bonus Act of 1965 and Contract Labour
(Regulation and Abolition) Act of 1970.
Since the working woman earns an independent income in the same patriarchal set-up, where the basic
infrastructure of society has hardly changed, though her own role within the same structure is passing
through a transitional phase, it is but natural that she would remain vulnerable to exploitation even in
her economically independent state. A very low level of awareness exists among women workers and
unions about occupational health hazards. Very few saw any links between the nature of their work,
the materials used, their posture during work and the ailments they experience. For the management,
health and safety has primarily meant fre safety training aimed more at preventing loss of property
rather than focusing on the workers health.
Recommendations
1. Women health problems such as white discharge, irregular periods and miscarriages which
may be because of their posture at work. To establish causality between materials used, type
of work, posture and illnesses reported particularly. reproductive health as well as accidents,
systematic longitudinal research is needed. Detailed recommendations should be based on
such research.
2 Some women wanted to increase maternity leave, give women lighter work during pregnancy
and sick leave be granted for those experiencing excessive nausea.
3 Trade Unions also need to create space for active participation of women workers in the
union executive bodies
166
4 There should be equal access to jobs, training, skills, and equal pay for equal work.
Enforcement of labour legislation which is normally done through inspections and through the court
has been reduced to a paper-based, self-reporting exercise required of SEZ companies. Violation
of the Minimum Wages Act is considered a criminal offense and violates Article 23 of the Indian
Constitution against exploitation. However, self-certifcation in this case, which serves as conclusive
proof of compliance, grants immunity to the SEZ employer.
(Endnotes)
1 World Bank (2008), Special Economic Zones: Performance, Lessons Learned, and Implications for Zone
Development.
3 Desai, M. A., C. F. Foley, & J. R. Hines Jr. (2009), .Domestic Eects of the Foreign Activities of US
Multinationals. American Economic Journal: Eco-nomic Policy, vol. 1(1).
4 See: Nomani, Zafar Mahfooz & Mohammad Rauf, Socio Eeconomic Impact Of Special Economic Zone
(SEZ) On Sustainability And Resource Utilization With Special Reference To Gautam Buddh Nagar. Paper
Presented National Conference On Population, Resource And Environment Organized By Department Of
Geography,A.M.U,Aligarh
5 See: Nomani, Zafar Mahfooz & Mohammad Rauf, Human Right Violatons and Special Economic Zone in India:
A Socio-Economic Appraisal In Managerial Perspectve. Internatonal Human Right Review,Vol,III,June,2012
Calcuta,(2011)
6 UNCTAD., Trends and Determinants, World Investment Report, United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development(1995) Export processing Zones: Principles and Practices Vienna,1995. (1998).
7 Kundra, Ashok., The Performance of Indias Export Zones: A Comparison with the Chinese Approach,
Sage Publicatons, New Delhi(2000)
8 Aggarwal, A., Export Processing Zones in India: Analysis of the Export Performance, ICRIER Working Paper
148, November(2004)
9 Jenkins (et al). Export processing Zones in Central America, Development Discussion Paper No 646,
Harvard Institute for International Development.(1998)
10 Brief Industrial Profle of Faridabad District,2012-13, Government of India, Ministry of Macro, Small and
Mediumenterprises
167
THE EFFECT OF INDUCED FATIGUE ON THE
ACCURACY OF SOCCER SKILL
Shabahat ali Khan*
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of induced physical fatigue of different duration on
accuracy of soccer skill .Twenty male student of football match practice group of LPU Phagwara(PB)
belonging to the age group of 18- 24 year were selected randomly as subjects for the purpose of this
study. Physical fatigue was induced by organizing a game of soccer between two team. The duration
of game was further divided in to 30 min, 60min and 90min. then the author took a pre test of the skill.
Then the subjects were made to play a game of soccer for duration of 30 min. The author then made
the players to perform the skill. Again the players were made to play the soccer game for 60min and
after completion of the game the subject performed the opted skill. The subjects were now made to play
the soccer game for duration of 90min and then they again perform the same skill and post test was
taken. To compare the accuracy of soccer skill the one way analysis of variance (ANOVA, F ratio)
is used at 0.05 level of signifcance From the fnding it was observed that there was accuracy of soccer
skill is increased after 30 minute of game induced fatigue comparison of pre test. But after 60 and 90
minute of game induced fatigue accuracy of soccer skill was decreased.
INTRODUCTION
In relation to human performance fatigue is one of mans most perplexing problems. Bartlett in
agreement with other researchers, has started that the fatigue is an term which is used to cover all those
desirable changes in expression with other researchers, has stated that the fatigue is an term which is
used to cover all those desirable changes in expression on an activity which can be treated to continue
exercise of that activity under its normal condition exercise of that activity under its normal condition,
which can lead either immediately or after delay to deterioration in the expression of that activity or
more simply to result within the activity are not wanted. Hence it can be said that the total outcome of
a player depends upon the arrival of fatigue. Therefore it is vital to develop more and more knowledge
regarding fatigue in relation to the performance capacity of the player. Thus the present study effect
of induce fatigue of different Soccer is a game which calls for strenuous, continuous thrilling.
Action and therefore, appeals to the youth the world over. The skills involved in the game are
simple, natural and yet are highly stimulating and satisfying to anyone who participates in the game.
The skill includes kicking, running, jumping, throwing, dodging and so on.

METHODOLGY
Physical fatigue was induced by organizing a game of soccer between two team. The durational
of game was farther divided in to 30 min, 60min and 90min. then the author took a pre test of the
skill. Then the subjects were made to play a game of soccer for duration of 30 min. The author
then made the players to perform the skill. Again the players were made to play the soccer game
for 60min and after completion of the game the subject performed the opted skill. The subjects
*Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab
(India).
168
were now made to play the soccer game for duration of 90min and then again perform the same
skill and post test was taken.
Selection of variables
To investigate the effect of induced fatigue of different duration on accuracy of soccer skill of soccer
player following soccer test will be selected for the study
1. Ground- pass to a stationary ball (20 yard).
2. Arial-pass to a stationary ball (25 yard)
TABLE-1 GROUND-PASS TO A STATIONERY BALL (20 YARD)
Source of variable Df SS MS F.ratio
Between Groups C-1
4-1=3
539.437 179.812

19.577*
Within Groups N-C
80-4=76
698.050 9.185
*Signifcant at .05 level.
*F-Value required to be signifcant at .05(3, 76) =4.80
From the above table-1 it is clear that the computed value is greater than tabulated F value.
So it can be concluded that the evidence is suffcient to indicate a difference in the Mean value for
different duration of Ground-Pass in induced physical fatigue.
TABLE-2
Paired Mean Differences and Difference between Means of Ground-Pass After Varying Level
of Induced
Pre After 30 min After 60 min After 90 min M.D. C.D.
18.75 19.65 -0.9
1.92
18.75 15.35 3.4*
18.75 13.20 5.55*
19.65 15.35 4.3*
19.65 13.20 6.45*
15.35 13.20 2.15*
*Signifcant at .05 level
The post hock test to compare the Paired Mean Differences and Difference between Means of
Ground-Pass after varying level of Induced fatigue, has clearly revealed the insignifcant difference
between the Ground-Pass After Varying Level of Induced of pre and after 90min where the calculated
mean difference found (5.55), after 30min and after 90 min where the calculated mean difference
found (6.45) was higher than the required value 4.80. Whereas the score did not reveal any signifcant
difference between the Means of Ground-Pass after varying level of Induced of pre and after 30 min,
pre and after 60 min, after 30min and after 60min or after 60min and after 90min. The calculated
value also did not reveal any signifcant difference between the Means of Ground-Pass after varying
level of Induced value was much lower than the calculated value at .05 level of signifcant.
GROUND-PASS TO A STATIONERY BALL (20 YARD)
TABLE-3 ARIAL-PASS TO A STATIONERY BALL (25 YARD)
Source of variable Df SS MS F.ratio
Between Groups C-1
4-1=3
388.450 129.483
8.403 Within Groups N-C
80-4=76
1171.100 15.409
*Signifcant at .05 level.
From the above table-3 it is clear that the computed value is greater than tabulated F value.
So it can be concluded that the evidence is suffcient to indicate a difference in the Mean value for
169
different duration of Arial-Pass for induced physical fatigue.
TABLE-4 Paired Mean Differences and Difference between Means of Arial Pass After Varying
Level of Induced
Pre After 30 min After 60 min After 90 min M.D. C.D.
14.95 17.05 -2.1
2.48
14.95 13.10 1.85
14.95 11.15 3.8*
17.05 13.10 3.95*
17.05 11.15 5.90*
13.10 11.15 1.95*
*Signifcant at .05 level
The post hock test to compare the Paired Mean Differences and Difference between Means of
Arial-Pass after Varying Level of Induced has clearly revealed the in signifcant difference between the
Arial-Pass after Varying Level of Induced fatigue of after 90min where the calculated mean difference
found (5.90) was higher than the required value 4.80. Whereas the score did not reveal any signifcant
difference between the means of Arial-Pass after varying level of induced of pre and after 30 min, pre
and after 60 min, after 30min and after 60min or after 60min and after 90min. The calculated value
also did not reveal any signifcant difference between the means of Arial-Pass after varying level of
induced value was much lower than the calculated value at .05 level of signifcant.
Discussion of Findings
From the fnding it was observed that the accuracy of soccer skill increased after 30 minute of game
induced fatigue in comparison to the pre test score.
It may be due to proper warm up of the body and mental concentration of the players because
accuracy of this skill is increased after some conditioning of the body and mental concentration.
After 60 and 90 minute of game induced fatigue accuracy of the skill decreased. Accuracy
of soccer skill depends upon functional capacity of the central nervous system of an individual, due
to induced physical fatigue would induce local muscular fatigue plus other factor such as lactic acid
concentration, reduction of blood glucose level (hypoglycemia) loss of body water (dehydration), loss
of body electrolytes (sodium and potassium), high body temperature (hypothermia)
1
which effect the
accuracy of the soccer skill.
It means there was a signifcant difference between accuracy of soccer skill in varying level
induced fatigue.
REFERENCES
Albert V Carron. Physical Fatigue and Motor Learning Research Quarterly 40:4 (December 1969)
: 682
Amusa Lateef O. and Sohi A.S., The effects of soccer training on muscular performance, cardio-vascular
effciency and body composition, SNIPES Journal 8:1 (January 1985), Pg. 3.
Arthor Jones, specificity in strength Training the facts and tables, Athletic Journal 57 (may
1997), pg. 70.
Bassie L. Park, The relation between physical ftness and success in Physical Education Athletics, Research
Quarterly, 6 (March 1935), Pg. 263.
Bryant James E.. A Descriptive Case Study Analysis the Basketball Jump Shots and the Effect
Cotton Doyiu: Willium Spieth: Jerry Thomas and Judson Biaslotto Effect Of Initial And Interpolated Fatigue On
1
170
Learning And Performance Of A Gross Motor Skill. Abstract of Research Papers (Houston: Aahfer.
1972) :108
Greig M. Muscle fatigue induced by exercise simulating the work rate of competitive soccer. Medical and
Exercise Science Department, The Football Association, Lilleshall National Sports Centre, Nr Newport,
Lilleshall TF10 9AT, United Kingdom. Matthew.Greig@theFA.com.
Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA The effect of muscle fatigue on instep kicking kinetics and kinematics in association
football , The College of New Jersey, PO Box 7718, Ewing, NJ 08628, USA. hoffmanj@tcnj.edu.
Marshall Thedore R.. The Immediate Effect of Fatigue on Selected Measures of Kinesthesis
in Junior High School Boys Completed Research in Health, Physical Education and
Recreation (1969): 139
Singer Robert N, Ccoaching, athletics and psychology (New York: Mcgraw Hill Book Company 1972).
Singer Robert N, Motor Learning and Human Performance 2
nd
ed (New York: Mac Millan
Publication 1975).
Thomas J.P., Let us coush soccer (Madras: The Y.M.C.A. college of physical education, 1964).
171
A JOURNEY OF EXPLOITATION AND
HARASSMENT: A STUDY OF VAN GUJJARS:
Mohammad Umar Khan
Abstract:
The original inhabitants of India have been suffering and have been exploited through a journey from
Criminal tribes Act, 1871 to the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. Indigenous/ Tribal or Adivasis regarded as the original inhabitants of
India, mostly were residing close to or in the forest areas, their livelihood based on the forest produces.
The term Adivasis means: Adi - beginning or earliest time, vasi - resident of. The idea is that the
adivasis were the original inhabitants of India. This term entered in use post independence of India
only, they are also called tribal. Indigenous/Tribal or adivasis (in Devanagari script) literally means
original inhabitants of India, comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India.
They are also called Atavika (forest dwellers in Sanskrit Texts), Vanavasis or Girijans (Hill people,
By Mahatma Gandhi).
They constitute 8.04% of the nations total population, over 84 million people according to the 2011
census. One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Himachal Pradesh
and Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, In the Northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh Meghalaya,
Mizoram and Nagaland more than 90% population is tribal. The Indigenous people or tribal people
are found in every part of the country, particularly Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
Indigenous/ Nomads and Tribal people: Question is who is an Indigenous or tribal in India? Those
communities who had been listed under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 as criminal and those who had
been listed under Habitual Offenders Act, 1952 as born criminal/offenders are Indigenous or tribal
people or those who demonstrated, used unlawful means to force the government to give them the
Scheduled Tribe status?
Earlier the life or livelihood of those communities was based on forests, but when the British
government started exploitation of forest, these indigenous or tribal communities determinedly resisted
the attempts to annex their land for plantation and to try and use them as plantation labour. During the
frst independence movement the indigenous/ tribal or nomadic communities participated and raised
their voices against the British Government, frustrated by this movement of these people the British
Government passed The Criminal Tribes Act 1871 under which most of the tribal, indigenous and
nomadic communities (such as Sansi, Pardhis, Kanjars, Bawarias and Van Gujjars etc) were declared
as Criminal by that Act more than 200 communities were declared as criminal tribes or the people
who were born as criminal.
Post Independence: Original Inhabitants of the country are still facing injustice, exploitation, and
deprivation: the general excuse of the exploitation, harassment and injustices which was done
against these communities during British rule is that the British people had no genuine interest in any
development, they had only one motive to exploit Indian resources. So to achieve their objective they
LLM (AMU) Peace building & local Governance: The Hague Academy, Metherland: State Coordinator,
Researcher (RLEK) Dehradun, India
172
enacted various laws (like forest Laws, Mining laws) which directly affected the life of the indigenous
or tribal people.
To some extent after Independence the Government of India in 1952 tried to give some recognition
to these communities, so the Indian government de notifed the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871, but same
time enacted the Habitual Offenders Act 1952 the difference between these two laws is that whereas
under Criminal Tribes Act all those communities who resisted or raised their voice against British
Government booked under that Act and in 1952 through Habitual Offenders Act all those who were
listed under that criminal tribes Act were given a new name i.e. habitual offender Act, that these are
criminals by their habit. It is the irony of our legal system that many communities listed as habitual
offenders.
Indigenous/ Nomads or tribal: Right to livelihood: law that affected these communities:
1: The Criminal Tribes Act, 1871
2: Habitual Offenders Act 1952
3: The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972
4: Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights), Act 2006.
Indigenous or Tribal Communities: These communities represent 8.3% of Indias population and
fall in the category of todays de notifed tribes. The term criminal tribes was coined by the British
rulers, and entered the public vocabulary for the frst time when a piece of legislation called the Criminal
Tribes Act passed in 1871. With the repeal of this Act (which was condemned by Pandit Nehru as a
blot on the legal books of free India and a shame to all civilized societies) these communities were
offcially de notifed in 1952.
The commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in his 29
th
report said that The
criminalization of the entire communities in the tribal areas is the darkest blot on the liberal tradition
of our country.
Since time immemorial millions of indigenous or tribal people are living in and near Indias forest
land, but the forest earlier was the property of Britishers during colonial India and after Independence
on the name of conservation of forest, save tigers, environment and forest protection and the forest
became the property of the government (or property of forest offcials or their forefather or ancestral
property). The original inhabitants, the savior of the forest and the savior of wild life since centuries
they have no rights to their homes, lands or livelihoods. The people who lived in forest become the
destructors, enemy and danger to the wild life or wild animals, and few government offcials have
all the power over forests, with various laws to protect forest and wild life the result which we have
today is that forest, wild life and people are dying? Because the more power the forest bureaucracy
retains, the more it will harm both wild life and people.
As Abraham Lincoln (former president of America) rightly said I am in favor of animal rights as
well as human rights, that is the way of a whole human being
Wild life protection versus Human Rights violation: A study of Van Gujjars ( Nomads/
transhumance community) of Rajaji National Park:
A good deed done to an animal is as meritorious as a good deed done to a human being, while an act
of cruelty to an animal is as bad as an act of cruelty to a human being Prophet Mohammad(PBUH)
The Indian Parliament in 1972 passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972, the objective of the Act
was to provide protection to wild animals, birds and plants and to arrest the rapid decline in Indian
wild life. With this view the Uttar Pradesh government in exercise of the powers under sub section
(1) of section 35 of the Wild Life (protection) Act 1972 (Act no 53 of 1972) declared his intention
by a notifcation No. 5440/xiv-3-84/76, dated August 12, 1983, to constitute the said area as national
park to be named as Rajaji National Park.
Van Gujjars: the Van Gujjars have been living in this forest in the Shivalik, Garhwal region of
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh since long. For centuries they are exercising the
traditional rights of grazing, lopping etc. to sustain their livelihood by selling milk and milk products.
They have been practicing transhumance between two different eco zones of the Himalayas- migrating
173
to high altitude pasture in Himalayas during summer in search of fresh fodder for their buffaloes and
returning to the plains with the onset of winter.
Origin and History: the origin of Van Gujjars is uncertain
1
The Gujjara clan appeared in northern
India about the time of the Huna invasions of northern India. Some scholars, such as V.A Smith,
believe that the Gujjars were foreign immigrants, possibly a branch of Hephthalites ( white Huns)
2
,
D.B Bhandarkar ( 1875- 1957) believed that Gujjars came into India with the Hunas and the name
of the tribe was sanskritized to Gujjara--- he also believed that several places in Central Asia, such
as Gujristan are named after the Gujjars and that reminiscence of Gujjar migration is preserved in
these names, General Cunningham identifed the Gujjars with Yuezhi or Tocharians.
Gujjars have also been hypothesized to be descended from the nomadic Khazar tribes, although the
history of Khazars shows an entirely different politico-culture ethos.
3--
some scholars believe that the
word Gujjar is derived from the word Khazar--- The Indo-Aryan languages lacked the sounds
Kh and Z converting them respectively into g and J ---, In Gazetteer of Bombay presidency,
the British civil servant James M. Campbell identifed Gujjars with Khazars.
Some Gujjars also claim that Gujjar caste is related to the Chechens and the Georgians, and argue
that Georgia was traditionally called Gujaristan (actually Gorgestan)
4.
Some of them also claim that
Germans are Gujjars. However there is no evidence for such claims. The word Georgia derived
from the Arabic and Persian word Gujr and Gujjar or Gurjar
5.
The semi nomadic Gujjars are found
in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is believed that Gujjars
migrated to Jammu and Kashmir from Gujarat via Rajasthan and Hazara district of NWFP. Another
group called Bakarwal ( Bakerwal) belongs to the same ethnic stock as the Gujjars.
The Gujjars community in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh were notifed as Scheduled
Tribes, but in Uttarakhand the Van Gujjars comes under the Other Backward Class category.
The Van Gujjars (forest Gujjars) a fercely independent, Muslim, Vegetarian, Nomadic, Pastoral
Indigenous Community found in Shivalik hills area of north India. The Van Gujjars follow Islam and
they have their own clans, similar to the Hindu Gotras. They are a Pastoral, Semi- Nomadic community,
practicing transhumance, in the winter season they migrate with their herds to the Shivalik foothills and
in summer they migrate to pasture high up in the mountains. Their knowledge about wild life and silvi
culture is super the sustenance of their economy is very dependent on the buffaloes herds they rear.
They are Muslim (Minority amongst minorities) Nomads and true followers of Gandhian philosophy,
self reliant, philosophy of need not greed, sustainability through buffalo rearing and milk production,
they are the supplier of milk to the pilgrims of Badrinath, Kedarnath and Hemkund Saheb in the
Himalayas, promote eco tourism and no criminal/ poaching charges against any one and they also pay
tax to the government, lopping, grazing tax and Dastoor and salami charges (bribe).
First freedom Fighter: Kulloo or Kulwa Gujjar was a freedom fghter who fought against the British
Tyranny. He announced his intention of throwing/ casting off the foreign yoke. In 1824 Kulwa Gujjar
was killed along with 122 other Gujjars and Kulwas head was hung in an iron cage over the door of
the Jail.
6
Forest laws and Indigenous/tribal: The Indian Forest Act 1927, Indias main forest law had nothing to
do with conservation, it was created to serve the British need for timber. It sought to override customary
rights and forest management systems by declaring forest as state property and exploiting their timber.
60% of Indias national parks have till today not completed their process of enquiry and settlement of
rights. As the Tiger Task Force of Government of India put it in the name of conservation, what has
been carried out is a completely illegal and unconstitutional land acquisition program
The same model was subsequently built into the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 passed with similar
consequences, because after more than 40 years of that Act the result of the Wild Life (Protection)
Act and declaration of that area as national park ( after the notifcation of the intention in 1983 to
declare the area as proposed Rajaji National Park) is that thousands of Van Gujjars become subject
to harassment, forcefully evictions from the park, torture, exploitation, extortion of money etc on the
1
174
pretext of being encroachers in their own homes and violation of their basic human rights i. e. right to
life, by the forest offcials on the name of wild life protection and forest conservation. It is a criminal
offence for you and I to plant a tree in a reserved forest; but it is legal for the forest department to fell
the entire forest so long as it has a central government permission, and what about wild life? Is the
wild life (animals, birds, plants and species increased after the passing of Act or going to decreased
or disappeared or extinct?
It is disheartening to know that the notifcation regarding the declaration of that area as Rajaji national
park was long back in violation of the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972, as before
issuing the fnal notifcation determining the rights of the Van Gujjars community living in the forest
area ( Rajaji National Park) the state is required to comply inter alia with the provisions of sections
19 to 26 of that Act ( WLP Act 1972) that has not been done.
Rehabilitation Program of van Gujjars living in the Rajaji National Park at Pathari and Gaindikhata:
After the notifcation of intention to declare the area as National Park, the forest department started
to use coercive and harassing tactics to force the Van Gujjars community to leave the forest. The Van
Gujjars relocation or rehabilitation program in 1976-77 was the frst rehabilitation program of the
community, they were rehabilitated at a place called Dhola Tappad and till now at that place there
is no water supply, electricity, no school, Hospital and even possession and ownership rights of land
(documents/ receipt) which was promised to them to be allotted given to them by the government or
authorities is absent. Second rehabilitation program in 1983 was in Pathari - identifed as a place
for the rehabilitation of Van Gujjars living in the Rajaji National Park, 512 families were identifed
to be settled at that place and promise was made to provide them housing and other facilities. In the
mean time Mr. Jagat Narayan (Additional Chief Conservator) in his report clearly mentioned that
Pathari is not a proper and suitable place for rehabilitation of the Van Gujjars community as the land
in Pathari is marshy. Ignoring that report and without consulting the Van Gujjars community before
their rehabilitation program the forest department constructed only few houses there and till now no
arrangement of providing drinking water, roads, school have been made by the forest department. (The
houses constructed at that time now in a depilated condition, abandoned by the community because
they are not in a condition to be used as house or shelter.)
The forest offcials used coercive measure/methods to harass the community and forced them to move
out from the forest. However 512 families were showed as voluntary rehabilitated at Pathari, and more
than 800 families were forcefully moved at Ghaindikhata and around 50 families at Dhola Tappad. As
was promised by the government to give compensation to the rehabilitated families of the community,
but not even a single Rupee was given to any Van Gujjars as compensation. The rehabilitation policy
of the Van Gujjars as made and approved by the government says that two acres of land to each family
and Rs. 10,000 as transporting charges will be given to the community who will be rehabilitated from
the forest. A big scale of corruption in rehabilitation program of the community was found by the forest
department itself. (Mr. Shrikant Chandola in his report mentioned about corruption in rehabilitation
program of the Van Gujjars). Against the harassment, exploitation, coercive and forcefully eviction of
the Van Gujjars from the National Park, Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra (RLEK,) on behalf
of the Van Gujjars approached National Human Rights Commission for its intervention and protection
of basic human rights of the community.
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) order: The NHRC vide their consent order dated
15/3/1999 passed certain orders and directions for the forest department to protect the basic human
rights of the Van Gujjars Community.
7
1: Van Gujjars living inside the forest area cannot be denied the rights, which they have been enjoying
since time immemorial viz right to lop and right to graze their cattle. The forest authorities are not
entitled to coerce the Van Gujjars families to move out of their habitation until their rights are legally
determined in accordance with the law. Until the Van Gujjars families move out on their own volition
as ascertained by the District Judge nominated by the Uttar Pradesh government or until their rights
are determined in accordance with law thereby rendering them liable to move out of the forest their
175
rights have to be protected. They should not be subjected to any diffculty or harassment by the forest
authorities in the enjoyment of their legitimate rights and be allowed to lead their normal life as before.
2: The Government of UP should expeditiously appoint a retired District Judge to ascertain the
willingness of Van Gujjar families to leave the forest to settle outside according to the resettlement
plan. Only those families, which the District Judge identifes as willing families, would be moved out
under the rehabilitation scheme.
3: The Van Gujjars cannot be coerced to leave their forest habitat by the proposed park authorities to
settle outside. Forest offcials cannot oust Gujjars from their forest homes.
4: Forest authorities should allow any ambulance that is needed for providing medical assistance subject
to the condition that one of the forest offcials nominated for the purpose is taken in the ambulance.
In order to avoid delay for purpose of granting permission to take the ambulance inside the forest the
offcial at the entry point itself could be authorized to give permission immediately. Permission should
not be declined except by a written order given immediately, recording the reasons for the same.
5: The forest authorities should not deny the grazing rights in respect of the existing cattle, which are
around 11000. The existing permits, which were granted for about 4300 cattle, should be extended
to 11000 permits. No coercive steps should be taken to remove any of the existing cattle from the
forest area.
6: When permission is sought by any Van Gujjar family to ferry food for themselves or supplementary
feed for their cattle such permission should be given expeditiously by the proposed park director.
The order of NHRC always and completely ignored by the forest offcials and they used more coercive
and harassing tactics against the Van Gujjar community. False charges of poaching and wild life animal
trade were fled against them, their houses were burnt, they were not allowed to enter in the forest,
food and fodder for their animals was not allowed inside the park, no ambulance for providing medical
assistance to ill/sick was allowed and even if someone died the forest offcials were not allowing the
cremation, no land pattas and legal entitlements were given to the rehabilitated families, and were not
allowed to exercise their traditional grazing and lopping rights:
The Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional forest Dwellers (recognition of forest Right) Act 2006:
A weapon of democracy: Across Indias forest areas, people are fghting for democracy, livelihood
and dignity, what are called forest in Indian law often have nothing to do with actual forests. Under
the Indian Forest Act areas were often declared to be government forest without recording who lived
in forest areas, what land they were using, what uses they made of the forest and so on. The Scheduled
Tribes and Other traditional forest Dwellers (recognition of forest Right) Act 2006 is an instrument
in that struggle. The notifcation of Rules of the implementation of the forest rights Act 2006 on 1
st

January 2008 have fnally paved the way to undo the historic injustice done to the indigenous/ tribal
and other forest dwellers.
What are the conditions in the forest area? Millions of people are subject to harassment, evictions on
the pretext of being encroachers in their own homes. Torture, bonded labour, extortion of money and
sexual assault are extremely common by the forest offcials.
What does the forest rights Act 2006 do? The act basically does two things: 1: Grants legal recognition
to the rights of traditional forest dwelling communities, correcting the injustices caused by the forest
laws and 2: makes a beginning towards giving communities a voice in forest and wild life conservation.
There are two stages to be eligible under this Act. First, everyone has to satisfy two conditions: 1:
Primarily residing in forest ( As van Gujjar Community are living inside the Rajaji National Park even
before the forest law in India was born.)
2: depends on forest and forest land for livelihood (namely bona fde livelihood needs Van gujjars
practice transhumance, between two eco zones so their livelihood based on buffaloes they rear.
Second you have to prove: that the above conditions have been true for 75 years, in which case are
Other traditional forest dweller ( S.2 (o); or that you are a member of a Scheduled Tribe ( S 2 (c); and
that you are residing in the area where they are Scheduled ( S.4 (1);
The Van Gujjars are traditionally forest dwellers (comes under section 2 (o) of the Act, living in the
176
forest since centuries.
The law recognizes three types of rights:
Land rights: Section 4 (3) No one gets any rights to any land that they have not been cultivating prior
to December 13, 2005 and those who are cultivating land but dont have document can claim up to
4 hectares as long as they are cultivating the land themselves for a livelihood Section 3(1) (a) and 4
(6), those who have pattas or government lease, but whose land has been illegally taken by the forest
department or whose land is the subject of a dispute between forest and revenue department, can claim
that land Section 3 (1) (f) and (g)
Right to use: the law provides for right to use and/or collect the following: Minor forest produce
things like Tendu Patta, herbs, medicinal plants etc. that have been traditionally collected (Section 3
(1) (c)) this does not include timber.
Grazing grounds and water bodies Section 3
Traditional areas of use by nomadic or pastoral communities i.e. communities that move with their
herds as opposed to practicing settled agriculture.
Right to protect and conserve the forest: though the forest is supposed to belong to all of us. Till date
no one expect the forest department had a right to protect it. For the frst time, this law also gives the
community the right to protect and manage the forest. Section 3 (1) (i) provide a right and power to
conserve community forest resources, while section 5 gives the community a general power to protect
wild life and forest etc. this is vital for the thousands of village communities who are protecting their
forests and wild life against threats from forest mafas, industries and land grabbers, most of whom
operate in connivance with the forest department.
Conclusion: After 7 years of passing of the Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers
(recognition of forest rights) Act 2006 and clear order and direction by the National Human Rights
commission in 1999 the life of the Van Gujjars have not change, still the forest department harassing
and exploitation them on the name of wild life protection and forest conservation:
We are not allowed to take our daily supply of ration inside the national park, moreover when a
Van Gujjar dies inside the forest (national park) we are not allowed to cremate in the graveyard
inside the forest and to bring the body out for cremation is a big harassment by the hands of the
forest offcials said Ferozdin, Kaluwala range, Rajaji national park.
If a womans husband dies in a family the forest offcers trouble wife saying that land patta was
given to your husband and now you have no claim or rights over that land, said Aqlobibi.
Our permits to enter inside the park where we are living since centuries required to be renewed
every year we face severe harassment by the forest offcial for every work or permission or permit.
Said Firoz Hussain.
8
The questions need to be answer:
Why were peoples rights not respected when these forests were declared as protected/ reserved?
Why we dont considered or respect human rights when talked about wild life protection?
What we called forest in Indian law often have nothing to do with actual forest because both forest
and indigenous/tribal are dying? The forest area is decreasing day by day and indigenous/tribal
people are also losing their culture, tradition, their language and their knowledge about natural
herbs, medicinal plants, natural treatment etc which they used.
The best example is what has been happened to tiger conservation since 1972 into which enormous
amounts of money have been poured and how much the tiger population is increased? Could not even
saved what we had?
Mistakes may have been made, but surely the Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional forest dwellers
( recognition of forest rights) Act 2006 is the only way to protect our forest, wild life and our indig-
enous/ Van Gujjars/tribal people. But why the Van Gujjars community of the Rajaji National Park are
not enjoying any rights which they are entitled under Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional forest
dwellers ( recognition of forest rights) Act 2006, right to land, rights over minor forest produce, graz-
177
ing and lopping rights, moving from other places for grazing their animal? And even right to food,
health, right to go inside the park are violated by the forest offcials and still today they are subject
or face harassment, exploitation, torture and false charges and cases by forest offcial, why? These
are the few questions which still remain.
REFERENCES:
1: Gurjara-Pratihara Dynastyrv. Britannica Concise. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-05-31
2: Smith, Vincent Arthur (1999) [1904]. The Early History of India; From 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan
Conquest Including The Invasion of Alexander The Great. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. pp. 166
174. ISBN 81-7156-618-9.
3: Parishad, Bharatiya Gurjar (1996). Gurjara aura Unak Itihsa me Yogadna Vishaya para Prathama
Itihsa Sammelana. Im Ninalus 2nd Book (The Packard Humanities Institute). pp. 3465. Retrieved 2007-
05-31
4: Stephen M. Lyon. Gujars and Gujarism: simple quaum versus network activism. University of Kent at
Canterbury. Retrieved 2007-05-31/ Gujjars from Georgia: seminar. The Tribune. 12 May 1999. Retrieved
2007-05-31.
5: Curtis, Glenn E. (2004). Georgia a Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. p. 89. ISBN 1-4191-2165-
0./ Nasmyth, Peter (2001). Georgia: In the Mountains of Poetry. Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 0-7007-1395-6
6: Memoir of Dehradun, G.R.C Williams: First published 1874: at p 153
7: National Human Rights Commissions order dated 15/3/1999
8: Van Gujjars Interview at Rajaji National Park march 2013
Laws: Criminal Tribes Act 1872
Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972
The Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of forest rights) Act 2006
178
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND MUSLIM
EDUCATIONAL BACKWARDNESS: AN
OVERVIEW OF THE EXISTING SITUATION.
Sajad Ahmed*
India is a mult-cultural, mult-religious society where the religious minorites consttute 20% of the
populaton. Among the minorites, the Muslim minority consttutng 15% of the entre populaton
is educatonally the worst of. If a country is educatonally backward, it also becomes economically
backward and this economic backwardness leads to social backwardness, which in turn reinforces
educatonal backwardness. Indian Muslims consttute more than 15 per cent of Indian populaton
which is quite sizeable by any account and they are more than 150 million in terms of absolute
numbers. It is maintained and rightly said that they are next only to Muslim populaton in Indonesia.
Their economic and educatonal progress is, therefore, very crucial for the progress of the country.
No country can progress, if its sizeable minority lags behind and remains illiterate and poor. Muslim
educatonal backwardness is largely a product of Muslim poverty. The vast majority of the Indian
Muslims work as landless labourers, small or marginal peasants, artsans, pety shopkeepers and the
like. More than half the urban Muslim populaton lives below the poverty line, and as compared to
Hindus, proportonately a considerably higher number of Muslims are self-employed. Indias Muslims
have the lowest living standard in the country on the per capita basis. Given their structural locaton
in the economy and the percepton of discriminaton, relatvely few Muslims can aford or aspire
to higher educaton. Muslims across most parts of India, as a community are deeply impoverished
and sufer from huge illiteracy, a high drop-out rate, below average work partcipaton and lack of
stable and secure employment In the present paper, an atempt has been made by the investgator
to highlight the issues relatng to Muslim poverty and their educatonal backwardness.
INTRODUCTION:
Education, in the present day context, is perhaps the single most important means for individuals
to improve personal endowments, build capability levels, overcome constraints and enlarge their
available set of opportunities and choices for a sustained improvement in well-being. It is not
only a means to enhance human capital, productivity but it is equally important for enabling the
process of acquisition, assimilation and communication of information and knowledge, all of
which augments a persons quality of life. Education is important not merely as means to other
ends, but it is an attribute valued in itself, by most individuals. More importantly, it is a
critical invasive instrument for bringing about social, economic and political inclusion and a durable
integration of people, particularly those excluded, from the mainstream of any society (NHDR
2001: 48). Education stimulates economic growth and the development of poor countries, when both
the quantity and the quality of education are considered. This also makes it possible for individuals
to earn more. Any countrys economic growth can be improved by better and quality education as it
generates opportunities and avenues for economy and income. Education brings social benefts that
*Research Scholar, Department of Educaton, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
UGC NET qualifed.
179
improve the situation of the poor. Education is the source of economic, social and political energy,
divine enlightment and primary vehicle by which everyone can lift himself/herself out of poverty.
Educational outcomes generally improve as the socioeconomic status (SES) of children rises in all
countries, at all age levels, and for all subjects (UNESCO EFA, 2004). Some of the advantages that
education provides include an improvement of living standards of communities and contribution to
the social and economic development of countries.
Hindus and Muslim have cohabited in India for centuries, with Muslims ruling most of the
Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th centuries. However, today, their socioeconomic
and educational condition is not better than low caste Hindus. Their economic and educational
progress is therefore very crucial for the progress of the country. This social, economic and educational
backwardness of Muslims is not merely confrmed by the individual researchers and surveys of voluntary
organizations but also by Committees of Government. The High Power Panel under the chairmanship of Dr.
Gopal Singh, set up by the Ministry of Home Affairs in the early 1980 to enquire into social and economic
conditions of the Indian minorities, they found Muslims are backward (GOI, 1983). After 25 years,
again this is evident from the findings of the Prime Ministers High Level Committee under
the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Sachar, constituted to enquire into socio-economic and
educational status of Muslims (Sachar, 2006).
INTERPLAY OF POVERTY AND EDUCATION- RISE IN ONE LEADS DECAY IN
ANOTHER.
It has been accepted and widely agreed that there is a direct and causal relationship between education
and poverty and this relationship operates in two directions: poor people are often unable to obtain
access to an adequate education, and without an adequate education people are often constrained to
a life of poverty. Poverty is a wider concept than merely the absence of fnancial resources. it is not
simply the absence of fnancial resources, but includes the lack of capability to function effectively
in society. Inadequate education can thus be considered a form of poverty. This poverty emphasizes
exclusion from the mainstream, which can reduce the motivation of the relatively poor and their ability
to gain full benefts from education. High fnancial costs of schooling make education less affordable
to the poor, who are very cost sensitive. The relatively poor in developed countries, however, often
feel excluded from the school community. Such exclusion affects their ability to gain the full benefts
from education or to translate the benefts of education into remunerative employment. This also
has a potential impact on motivation to participate or to do well in education. Low level of literacy
and dismally high dropout rate at the primary and secondary level with little interest in technical
and professional education has reduced them to the poor status in the society. Owing to their Socio-
Economic backwardness, Muslims have not been able to respond to the challenge of improving their
educational status, whereas other communities like SCs and STs have been able to reap the beneft
in the feld of education with active support of the Government. Educated people have a greater
probability of being employed, are economically more productive, and therefore earn higher incomes.
Education can reduce poverty in a number of ways. Firstly, more educated people are more likely to
get jobs, are more productive, and earn more. Secondly, quality-adjusted education is important for
economic growth. More and better education improves a poor countrys economic growth and thereby
generates economic opportunities and incomes. Thirdly, education (particularly of girls) brings social
benefts that improve the situation of the poor, such as lower fertility, improved health care of children.
Throughout the world it has been found that the probability of fnding employment rises with higher
levels of education, and that earnings are higher for people with higher levels of education. A better
educated household is less likely to be poor.. Nevertheless, the absolutely poor in developing countries
usually have low education levels. Some may still not even have access to primary education or may
not complete their primary education. Education stimulates economic growth and the development of
poor countries, when both the quantity and the quality of education are considered. This also makes
it possible for individuals to earn more.
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MUSLIM AS A SUFFERING GROUP IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE
Human Development Report 2011 cites only a minuscule improvement in the socio-economic status
of Muslims in India compared with other excluded groups. The Planning Commissions India Human
Development Report 2011, which came out recently, focuses on SC/STs and Muslims. As regards
Muslims, though the report shows improvement on a few indicators, the increase has been marginal
and rate of growth still much lower than for SC/STs. There is a high concentration of Muslims in
urban areas, making the incidence of poverty more visible there. According to the report, in 2007-08,
the percentage of poor in urban areas was 23.7% and in rural areas, it was 13.3per cent. Compared
to SC/STs and other social and religious groups, urban poverty is highest amongst Muslims, and
rural poverty amongst Muslims is also higher than that of other religious groups and other backward
classes (OBCs). We see a similar trend with literacy fgures when we compare 2004-5 with the 2007-
8 reference period of the report. Urban literacy in general (from 1999-2000 to 2007-8) has increased
from 69.8% to 75.1% and rural literacy from 52.1% to 63.5%.
Indias Muslims have the lowest living standard in the country on a per capita basis. Muslims constitute
14.4 percent of Indias vast population. Te socio-economic decline of Muslims is countrywide and
severe, bringing the community to the bottom of the socio-economic ladder. Among various religious
groups, Muslims have the lowest living standard with the average per capita expenditure of just Rs.
32.66 in a day, says a government survey, the Sikh community on the other enjoys a much better lifestyle
as the average per capita spending among them is Rs. 55.30 per day, while the same for Hindus is Rs.
37.50. For Christians it is Rs. 51.43. At all-India level, the average monthly per capita expenditure
(MPCE) of a Sikh household was Rs. 1,659 while that for a Muslim household was Rs. 980 in 2009-
10, said a study titled Employment and Unemployment Situation Among Major Religious Groups
in India by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO). The average household MPCE is a
proxy for income and refects the living standard of a family. According to the study, the average
MPCE for Hindus and Christians were Rs. 1,125 and Rs. 1,543, respectively. The survey said that
average monthly per capita consumption at all-India level was Rs. 901 in villages and Rs. 1,773 in
cities. Overall, the average MPCE was Rs. 1,128. Muslims were at the bottom in rural areas, with
an average MPCE of Rs. 833, followed by Hindus at Rs. 888, Christians at Rs. 1,296 and Sikhs Rs.
1,498. In urban areas, Muslims average MPCE was also the lowest at Rs. 1,272 followed by Hindus
at Rs. 1,797, Christians Rs. 2,053 and Sikhs at Rs. 2,180.
The urban Indians (MPCE of 1773 Rupees) were almost twice as wealthy as their rural counterparts
(901 Rupees). Even in Indias vast rural hinterlands, Muslims ranked at the bottom in terms of
spending and wealth, while Sikhs had the most disposable income. (Again, Hindus and Christians
fell somewhere in between). The same hierarchy was seen in urban regions with Sikhs at the top,
with an average MPCE of 2,180.
MUSLIM AS A SUFFERING GROUP IN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Education is considered as a best tool to reduce poverty in a number of ways as the probability of
fnding employment arises with higher level of education and enables them to obtain more lucrative
jobs. Better educated people have a greater probability of being employed, are economically more
productive, and therefore earn higher incomes. It has been proved that quality-adjusted education
is important for economic growth. Educational level of a any society or a community within a
society cannot be judge from its literacy rate, though it is important indicator for making a distinction
between literate and non-literate. A literate person is not defned on the basis of his/her educational
attainment but only on the basis of knowledge of reading or writing any of the language. Muslim
community in India is the poorest of the poor. Because of lack of education, they have less opportunity
in government jobs. Owing to lack of education, the Indian Muslims lagged far behind in every walk
181
of life. The socio-economic backwardness of the Muslim community in India was underlined by the
Justice Sachar Committee report. Then came the Ranganathan Mishra Commission report (2007) which
recommended 10 per cent job reservation for Muslims because the community occupied the lowest.
The lack of access to quality education among Muslims has translated into their poor representation
in regular salaried jobs in the public and private sectors. However, if we compare the rate of increase
of literacy amongst Muslims with other social and religious groups, it is the lowest. Indian Muslims
as a whole today enjoy less education than the average Indian and suffer economic disadvantage and
social discrimination.
National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), a central government body, has confrmed that Indias
largest religious minority is the most backward community on the educational front. Muslims ratio in
higher education is lower than even Scheduled Tribes (STs), considered most backward. Attached to
the Union Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, NSSO, in its report titled Education
in India, 2007-08: Participation and Expenditure, says that of 100 Muslims in the education system,
just 10 are enrolled in high school and above. Similar ratio for STs is 11, Scheduled Castes (SCs) 12.
Dropout rates are also among the highest for Muslims and this seems to go up signifcantly after middle
school (Table 2). Higher secondary attainment levels are also among the lowest for Muslims and in
relative terms, inter-SRC differences rise at the school leaving stage. This contributes to large defcits
in higher education; graduate attainment rates (GARs) are also among the lowest and not converging
with the average. The major problem appears to lie at the school level; once that hurdle of eligibility is
crossed, differences in GARs across SRCs narrow down substantially and are often not very different.
As with other areas of education, participation of Muslims in technical and engineering education
is also among the lowest (data not reported here). (low level of literacy and dismally high dropout
rate at the primary and secondary level with little interest in technical and professional education has
reduced them to the poor status in the society. 25% Muslim children belonging to the 6-14 year age
groups either drop out or never attend school in their locality. Dropout rates are higher at primary,
middle and higher secondary levels.
High dropout rates among Muslim students are worrisome. As with many Indians, the main reason
for educational backwardness of Muslims is abject poverty due to which children are forced to drop
out after the frst few classes. This is particularly true for Muslim girls. Little children are expected to
provide for their families by working in karkhanas (small workshops), as domestic help or by looking
after their siblings while their mothers go to work. Neither Poor and illiterate parents afford tuition
for their children; nor can they provide the necessary support at home which has become so essential
a part of todays educational system. The opportunity costs involved in sending children to school is
also too high, making it diffcult for parents to do so.
Causes and Suggestions:
Zakat as an institution:
As Zakat is an important system of Islamic ideology therefore it plays active role in spiritual and
social life of Muslim society. The payment of Zakat is not only mandatory and obligatory but as an
institution and system. Zakat is an important source of the stability of the society as it ensures proper
distribution of wealth and has wide impact on the entire set up of the society. The Holy Quran has
mentioned Zakat more than eighty times. It is a duty from Allah similar to the duty of Salat. Allah
commands in the Holy Quran.

.
So establish Salat and give Zakat, and hold fast to Allah. (Al-Quran 22:78)
No doubt, every muslim gives zakat, but where it goes. There is no system to collect zakat. The
collection and distribution of Zakat require a proper system. It should be institutionalized and properly
managed. Muslim organizations should come forward and play this role. Zakat committees should
be constituted at the lower level. The collections will be paid through Zakat fund. Thus Zakat helps
182
a lot in decreasing poverty.
All this system will surely help in establishing social harmony and justice among all the members of
the community as it bridges the gulf between the haves and the have-nots. In capitalistic economies,
we see that the wealth accumulates into a few hands and the condition of the poor further deteriorates.
One of the purposes of Zakat is to avoid such social disparity and also to remove the burden of the
poor Muslims. It can help those poor and marginalised families who accordingly, resort to child labour
and cannot educate their children properly.
In this way, there will be reduction in Muslim poverty and this ultimately will result in the improving
the socio-economic status of the community Insha Allah. In this way, there will be no need to look at
the government policies and programmes for upliftment only, but we can also do a lot in improving
the deteriorating situation.
Low Perceived Returns from Education:
One of the specifc factor for low educational achievement of Muslim community is that Muslims do
not see education as a force which necessarily translates into formal employment. On the one hand
there is low representation of Muslims in public or private sector employment and on the other, there
perception of discrimination among Muslims about securing salaried jobs, which make them attach less
importance to formal secular education. At the same time, there is frustration among the middle class
because of lack of presence and opportunities in administrative, policy and political spaces. in order to
brings Muslims come forward, this perception of discrimination must be removed as far as possible.
Poor Access to Schools:
Many complained that only a few good quality Government schools are found in Muslim areas. The
teacher pupil ratio is also high in these schools. This forces Muslim children to go to private schools, if
they can afford to, or else to drop out. Schools beyond the primary level are few in Muslim localities.
Exclusive girls schools are fewer, and are usually at a distance from Muslim localities. Lack of hostel
facilities is another limiting factor. Spending on separate residential facilities, in the absence of hostels,
is a great fnancial burden on Muslim families. More and more schools where quality education will
be provided should be opened in Muslim majority areas. In addition, there should be provision of
hostels for poor and meritorious students.
Reservations in education and jobs:
The recommendations of the Ranganath Mishra Commission report (2007) for 10% reservation for
Muslims in central and state government jobs and 6% within OBC quotas for Muslim OBCs, and the
inclusion of Muslim and Christian dalits in the scheduled castes list, are yet to be implemented. There
should be a reservation quota for Muslims in educational institutions as well as in government jobs.
All this will help in raising their socio-economic status, which in turn increase their educational status.
Lack of guidance facilities:
The great factor responsible of the fall of Muslims in India was their neglect of the right type of
education. The word right type does not mean that they remained uneducated all, but they failed to
keep pace with the trend of advance elsewhere in the realm of education. They failed to understand
that knowledge should not remain knowledge, but it should be transformed into skill, wisdom. They
failed to observe that knowledge through skill, wisdom and understanding bestows on man the power
to move towards his destiny which is the quest for higher objectives of life. All this happens because
of the low perceptions attached to education and mainly due to the lack of facilities at a particular
stage. All this demands for the proper provision of educational and vocational guidance at each stage
of education.
Education of girls:
There is the problem of girls education in Muslim community as there is a presence of misconceptions
still prevail. Parents dont want to send their daughters to schools, where there is no provision of pardha
system and where there is no provision of separate classrooms for boys and girls. But they forget the
183
fact that, by keeping girls aside from education, we are keeping our 45-50 percent population illiterate
and uneducated. How they forget the fact the benefts to a society particularly will be large, when
female education improves. A girl has to take many responsibilities and among them, she has to play
the role of a mother also and Mothers education is also an important determinant of health care and
sanitation in a household. Better health status in turn translates into greater success at school, thereby
bringing positive feedback to education itself in the next generation. Similarly, parental education
and again, particularly that of the mother also infuences the support that parents can give to children,
improving the quality and success of education in the next generation. Efforts should be made by the
educated members of the community to launch programmes which will remove these misconceptions
from the mind of the people in order to ensure better education for the girls.
Poverty of parents:
The socio-economic condition is the most important factor infuencing educational outcomes. The
fnancial costs of schooling are often high, making it diffcult for poor parents to afford schooling for
their children. Such fnancial costs include not only school fees, but also other direct costs such as
the costs of transport, school uniforms, and school books. In addition to fnancial costs, there are also
non-fnancial costs, such as the cost of sending children to school. Particularly in rural areas, many
children may be involved in agricultural work or domestic duties. So, in addition to opening more
and more and more schools for poor Muslim community, the frst need is to maintain their socio-
economic status. When their socio-economic status will be improved, then poor Muslim children can
be taken away from the clutches of child labour. When family economic condition will be good, the
automatically, there will be increase in the enrolment of Muslim students in educational institutions.
Lack of parental support:
Muslim students often have limited parental support, a factor that is strengthened when their parents
also feel excluded. Poor parents can sometimes provide little support at home, or support to schools;
there are often few books at home; home conditions for doing homework may be bad; children are
poorly motivated to do well at school because they do not perceive the benefts of it, and so forth.
Parental involvement appears to make a greater difference to performance in some situations than
schools. Parents must be made aware about the signifcance of education. parental programmes may
bring some benefts because poor parents typically have less affuent social networks, this reduces the
future benefts of additional education for poor children, as they are less likely to be able to obtain
good jobs. A benevolent economic environment that accentuates the gains from education may be
necessary for many educational interventions to have a strong effect on poverty
Conclusion:
Access to education is critical condition for benefting from emerging opportunities accompanied by
economic growth. The deprivation of Muslims in socio-economic and educational sector calls for a
signifcant shift of government policies in those areas where private investment is not adequate to
cover the weaker sections. With regard to school education, the condition of Muslims is one of grave
concern. If this situation will be continued, then how can the country prosper? Hence for the progress
and proper development of the country, Muslims should be facilitated to acquire quality education. Free
and compulsory education for 6- 14 year children is the responsibility of the State and the fulflment
of this obligation is critical for the improvements in the educational conditions of Muslims.
REFERENCES:
Ahmad, Aijaz-ud-Din,(1991).Muslims in India. New Delhi, Inter India Publications.
Al-Quran 22:78.
Ali, M. A. Problems of Muslim Community Education in India and Its Remedies.
Apple, M.W (1990). Idealogy and Curriculum. New York, Routledge.
Azgar, A. M. (2013). The Importance of Education in Islam.
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Government of India, (2001), National Human Development Report 2001, New Delhi: Planning
Commission. p.48
Greater Kashmir, Srinagar. (2010). Status of Muslims in India. Thu, 27 May 2010. 18:30:00 GMT, GreaterKashmir.
com.
Misra, R. (2007). Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities.
Ministry of Minority Affairs. Government of India, New Delhi.
National sample survey offce. (2013). Employment and unemployment situation among major religious groups
in India, (july 2009- june 2010). Government of India.
The Hindu. (25,11,2013). Muslims poorest among religious groups.
Umbreen, J., & Malik, N, A. (2012). Socio-Politcal Status of Muslims in India: Post Partton. South Asian Stud-
ies A Research Journal of South Asian Studies. 27 (1), 7-19.
UNESCO (2004-05). Education for all: the quality imperative. EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring
Report. Paris: UNESCO.
Ghosh, P. (2013) Surprise, Surprise: Muslims Are Indias Poorest And Worst Educated Religious Group.
Internatioal Business Times. Retrieved from (http://tv.ibtimes.com).
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TRANSLATING MYTH INTO METAPHOR:
READING MAHASWETA DEVIS BREAST GIVER
(STANADAYINI).
Ashique Rashul*
According to The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms Myths are stories of unascertainable
origin or authorship accompanying or helping to explain religious beliefs. Often (though not
necessarily) their subject is the exploits of a god or hero, which may be of a fabulous or superhuman
nature, and which may have instituted a change in the workings of the universe or in the conditions
of social life. Critics value myth positively because of its apparent spontaneity and collectivity,
expressing some lastingly and generally satisfying account of human experience. Equally attractive
is the apparent universality and timelessness of myth. (2006:146) Myths tell such interesting and
fundamental stories that its no surprise that mythology has been a rich source of inspiration for
authors. Its infuence has been evident ever since the ancient Greeks and Romans began telling stories
about the gods. In contemporary literature myth is immensely used either directly or indirectly by the
authors to convey their thought process.
Authors work with mythology in many ways. Some refer to mythological characters or scenes
to add favor to their own works. Some writers will rework mythological styles or themes. Others
use ancient myths as a starting point for their own stories. Sreemati Mukherjee while talking about
postcolonial writers on using of mythologies, said,
Myth provides us with structures for organizing experience and for many postcolonial and
post-slavery writers dislocated by history, myth often provides ways of negotiating the stresses
of history. For many women writers of colour like Morrison, Simone Scwharz-Bart and
Maxine Hong Kingston, myth provides ways of claiming the margins of their gendered and
racial positionality. Faced with the depredations of history, myth suggests tools for survival.
(2011:140)
Mahasweta Devi is one such writer who uses myth in her stories to explore the caste, class
and gendered nature of womens oppression in India. Her use of myth is often marked with a sharp
contrast with the original and her recreation of myth forces the readers to introspect with the existing
cultural traditions. In a way she dymythologizes a certain myth to make the readers interact with the
existing brutal reality. Her allusions drawn from myth are sometimes far-fetched and are extremely
important in the context of the stories she writes. She abundantly uses Hindu mythologies to interact
with the readers. Indian readers are very much aware of the Hindu mythologies and when Devi
recreates the same myth, it becomes quite natural that the readers think again and again to come on
terms with the dymythologization. One such story is Mahasweta Devis Stanadayini/Breast Giver
translated from original Bengali by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
In Breast Giver Mahasweta Devi maneuvers myth and history to offer a chilling materialist
view of the former as dangerously perpetrating and reinforcing class and gender ideologies in India,
and thereby reinforcing the continuity of womens victimization(2011:141). Jashoda was the mythical
*Research Scholar, Dept. of English Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh
186
foster-mother of the god Krishna. Jashoda in India with her mythic signifcance is always presented as
an ideal mother as she signifes plentitude of love and affection. In the story Breast Giver the character
Jashoda is presented as gendered subaltern whose breasts signify surplus (1988:248) value which
enables her to become a mother for sale.
In the story, Jashodas husband Kangalicharan, a poor Brahmin, worked at a sweetshop. He
has his shins cut off as the youngest son of the Halder household ran over him in the Studebaker.
The eldest Halder Babu promises Kangalicharan to help him by opening a sweetshop for him. But
before that Halder Babu passes away leaving Jashoda and Kangalicharan in the moment of despair. It
is at this time the old myths are overturned to create new myths of class and gender oppression and
posit the body of a subaltern woman as the site where the mythical exploitation of class and gender
takes place (2011:143). When the second son of Halder house who wishes her wife to keep her good
looks in spite of multiple pregnancies, comes to know about the fabulous fow of milk from Jashodas
breasts, is struck with the idea of having her breast-feed his children. And as she wants to become the
earth and feed her crippled husband and helpless children with fulsome harvest, (2010:46) Jashoda
agrees to the idea of breast-feeding the children of the Halder household. Then her husband suggests,
Youll have milk in your breasts only if you have child in your belly. Now youll have to think
of that and suffer. You will yourself be pregnant, be flled with a child, rear it at your breast
And hence,
Kangalicharan became a professional father. Jashoda was by profession Mother. (2010:50)
Jashoda is elevated to the stature of the Mother goddess, the mother of the world by the people
around her, thereby making her the subject of her own exploitation. Mahasweta Devi while talking
about Jashoda in the story says,
Jashoda is fully an Indian woman, whose unreasonable, unreasoning, and unintelligent devotion
to her husband and love for her children, whose unnatural renunciation and forgiveness, have
been kept alive in the popular consciousness of all Indian women from Sati-Savitri-Sita through
Nirupa Roy to Chand Osmani. The creeps of the world understand by seeingsuch women that
the old Indian tradition is still fowing freethey understand that it was with such women
in mind that the following aphorisms have been composedA females life hangs on like
a turtlesher heart breaks but no word is utteredthe women will burn, her ashes will
fy/ Only then will we sing her/ praise on high. (2010:45-46)
Devi actually hits the conscience of her readers thereby showing how Indian women are
worshipped as god on one side and by showing the exploitation of women on the other through the
story. Thus instead of showing glory of motherhood in myth, the abjection of motherhood is shown.
Throughout the history of India, mothers and motherhood is represented as very sacred and that ideal
mother fgure is worshipped and revered throughout. Mother goes synonymous with selfessness
and sacrifce. Mahasweta Devi, in the story shows how those qualities of a mother are exploited and
tampered with, by the patriarchal society.
After many years when it seemed that Jashoda was really living up to the qualifcations of
the mythical mode, and after twenty pregnancies and perhaps breast-feeding ffty, Jashoda develops
breast cancer. The end of the story witnesses the ugly and fatal breakdown of Jashodas body. Hard
lumps develop and her breasts stink like a dead dog. The mythic mode is overturned by the ugly
decomposition of the body, and the discourse of myth is replaced by the discourse of illness. The
doctor explains the disease that breeds in the body of Jashoda
It happened not in a day, but over a long time. How does on perceive cancer? A hard lump
inside the breast toward the top can be removed. Then gradually the lump becomes large, hard
and like a congealed pressure. The skin is expected to turn orange, as is expected a shrinking
of the nipple. The gland in the armpit can be infamed. When there is ulceration, that is to say
sores, one can call it the fnal stages. (2010:68)
187
The hard facts and terms of medical science counterpoint the myth related ironical rhetoric
that celebrated Jashodas once bountiful milk. She is spurned by her husband and children as well as
the household which received the benefts of the plentiful supply of milk in her breasts. They now
fnd her inconvenience as she struggles through the ugliness of cancer alone. Sacrifce supposedly
ennobles, adds stature, and confers power. Jashoda has none of this at the end of the story:
Jashoda understood that her feet and hands are getting cold. She understood that death was
coming. Jashoda couldnt pen her eyes, but she understood that some people were looking at
her hand. A needle pricked her arm. Painful breathing inside. Has to be. Who is looking? Are
these her own people? The people whom she suckled because she carried them or those she
suckled for living? Jashoda thought, after all, she had suckled the world, could she die alone?
The doctor who sees her every day, the person who will cover her face with a sheet, will put
her on a car, will put her on the furnace, are all her milk-sons. One must become Jashoda if on
suckled the world. One has to die friendless, with no one even to put water in the mouth. Yet
someone was supposed to be there at the end. Who was it? It was who? Who was it? (2010:73)
The view of history that Jashoda develops through her notion of her own mythical role as
Jashoda, the mother of the world, is shown to be nothing more than a story of the epic exploitation
of the gendered subaltern. The story ends at a point of defnite narrative closure with the enigmatic
narratorial comment indicating the Death of God and the death of myth:
Jashoda was god manifest, others do and did whatever she thought. Jashodas death was also
the death of God. When a mortal masquerades as God here below, she is forsaken by all and
she must always die alone. (2010:74)
But does Jashoda understand it? No. Mothers like Jashoda in India are many and are left to die
like rotten carcasses. The women of India are conditioned in such a way that they accept their plight
as their fate. While living in the society they could not do anything except of dying alone putting a
smile in their face.
Further interrogation of the text can also lead us to see Jashoda as a metaphor for post
independent India, our nation. India like Jashoda feeds us all with her plentitude of love and affection,
without distinguishing between cast, creed, class and gender. And in return we the holy child of the
holy Mother India abuse her, exploit her, trick her and degrade her to the point of causing cancer. As
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak puts:
Stanadayini is a parable of India after decolonization. Like the protagonist Jashoda, India
is a mother-by-hire. All classes of people, the post-war rich, the ideologues, the indigenous
bureaucracy, the diasporics, the people who sworn to protect the new state, abuse and exploit
her. If nothing is done to sustain her, nothing given back to her, and if scientifc help comes
too late, she will die of consuming cancer. I suppose if one extended this parable the end of
the story might come to mean something like this: the ideological construct India is too
deeply informed by the goddess-infested reverse sexism of the Hindu majority. As long as
there is this hegemonic cultural self-representation of India as a goddess-mother (dissimulating
the possibility that this mother is a slave), she will collapse under the burden of the immense
expectations that such a self representation permits. (2010:78)
Works Cited:
1. Childs, Peter. Fowler, Roger. Ed. The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. Routledge. London: 2006.
2. Sen, Nandini. Ed. Mahasweta Devi: Critical Perspectives. Pencraft International. New Delhi. 2011.
3. Devi, Mahasweta. Spivak, G.C. Trans. Breast Stories. Seagull Books. Calcutta. 2010.
4. Spivak, G.C. In Other Worlds. Routledge. London & New York. 1988.
188
CHILD LABOUR LAWS AND LEGAL REGULATION
IN INDIA: A JUDICIAL ACTIVISIM
Mohammad Sabir Khan
*
ABSTRACT
Child labour is a serious problem across the globe with more than 250 million children working around
the world. Many of these children live in underdeveloped; their living conditions are crude and their
chances for education minimal. The income they bring in is, however, necessary for the survival of
their families. In other cases, children are bonded, working to pay off an initial cash advance from
the employer with escalating interest which leaves them effectively slaves. The information has been
shared on some of the legal and programmatic initiatives undertaken in India over the last decade
or so to address the problem of child labor. These programs remain committed to the full eradication
of all forms of child labor wherever it might exist in India, beginning with the most exploitative and
hazardous forms and have adopted this goal as part of national policy. Both the Indian courts and
the National Human Rights Commission have been paying increasing attention to the issue.
INTRODUCTION
The Child has been the subject of special laws and legal provisions. Because of its tender years, weak
physique, and inadequately developed mind and understanding, every child needs protection against
moral and physical harm and exploitation by others. In the formative years of its life, the child needs
special care service to realize its full potential for growth and development. There are about 300
Central and State Statutes concerning children. These have been enacted with an intention to protect
and help children and achieve the goal of child labour welfare enshrined in our National charter.
There is disagreement regarding the size of the children working in India. Much of the confusion
is regarding the defnition of who is a child labour? The most accepted defnition of child labour is
one who is in between the age of 4 to 14, who is working for wage in the labour market. This being
the case, India is one of the few countries having the largest number of child labour. Estimation of
child labour in India is done by both the Census and National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
According to the Census of India, the working children in India were 10.75 millions in 1971 but it
creased in next decade and reached to 13.64 millions, which disturb the researcher and policy framers.
The Government has framed central policy in 1987. The result of the policy was refected in the
Census of 1991, where it was decline to 11.29 millions. Many steps have been taken by the Central
Government and State Governments to eliminate child labour during the decades of 1991-2001 and
many occupations and processes were prohibited from the employment of children. Again Census of
India 2001, attract the attention of the policy maker, to re-think for elimination of child labour as the
Census reveals that child labour increased to 12.67 millions between the age group of 5 to 14 years.
The trend of child labour can been as follows-
The trend of child labour in various States of the country from 1971 to 2001. It reveals that Uttar
Pradesh is the State where more than 15% of the child population are working as child labour, followed
*Researcher
189
by Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, those found with more than 8% children
in the work. On the other hand, Gujarat is at the ninth place in ranking and found with the 3.85%
children as child labour.
II. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TREND OF CHILD LABOUR
Article 51 (c) of the DPSP requires the State to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations
in the dealings of organized people with one another. Under article 253 of the Constitution, the
Parliament has the power to make any law for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention
with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association
or other body. For instance, the Immoral Traffc (Prevention) Act, 1956, was enacted following the
ratifcation by the Government of India of the International Convention for the Suppression of the
Traffc in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others.
The following graph compares the trend of child labour in 1950 with child labour in 2000 across the
world, which may be cleared from the following
Table : 1 - Trend in Labour Participation Rates for Children
Countries 1950 (%) 2000 (%)
World 27.57 11.32
Africa 38.42 24.92
Latin America & Caribbean 19.36 8.21
Asia 36.06 10.18
Europe 6.49 0.04
India 34.52 12.07
China 47.85 7.86
The graph reveals that child labour in India is decline in similar ratio as world decline. Whereas,
India has yet not ratifed ILO core Convention 138 of 1973, than also India has decline child labour
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in more ratio than the world.
III. CHILD LABOUR VERSUS CHILD WORK
There is considerable discourse on the distinction between child labour and child work. At its most
basic defnition, child labour is waged and child work is the unwaged activities that children do in the
course of their everyday lives. Often those endorse this distinction argue that the latter form of work
is a positive part of the socialization process. The World Bank considers work within the protection of
a family benefcial to a childs development, and theorists such as Liebel, favour the positive element
of light work with limited working hours. dismiss this argument as weak, arguing that light work
includes carrying frewood and water, animal husbandry and helping in the feld.
Individually, the tasks may not be time consuming but it is rare that a child will only partake in one
activity.
The trend in human traffcking cases reported under the above heads during 2006-2011, shows an
overall declining trend, with year to year variation. From nearly 5000 cases in 2006, it declined over
the years, touching the lowest in 2009 (2848 cases) increased to 3422 cases in 2010, and 3517 cases
in 2011.
V. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
Constitution of India contains provisions for survival, development and protection of children; these
are mainly included in Part III and Part IV of the Constitution, i.e., fundamental rights and directive
principles of state policy. India follows pro-active policy towards tackling child labour problem. The
concern for children in general and child labour in particular is refected through the Articles of the
Constitution of India. In Article 23, it prohibits traffc in human being and begar and other similar
forms of forced labour. Under Article 24 it has laid down that no child under the age of 14 years
shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.
Article 39(e) and (f) requires the State and secure that the tender age of children are not abused and
to ensure that they are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited in their age or
strength. Those children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and
conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and
against moral and material abandonment. Article 45 provides, for free and compulsory education for
all children until they complete the age of 14 years. Article 51A(k) makes it a fundamental duty of
the parent or Guardian to provide opportunities for education to the child or ward between the age of
6 and 14 years. Art. 21-A recognizes that the Right to Education as fundamental right and it mandates
that, the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of age of six to fourteen
years in such manner as the state may, by law, determine.
(A)Factories Act, 1948
The Factories Act, 1948 prohibits employment of a child below 14 years in any factory. This Act,
extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir.11 Section 67 of the Act, enacts
an absolute prohibition of employment of a child in any factory. It means no child below the age of
14 years can be asked to work or if he himself wants to work can be permitted to work in any factory.
(B)The Mines Act, 1952
This Act extends to the whole of India. This Act defnes child as a person who has not completed
his 15 years. The Act not only prohibits the employment of children in mines, but also prohibits the
presence of children in any part of a mine which is below ground or in any open cast working in which
any mining operation is being carried on. Even an adolescent is not allowed to work in any part of a
mine which is below ground, unless he has completed his 16th year and has a medical certifcate of
ftness for work. A certifcate is valid only for twelve months. Under the Act, adolescent is allowed
to be employed in any mine except between 6 am and 6 pm.
(C)Beedi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act, 1966
This Act extends to the whole of India. This is a special legislation for regulating conditions of work
of Beedi and cigar workers. Although the Factories Act, applies to such workers but the employers
intentionally split the concerns into small units to escape the provisions of the Factories Act. Further,
191
a special feature of this industry is that the manufacturers of Beedis get the work done through
contract labour and also in private dwelling houses which again leads to avoidance the provisions of
the Factories Act. This Act tries to meet such diffculties.
There are number of child labour legislations prohibiting the employment of children below 14 years
and 15 years in certain specifed employments. However, contrary to our international commitment
and all proclamations in the countrys Constitution, and despite all the legislative measures, child
labour is a harsh reality. Due to lack of political will and in absence of realistic measures to tackle
the problem, the percentage of child labour in the total labour force of the country kept on increasing
over the years. In fact, the evil of child labour has not only survived but has become deep rooted and
multi-dimensional.
(D)Contract Labour (Regulations and Abolition) Act, 1970
The Act also extends to the whole of India. The Act applies to establishment and contractors employing
20 or more workers. It is not applied to establishment in which work only of an intermittent or casual
nature is performed. There are no specifc provisions under the Act pertaining to employment of
children.
VI. JUDICIAL DECISIONS AND CHILD LABOUR
Baran Shanta v. Ma Chan Tha May7 decided by the Rangoon High Court in 1925 was not exactly a
case on child labour but has a bearing on child labour. The issue involved was one of maintenance to
a child of 11 years. The petitioner in the instant case was ordered by the sub-divisional magistrate of
Buthidaung to pay a monthly sum of Rs. 5 for the maintenance of his son, aged 11 years. He applied
in revision to the Court of Session, to reduce the amount from Rs. 5 to Rs 3 on the ground that the
boy is oldenough to make about Rs. 2 a month by coolie labour. There was evidence to show that
the boy had occasionally been employed to tend cattle, earning once Rs. 5 for a period of fve months
work, and, at another time, Rs. 12 for a similar period. From this the conclusion was drawn that his
earning capacity is about Rs. 2 a month. The question, thus, to be decided by the court was : in fxing
the sum payable as maintenance for a
child, is it permissible in law to take into consideration the fact that the child is able to earn something
towards its own support? May Oung J, while refusing the plea held that a father is bound to maintain
his child who is under the age of majority; and in fxing the sum payable, no regard should be paid to
the fact that the child is able to contribute towards its own support by means of labour or work of any
kind. The judge also observed that it would be contrary to public policy to encourage child labour
by holding that a boy of eleven years should contribute
towards his own support by work as a coolie when he should be in school. That he belongs to the
labouring class is no argument, since, in these days, every child has aright to at least a primary
education.
Peoples Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India11 (popularly known as the Asiad case) is a
writ petition brought by way of public interest litigation in order to ensure observance of the provisions
of various labour laws in relation to workmen employed in the construction work of various projects
connected with the Asian Games. The matter was brought to the attention of the court by the frst
petitioner which is an organization formed for the purpose of protecting democratic rights by means
of a letter addressed to one of the judges of the Supreme Court, viz., Bhagwati J. The letter was based
on a report made by a team of three social scientists who were commissioned by the frst petitioner
for the purpose of investigating and inquiring into the conditions under which the workmen engaged
in the various Asiad projects were working. The
letter was treated as a wit petition by the court and notice was issued to the Union of India, Delhi
Development Authority and Delhi Administration which were arrayed as respondents. It was alleged
by the petitioners, inter alia, that there was violation of article 24 of the Constitution and of the
provisions of the Employment of Children Act, 1938 inasmuch as children below the age of 14 years
were employed by the contractors in the construction work of the various projects connected with the
Asian Games. It was also alleged that there was violation of article 23 since the workers, including
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the children, were not being paid the minimum wages under the Minimum Wages Act, 1948.
VII.CONCLUSION
Child labour is a signifcant problem in India. The constitution of India clearly states that child labour
is a wrong and measures should be taken to end it.From the foregoing survey of cases on child labour it
may be said that the Supreme Court has taken a conciliatory position of the problem and has accepted
the inevitability of child labour in our country. In none of the cases brought before it, has the court
called for an immediate ban of child labour. The initiative shown by the court in Asiad case prohibiting
child labour from construction work even when no law provided for the same, has not been seen in
the succeeding cases, be it the M.C Mehta cases or the other cases. Being convinced that poverty is
the only cause for the continuance of child labour the court has only advocated amelioration of the
working conditions of children rather than abolition of child labour. The directions of the court for the
creation of welfare fund and the compulsory insurance scheme to be fnanced by the employers have
to be seen for furthering that end. Once the poverty of parents is taken care of the problem of child
labour will automatically come down is too simplistic a solution to the complex problem.
As regards the violation of the provisions of article 24 are concerned, the court held that it embodies a
fundamental right which is plainly and indubitably enforceable against every one and by reason of its
compulsive mandate, no one can employ a child below the age of 14 years in a hazardous employment,
and since construction work is a hazardous employment, no child below the age of 14 years can be
employed in construction work and therefore, not only are the contractors under a constitutional.
According to the court, the spirit of the Constitution perhaps is that children should not be employed in
factories as childhood is the formative period and in terms of article 45 they are meant to be subjected
to free and compulsory education until they complete the age of 14 years. The provision of article 45
in the Directive Principles of State Policy has still remained a far cry and though according to this
provision all children up to the
age of 14 years are supposed to be in school, economic necessity forces grown up children to seek
employment. Children can, therefore, be employed in the process of packing but packing should be
done in an area away from the place of manufacture to avoid exposure to accident.
Thus the judiciary has always made concrete efforts to safeguard them against the exploitative
tendencies of their employers, by regularizing their working hours, fxing their wages, laying down
rules about their health and medical facilities. The judiciary has even directed the states that it is their
duty to create an environment where the child workers can have opportunities to grow and develop
in a healthy manner with full dignity in consensus of the mandate of our constitution.
193
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONSUMER
AWARENESS AMONG MALES AND
FEMALES OF MALAPPURAM DISTRICT OF
KERALA.
Fasalurahman.p.k.patterkadavan*
ABSTRACT
The article is an attempt to study the Consumer awareness among males and females of Malappuram
district of Kerala state. The study was conducted on 100 respondents comprising 50 males and 50
females in Malappuram District of Kerala to ascertain awareness level of both the categories for
consumer terminologies, legal laws and organizations. Mean scores on consumer awareness statements
depicted that nearly ffty percent respondents were having low level of awareness. Majority of
respondents were aware about existence of legal laws and various consumer terminologies. Most
commonly used source of consumer information was television followed by radio and least common
were journals. 76 percent males and 64 percent females were aware of consumer organization but
only 40 percent males and 26 percent females showed interest in joining it. Awareness level of both
males and females showed signifcant difference. Need and importance of consumer awareness and
consumer education is also stressed in this study.
INTRODUCTION
Consumers are people who buy goods and services to satisfy their needs. Consumer awareness is the
awareness of an individual related to spending and buying of goods and services for their satisfaction
and well being. It can be attained through proper education of the consumers. Consumer education is the
preparation of an individual through skills, concepts and understanding that are required for everyday
life to achieve maximum satisfaction and utilization of his resources. It is defned as education given
to the consumer about various consumer goods and services, covering price, what the consumer can
expect, standard trade practice, etc. Consumer education has been described as addressing four general
areas. These are: (1) Consumer Decision making- Covers critical thinking skills related to consumers
goals, needs, wants, and the effects of attitudes, advertising, information and opportunity costs on
consumer behavior. (2) Economics- Examines the allocation of scarce resources among competing
wants. Explores the principles of supply and demand and how prices are determined. Other topics
include growth and productivity, global interdependence and the interrelated roles of consumers,
producers, and government in an economic system. (3) Personal Finance- Includes budgeting, record
keeping, income and net worth statements, credit, saving and investing, retirement and estate planning,
insurance, and taxes.(4) Rights and Responsibilities - Includes responsible citizenship concerning
consumer protection laws and regulations, and redress mechanisms. Also addresses topics such as
the environment, safety, health care and affordable goods and services.
Consumer education offers more than knowledge and skills; it promotes critical thinking, problem
solving and action. This range of elements is refected in the basic consumer education objectives
*Assistant professor, Department of economics, Central university of Kashmir.
194
developed by Grada HelIman Tuitert for the International Organization of Consumer Unions (IOCU).
The objectives include helping students to gain knowledge to act as informed consumers, to develop
an understanding of societys function as a whole and the specifc role of consumers. For example,
the understanding of the role of companies in the economic system; the role of the government in
society and the role of consumer organizations, master skills to function as informed and responsible
consumers. For example, writing a letter of complaint; spotting sales gimmicks and using products
knowledgeably, to recognize it is important to be an informed consumer and to act as informed,
educated and responsible consumers.
Traditionally, consumer education focused on developing skills for the individual consumer -- skills
such as buying quality goods, fnding low prices and avoiding seller deception the market place. The
focus was on maximizing personal satisfaction at minimum cost. Students of Consumer education
today are encouraged also to consider the impact of choices on the well-being of others. Consumers
need to learn how to distinguish needs from wants; and how to ask informed questions. Once they
have acquired knowledge and awareness, consumers can confdently act to make their voices heard.
Consumers must act with concern and sensitivity, aware of the impact of their actions on others,
particularly the disadvantaged. Consumers should recognize the impact of their decisions on the
physical environment and possible confict between the desire to own things and the destruction of
the environment. The most effective Consumer action is through the formation of citizen groups.
Together such groups can acquire the strength and infuence to make sure that adequate attention is
given to the consumer interest. Consumer education, like the general education curriculum, is part
of that foundation on which students may begin to build their personal lives, and on which we must
begin to build a more responsive and humane world. Consumer education is very much needed for
awaking the consumers in right direction. And consumer awareness is the need of the society for
heading towards the development of well balanced and productive people and nation.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Majority of Indian consumers are ignorant and do not know the role of consumption viz-a viz economic
system. The entire marketing operation is aimed at proft maximization at the expense of consuming
people. Malpractices like adulteration, short weights and measures, high prices, false and deceitful
advertisement and packaging are pervading the market even when government of India claim to have
passed maximum legal laws protecting consumers than any other country in the world. Indian consumers
are cheated through weights and measures to the tune of Rs. 1600 crores a year. Though government
has passed several acts and laws to protect consumers and seek redressal of their grievances they
are not in a position to utilize their knowledge or are simply ignorant of these (John 1974, Gupta
and Ogale, 1988). Laws are not popular because they are framed in highly technical terminologies
that it would not be possible to comprehend by a layman (Anonymous, 1976). Indian consumers are
cheated through defective weights and measures to the tune of Rs. 1600 crores a year (Ahmed Patel,
1999).According to the study conducted by James Mathews, 2002, people living in rural area has
low consumer awareness as compared to the urban area and people are not using the facilities like
consumer protection courts. Antonio Gomez concluded in his study that people are more illiterate
regarding the buying of engineering goods (2002). Educated people have higher consumer awareness
as compared to those uneducated (Harshavardhan Tomar, 1998). It means illiterate subjects are more
to face threats. Findings of Johns study (1974) confrmed that majority of respondents have medium
consumer awareness. Parameshwar (1988) analyzed that unless consumer awareness is created, the
efforts of the government and voluntary organizations cant achieve the desired results. Few institutions
such as I.I.M. Ahmedabad and sporadic researches at individual level have been conducted (John,
1974; Bhatia, 1973; Bhatt, 1977). The problem is multidimensional and multi action is needed where
incorporation of research institution and academician is required. Therefore, the current investigation
is undertaken with these aims.
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is our right to protect consumer interests and tastes. The ultimate goal of consumer education whether
195
it is formal or non-formal is to create awareness among the citizens of a country towards fnancial
and consumption matters. Consumer awareness is the awareness of the public with the information it
needs on products and services, so it can make well-informed decisions on what its purchasing and
from whom it purchases. It helps consumers understand their rights and become active participants in
the buying process. Consumer awareness ensures that companies are held accountable by governing
agencies and the consumers who use their products and services. Consumer education is a signifcant
factor in keeping the economy moving, as it holds companies accountable for what they sell and how
they sell it, and gives consumers control over their purchases. It motivates consumers to provide
feedback that can be used to improve the quality of products and services.
Consumer awareness is important for several reasons. For example, in consumer survey, we can fnd
that nearly 90% of respondents said they would like more guidance from manufacturers on how to
properly dispose of or recycle packaging. In addition, sometimes the sustainable version of a products
packaging changes the traditional consumer interface. For example, that compostable Sun Chips bag
is much louder than the ordinary chip bag due to the density of the compostable materials used to
produce the bag. Sun Chips has addressed the noise on both its website and on its packaging. Other
manufacturers should follow Sun Chips example and dedicate some packaging real estate and utilize
other marketing vehicles to clearly educate consumers about new characteristics of their sustainable
packaging that may be unfamiliar. Furthermore, consumer awareness can empower customers by
communicating how each person can individually make a positive impact on the environment by
purchasing sustainable products or eco-friendly packaging. Consumer awareness helps the consumer
in many ways in protecting himself from the malpractices of the seller and in making judi cious
purchases. Let us see what the advantages of consumer awareness are: 1. Consumer awareness helps
a person in making proper purchase. It enables the consumer in making right selection. 2. Consumer
awareness familiarizes the consumer with the problems which he faces while making purchases. This
education inculcates the logical viewpoint in him. 3. Consumer awareness provides the con sumer full
information of marketing con ditions like various sources of purchasing a particular commodity, from
where to get cheap and best goods, the shops providing additional facilities, and to latest products. All
these information enables him in taking right decision regarding shopping. 4. Consumer awareness
familiarizes the consumer with various standards of standardization and their markings. 5. One of the
most important uses of con sumer awareness is that it familiarizes the consumer about the various acts
enacted by the Government from time to time. Consumer awareness helps the consumer in getting
maximum satisfaction by proper utilization of his money and leads a better living standard.
OBJECTIVES
1. To assess the awareness of respondents towards (i) consumer terminology (ii) legal laws.
2. To ascertain the awareness of respondents regarding consumer organizations and various
information sources.
3. To know the discrepancy between men and women in Malappuram district regarding con-
sumer awareness.
HYPOTHESES
Following null hypotheses were formulated for testing the assumptions:
1. There is no signifcant difference in the level of consumer awareness between males and
females.
2. There is no signifcant difference in the level of legal awareness on consumer related matters
between males and females.
3. There is no signifcant difference in the level of awareness on various consumer terminologies
and sources of information of consumer terminologies between males and females.
4. There is no signifcant difference in the level of awareness regarding consumer organisations
between males and females.
196
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(a) Research Design: Survey method was used with a structured type questionnaire as the data-
collecting instrument.
(b) Pre- Testing: Pre testing was done on 16 subjects (8 males and 8 females) for clarity and
reliability of the tool.
(c) Sampling Procedure: The sample for the study was selected from Malappuram district of Kerala.
Selective sampling was chosen after critical review of literature. It has been observed that consumer
behaviour has been imposed on a range of people belonging to middle class. Both rich and poor have
different problems. Therefore, the present study was limited to middle class society. Fifty percent
respondents were males and 50 percent females, having formal education.
(d) Data Collection: In total 120 questionnaires were distributed out of which 100 sample was fnally
selected.
(e) Analysis of Data: The statements on consumer awareness were framed after critical review of
literature and discussions with experts in the feld. The answer to these statements were sought in
terms of right, wrong, not sure and dont know which were scored as follows:
Right : 3 points
Not sure : 2 points
Dont Know : 1 point
Wrong : 0 point
Scoring pattern was reverse in case of wrong statements. Thus minimum score was 0 and maximum
possible score was 105. Mean and Standard deviation were calculated and range was formed to
categorize the respondents as follows:
Low awareness 0-35
Medium awareness 36-70
High awareness 71-105
t- test was used to study the difference between awareness level and sex of respondents.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Consumer Awareness: It was observed from Table 1 that out of total, 30 percent respondents have
low level of awareness regarding consumer terms. Amongst this, 9.0 percent are males and 21 percent
females. 41 percent respondents had medium awareness out of which 26.0 percent are males and 15
percent females. Out of total, 29 percent respondents had high level of awareness with 18 percent
belonging to males and 11 percent to females. Findings of Johns study (1974) also confrmed that
majority of respondents have medium consumer awareness.
Table 1: Distribution of sample according to their level of consumer awareness (N= 120)
Respondents Low Medium High
Frequency - Percentage Frequency- Percentage- Frequency- Percentage
Males 09 09.0 26 26.0 18 18.0
Females 21 21.0 15 15.0 11 11.0
Total 30 30.0 41 41.0 29 29.0
Legal Awareness: Analysis of data (Table 2) regarding legal awareness showed that majority of males
and female respondents were aware about the legal laws protecting the consumers against adulteration
of food stuffs (90 percent males, 76.0 percent females), adulteration of drugs (80 percent males, 64.0
percent females): short weighing (86.0percent males and 82.0 percent females); false weights and
measures (84.0 percent males, 72.0 percent females); using stones for weights (92.0 percent males,
76.0 percent females); using handmade balance (92.0 percent males and 50 percent females) and
using deceitful packaging (86.0 percent males and 68.0 percent females). It was concluded from the
above fndings that males were having better awareness regarding legal laws than female respondents.
Awareness of Respondents Regarding Consumer Terminology: Level of awareness regarding
various terminologies was observed in Table 3. The data showed that 76.0 percent males and 66.0
percent females were aware of term Ag mark. The term I.S.I was known to 72 percent males and 62
197
percent female respondents. Only 18 percent males and 12 percent female respondents were aware
of the term mercerization. It was inferred from the fndings that more number of female respondents
were aware of these specifc terms. It may be attributed to the fact that it is related more to clothing
which is frequently purchased by women than men
Table 3: Distribution of sample according to their awareness of consumer terminology (N=120)
S.No. Legal Laws Males Females
Yes No Yes No
Freq: Percen: Freq: Percen: Freq: Percen: Freq: Percen:
1. Agmark 38 76.0 12 24.0 33 66.0 17 34.0
2. I.S.I 36 72.0 14 28.0 31 62.0 19 38.0
3. Sanforized 16 32.0 34 68.0 14 28.0 36 72.0
4. Mercerized 9 18.0 41 82.0 6 12.0 44 88.0
Source of Information Regarding Consumer Terminology: Majority of male and female respondents
got information regarding consumer terminology through T.V. (86 percent males and 92 percent
females) followed by radio, newspaper and magazines (Table 4). Journals were least commonly used
sources of information (40 percent males and 44 percent females). It can be concluded that mass media
can effectively be used to promote information and awareness especially to educated respondents
belonging to middle income group. Mass- media can also play an effective role for masses belonging
to different socio- economic categories also.
Table 4: Distribution of sample according to mass media information sources (N=120)
S.No Information sources Males Females
Yes No Yes No
1. Television 43 86.0 7 14.0 46 92.0 4 8.0
2. Radio 38 66.0 12 24.0 39 78.0 11 22.0
3. Newspaper 36 72.0 14 28.0 36 72.0 16 32.0
4. Journals 20 40.0 30 60.0 22 44.0 28 56.0
5. Magazines 34 68.0 16 32.0 40 80.0 10 20.0
Awareness Regarding Consumer Organizations: The data in Table 5 shows those 76 percent males
and 64 percent females were aware about consumer organizations working in and around their area.
On the contrary, only 40 percent males and 26 percent females had shown any interest in joining these
organizations. The reason given by majority of them was lack of time and no interest in joining them,
as it will yield no results. Parameshwar (1988) analyzed that unless consumer awareness is created,
the efforts of the government and voluntary organizations cant achieve the desired results.
Table 5: Distribution of sample according to their awareness of consumer organization
S.No. awareness of consumer organization
Males Females
Yes No Yes No
1. Consumer organizations 38 76.0 12 24.0 32 64.0 18 36.0
Working in the area
2. Interest in joining 20 40.0 30 60.0 13 26.0 37 74.0
FINDINGS
Main fndings of the present study are as in the followings:
1. Majority of respondents have medium consumer awareness.
2. It was concluded from the above fndings that males were having better awareness regarding
legal laws than female respondents.
198
3. There existed a signifcant difference between the awareness level of the male and female
respondents regarding consumer terminology and consumer protection laws. Males were
more aware about the popular consumer terminologies than females.
4. Television was the main media for both the male and female respondents, which infuenced
their buying most.
5. Journals were least commonly used sources of information regarding consumer terminology.
CONCLUSION
Consumerism is likely to dominate the Indian market in the next Millennium. In the name
of imported food and juices, substandard products are invading the market. Consumers should know
that policies have been framed and the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, has introduced to provide
them relief. A separate Department of Consumer Affairs was also created in the Central and State
Governments to exclusively focus on ensuring the rights of consumers as enshrined in the constitution.
The consumer has to be aware of his rights and play a key role. After all the dictum in democracy
is, the citizens get a government they deserve. Similarly the consumers in society get a position
in the market depending upon what they do or do not do. It is agreed on all hands that consumer
empowerment in India has a long way to go. It was a serious problem as nobody asks for the bill
they purchase the goods. Importance of consumers was changing globally in the wake of globalization
as developing and poor countries were constituted the biggest market. The companies which started
operations in poorer markets put up a good show telling the world that even the poor wanted quality
goods. Hoarding, substandard products and fake products were playing havoc with the consumers in
the absence of lack of awareness among consumers about their rights. Mass- media and educational
institutions need to play an effective role in consumer awakening and imparting information regarding
organizations working for the consumers interest in their area.
REFERENCES
Anonymous: Consumer Guidance Society of Bombay, Keemat, 5(3&4): 2-3 (1976).
Bhatia, V.: A Study of Homemakers Buying Behaviour and Attitude towards Certain Marketing Practices.
In the City Baroda, M.Sc. thesis, (unpublished).,M.S University, Baroda (1973).
Bhatt, R.: Buying powers of urban poor and public distribution, Keemat., December 1 (977).
Gupta, M. and Ogale, N.: Educational needs of consumers regarding consumer protection laws., Journal of Research.
H.A.U. Hissar, 18(3): 236-241 (1988).
John, M.: Awareness of Consumer Responsibilities., M.Sc. thesis, (unpublished) M.S University, Baroda (1974).
Parmeshwar, K.R.: Protect consumer against quality tricksters., Yojana, 32(5): 29-31 (1988).
199
ERA OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND INDIA:
WITH A FOCUS ON RIGHT TO INFORMATION
Janmejay Sahu*
ABSTRACT:
India is a diverse country with its people, traditions, cultures, living practices particularly its
governance, no doubt India is having a largest democratic federal governance structure in the world
however the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts ensures the grassroots peoples participation in the
local governance. They participate in the various local government institutions as elected members
or as benefciaries or as facilitators to make the governance effective and make the people to get
maximum benefts from the government. Information is power, plays an important role through peoples
participation in strengthening and making effective governance as information leads the people in
right direction. Moreover, introduction of Right to Information Act, 2005 in India empowers the
people to access government information and to make its best use for effective and good governance.
Therefore, this paper aims to critically analyse how right to information as a tool helps in making
effective governance of India and empowers its common people in the era of global governance.
Key words: Global Governance, Right to Information and Good Governance
INTRODUCTION
It is true that the corruption practices have been a part and parcel of the government institutions
however; the people are becoming vigilant with advance information communication and technological
input to fght corruption. Also, the RTI Act empowers the people to access information; to use of this
information and to get benefts from the government programmes on the one hand and the people
use RTI Act to make the government institutions ready for easy service delivery, make effective
governance reducing corruption practices and enabling the government offcials to be ready with
proper documentation and administration in the governance mechanism on the other. Therefore, as
decentralization is the master key in India, the local governments have been identifed as the potential
institutions to assist central government in driving development process. This is a major achievement
and has given a direct platform for the active involvement of the people of the grassroots where most
of people take benefts from the use of RTI Act which is a signifcant indication for good governance
from the bottom to top with large grassroots peoples participation.
Global Governance
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defnes as governance is derived from the Latin
word gubernator, which is described both as a person who steers, and as a self-acting contrivance
for regulating to ensure an even and regular motion. Also, it defnes governance as: (i) the idea of
controlling, directing or regulating infuence, as well as being subject to the control of another (a
relational aspect); (ii) the offce, function, or power of governing; (iii) the manner in which something
is governed or regulated; and (iv) the general conduct of life or business, demeanour, and discrete
or virtuous behaviour, which adds a normative component to governance. According to Rosenau
(1992), Global governance is often defned in terms of what it is not neither a world government
*Ph.D Scholar, Politcal Science, University of Hyderabad.
200
nor the disorderly chaos and anarchy associated with a Hobbesian state of war of all against all. In
one of the pioneering studies of global governance published in 1992, James Rosenau defned global
governance in general terms as an order that lacks a centralized authority with the capacity to enforce
decisions on a global scale. His conception of global governance was that of a purposive order that
exists for the management of interdependence in the absence of a global state. Moreover, Biersteker
(2009) states that Global governance is a permissive concept.
Further, it is argues in European Institute of Security Studies (2010) that global governance
is the collective management of common problems at the international level is at a critical juncture.
Although global governance institutions have racked up many successes since they were developed
after the Second World War, the growing number of issues on the international agenda, and their
complexity, is outpacing the ability of international organisations and national governments to cope.
RTI and Global Governance
Janikowska (2012) argues that global politics should become more democratic. Global
governance should be transformed by a number of reforms. One of the options is the model of
cosmopolitan democracy. The democratization of global governance towards cosmopolitan democracy
requires that civil society will take an active part in the co-decision-making processes on a global scale.
Weiss (2009) state that governance has been associated with governing, or with political authority,
institutions, and, ultimately, control. Governance in this sense denotes formal political institutions that
both aim to coordinate and control interdependent social relations and that also possess the capacity
to enforce decisions. Global governance can thus be defned as the sum of laws, norms, policies, and
institutions that defne, constitute, and mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures, citizens,
intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, and the market. It embraces the totality of
institutions, policies, rules, practices, norms, procedures, and initiatives by which states and their
citizens (indeed, humanity as a whole) try to bring more predictability, stability, and order to their
responses to transnational challengessuch as climate change and environmental degradation, nuclear
proliferation, and terrorismwhich go beyond the capacity of a single state to solve.
Chumakov (2013) points out that the world community has accumulated, during its history, a
signifcant experience of governing large social systemsstates, empires, kingdoms, confederations,
unions, blocs, etc. State has proven in practice to be the most wide-spread and vivid form for organizing
social life. When globalization makes the whole world community a holistic system, governing this
system becomes a demand of the time and it should be built taking into consideration the whole
experience accumulated by humankind in this sphere. It is also evident that global governance should
be based on the historically tested principle of separation of legislative, executive and judiciary
powers.Therefore, Global governance also means providing cooperative security and uniting efforts in
maintaining it through various forms of cooperation. First of all, we talk about economic cooperation,
which already successfully evolves in the modern world in the form of multinational corporations,
consortiums, joint ventures, etc. World trade has already made all peoples of the planet involved into
the single market of labor, goods and services.
The right to information is implicitly guaranteed by the Indian constitution with a view to
set out practical machinery for securing information in 2005 and thus provided a powerful tool to the
citizens to get information from the government, as a matter of right. The primary power of right to
information empowers the citizens for requisition of information. Hence, without the need for forming
pressure groups or associations, it put power directly into hands of the citizens. The RTI enables
the citizens to access the government decisions and question about the merits of public policies and
respond appropriately to infuence the process of policy formulation and decision making in public
governance which is a key indicator for accountability of the governance mechanism. Verma (2008)
in his study argues that RTI as a powerful tool in the hands of citizens in a free society and Wadia
(2006) has points out that in simple term, the RTI will give access to all kinds of information and will
instigate the required publicity of such information by concerned department. In addition, the Second
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Administrative Reforms Commission (2006) has points out that the RTI has been seen as the key
to strengthening participatory democracy and ushering in people centered governance and access to
information can empower the poor and the weaker sections of society to demand and get information
about public policies and actions, thereby leading to their welfare.
In addition, the Centre for Good Governance (2008) indicates that RTI has emphasised that
citizen can seek information about their applications or complaints regarding ration cards, electricity
connections, water connections and so on, pending with the public authorities and force them to
redress their grievances quickly without any need of paying bribes. This shows again positive impact
of Information Laws on different spheres of society viz., politics, and Public Administration. Uma
(2009) points out that both creating information and disseminating and diffusing information to
create awareness and knowledge are equally important as the information is power and acquiring
the relevant information empowers the people to deal with issues effectively however, Rao (2009)
fnds that participation in nation building pre-supposes informed, motivated and empowered citizens.
Therefore, It is clearly provides a theoretical understanding of how use of right to information in the
hand of the citizens leads a global impact in strengthening the governance process by ensuring the
peoples rights and participation in betterment of the governance system and its high implication with
an opportunity to create reforms in the global governance.
Indian Experience
Mehta (2010) argues that the global system for fnance, economic growth and development
have collapsed, with food prices rocketing, leaving millions on the brink of starvation. However,
the role of global governance for meet this crisis is a huge challenges of today. It is fair to say that
India, a country in the middle of huge, transformative process, faces many governance problems of
its own, from extreme poverty and the threat to terrorism to corruption and unemployment. It is in
need of governance reforms to be implemented as a matter of urgency. Further, he suggests that Good
governance at the national level must be matched by the commitment to practice good governance
at the international level, to establish a dynamic and enabling international economic environment.
In India, since 2005 RTI is being used in large scale that helps the people to get their
right, access to government information which was earlier kept as secret on the government part, to
understand about daily business of government, to fght the cause of the downtrodden people, to raise
issue of corruption practices, to stop corruption practices highlighting the corrupt act of the government
offcials, to enable the government for effective governance and at large to create a better space for
the common people to access the use of RTI for their development as well of others. Here, few RTI
cases studies are used in this study to highlight the Indian experience in reforming governance process
and ensuring peoples right through the Right to Information Act-2005.
In the Case study-1, a criminal case lodged by Konark Police of Odisha against the former
Gram Panchayat Executive Offcer of Mahalpada gram panchayat of Gop Block Ajay Kumar Seth as
he has tampered gram panchayat records. In case of a RTI application by Mr. Rabindranath Nayak of
Mahalpada Gram Panchayat , the concerned Public Information Offcer denied to provide information
to him & after the applicant Mr. Nayak made complaint before Odisha State Information Commission.
The State Information Commission penalized the Public Information Offcers of Rs.25000/- & directed
to provide information to the applicant at the earliest. After receiving this information, it was found
that a number of documents have been tampered by the concerned Public Information Offce cum
Executive offcer Mr. Ajay Kumar Seth to avoid the previous corruption done by him. Therefore, at
the end Mr. Nayak lodged First Information Report at Konark Police Station on 16.04.2008 and later,
a criminal case against that person (Case No-69/2008u/s 167,426,466 IPC) was booked.
Similarly, in the case study-2, three Integrated Child Development Scheme workers of
Gop Block have resigned, when the reality came to light through RTI Act that they have used fake
certifcate during appointment process. This is to inform that in 2009 & 2010 a number of Integrated
Child Development Scheme (ICDS) workers have been appointed in Gop Block of Odisha. In an
illegal nexus between the concerned offcials & applicants, some of the applicants had used fake
202
educational certifcates & got appointment in Odamba ICDS centre of Ganeswarpur gram panchayat,
Dihuda ICDS centre of Andhara Ichhapur gram panchayat & Gundi ICDS centre of Banakhandi gram
panchayat. Based upon this information, some RTI activists complained before the vigilance & high
court. So to escape from further legal action the ICDS workers resigned. And in the case study-3, it is a
common practice in & around of Konark Notifed Area Council (NAC) area that the local governance
is captured by some corrupted politicians & offcers. Within this illegal practice lakhs of Rupees has
been exploited in the name of different development projects and programmes. One youth RTI activist
of Karamanga village asked through RTI to the concerned Public Information Offcer of the Konark
NAC to obtain information regarding the actions taken for construction of the village road near this
village within ward-4 of this NAC. In effect of this application, on the next night the NAC authority
constructed the road overnight. Therefore, it reveals that lakhs of rupees has been released for this road
but it has been taken by the contractor and offcers. Now vigilance case is lodged against the guilty.
RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS
From this Indian experience, it is very clear that no way, corruption practices will be hidden;
the day will come to curb it. In very rural area of India, also people able to fght against corruption to
achieve their rights. It is revealed here that people are active enough and vigilant towards the effective
functioning of government mechanism and for the peoples rights as well as against corruption in
government institutions. It also, indicates that because of RTI Act, nowadays the people are becoming
vigorous to participate in the governance process for the betterment of grassroots people using RTI
Act which is ensuring accountability among the government functionaries as well as for grassroots
development and the active participation of the people using RTI act leads towards good governance
in India which is a good indicator for the global governance context creating exemplary initiatives to
making citizen empowerment as well as ensuring effective and good governance. This experience in
India through RTI as an instrument in the hand of the Indian people again fourishes the transparency
and accountability in the democratic set of governance that can be implicated in other democracy in
this era of the global governance towards more reformation to avoid the crisis over the democracy as
well as to ensure good governance.
CONCLUSION
The attempt though Indian experience with right to information act indicates in creating rapid
change among the minds of the common citizens as well as the government offcials towards the process
of effective and good governance. This has its larger implication in the global governance where
right to information would lead the change in strengthening good governance practices. Also, it will
lead towards the welfare of the people and the community welfare globally making the government
mechanism more accountable and transparence. Moreover, the peoples participation through RTI
in governance will be an instrument to bring reforms in various aspects of the global governance.
Therefore, the need is more peoples participation and governments encouragement to have better
use of RTI that will create a platform for betterment of the people both locally and globally.
References
Books and Journals
Baxel, Magdalena, Tallberg, Jonas and Uhlin, Anders (2010) Democracy in Global Governnace: The promises and
Pitfalls of Transnational Actors, Global Governance, 16, p.81-101.
Biersteker, Thomas J. (2009) Global Governance, Routledge Publishers, New York and London.
Centre for Good Governance. 2008: A Citizens Guide on The Right to Information Act 2005, Andhra Pradesh.
Chumakov, Alexander N (2013) Theory and Practice of Global Governance: Topical Issues, Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences 77 ( 2013 ) 198 204.
European Institute of Security Studies (2010) Global Governnace 2025 at a critical junction, Paris.
Uma, N (2009) People Empowerment Emerging Practices, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
203
UN System Task Team for Post 2015 UN Development Agenda (2013) Global governance and governance of the global
commons in the global partnership for development beyond 2015, Thematic Think Piece, January.
Verma, R.K (2008) Right to Information: Law and Practice with Case Book on Right to Information, Taxman
Publication Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Wadia, Angila (2006) Global Sourcebook on Right to Information, Kaniska Publisher and Distributors, New Delhi.
Weiss, Thomas.G (2009) The UNs Role in Global Governance, United Nations Intellectual History Project, Briefng
Note-15, August.
Government Documents and Reports
Government of India (2006) Second Administrative Reforms Commission Report. Citizen Centric Administration,
The Heart of Governance, New Delhi, July.
Government of India (2009) Second Administrative Reforms Commission Report. Citizen Centric Administration:
The Heart of Governance, New Delhi, February
Web links
http://youngindia.net.in/fashnews/newsforuse/rti-impact-3-icds-workers-resigned. Retrieved on 5th January, 2011
http://youngindia.net.in/fashnews/newsforuse/road-constructed-within-a-night. Retrieved on 6th January, 2011
204
RUMIS EPISTEMOLOGY
Jakir Hushain*
ABSTRACT
Rumi advances an integral epistemological stand-point. He accepts the validity of empirical, rational
and intuitive knowledge. The following is an outline of Rumis epistemological views.
(A). Sense Experience
According to Rumi, sense experience is a very important source of knowledge. Its substantial
contribution to the attainment of knowledge can hardly be denied in any balanced epistemological
account. Nevertheless, we must have a critical appreciation of the role of sense-experience. The
sense experience has a phenomenal role in furnishing us knowledge of the phenomenal world.
However, such knowledge is bound to be superfcial and partial. The limitations of sense-experience
as a source of knowledge are too numerous to be counted or tabulated. If we are genuinely interested
in the attainment of valid and authentic knowledge, we must rise above the knowledge furnished by
sense-experience. Human beings share their fve senses with all other living beings; insects, reptiles,
birds and animals. A person who is wholly dependent upon sense - experience can be compared to
an ass who is lost in the world of appearances. Like man of reason and intuition, he can not attain to
universal, eternal and transcendental truths.(Mathawi,Vol. II, 110006, 48)
Sense-experience does provide us perceptual knowledge. However, the limitations of sense-
experience can not be grasped if we can not go beyond perceptual knowledge with a view to bringing
out the limitations of such knowledge. Rumi says that if an embryo in womb is told that there is a
delightful world full of stars and planets, indeed a beautiful and glorious world; the natural reaction
of the embryo would be not to believe in the reality of such a world outside the womb of the mother.
However, when the child is delivered from the womb of the mother, he is oriented, slowly and steadily
to believe what seemed completely unbelievable to him earlier.( Afzal;2003, pp.221-22)
In order to appreciate the limitations of perceptual knowledge, Rumi cites the example of
the proverbial elephant in darkness. Those who want to understand the shape, size and the fgure
of elephant, touch the elephant in darkness of night. Thus a person touching the ear of the elephant
understands it to be like a fan, another person touching his leg understands the elephant to be like
a pillar, another person touching the back feels the elephant to be like a throne, yet another person
touching his trunk comes to understand the elephant to be like a water-pipe and so on and so forth.
Just as a man in the darkness is touching only a portion of the elephant, so the senses are capable
of appreciating only some dimensions of reality. We do understand phenomenal features of world
through sense experience. However, perception cannot furnish us an appropriation or understanding
of the transphenomenal reality.
(Afzal; 2003, p.222)
(B). REASON
Rumi categorically acknowledges the role of reason in our ongoing search for knowledge. Throughout
history, rationalists have worked out critiques of the epistemological credentials of sense-experience
or perception. On the other hand, they have underlined the undeniable powers or merits of reason as
*Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy, AMU, Algarh
205
a source of knowledge. Some of the most accomplished philosophers across the history have vouched
for the capacity of reason to discover or arrive at what is Ultimately Real.
Rumi is fully cognizent of the merits and demerits of the role of reason in the investigation
and appropriation of Reality. According to Rumi, reason is blissfully ignorant of its own limitations. In
view of this ignorance, reason overestimates its own capacity as a source of knowledge. So it blunders
into undertaking what it is permanently incapable of accomplishing at all. Reason, according to Rumi,
is powerfully impacted by infarational dimensions of our personality. Resultantly, it is a quarter-
backed instrument for the exploration and appropriation of Ultimate Reality. Nevertheless, reason is
inexorably driven to critiquing the epistemological credentials of both sense-experience and intuition
and bolstering up its own powers of appropriation of Reality. Consequently, it formulates theories of
Reality and marshals arguments in favour of its own constructions. However, in the process, it generates
riddles and puzzles and proliferates paradoxes and contradictions. Rational arguments end up fxing
us into knots and traps. The so-called rational arguments can get pathologically addictive and one
can get lost in ones own dialectical subtleties. Philosophers can spend a life-time into hairsplitting
debates. However, this dialectical approach is utterly fuitle and pointless.( Afzal, 2003, pp.222-23)
Such an approach can only leave us with riddles, enigmas and dilemmas. These dilemmas
are like asking which of the two hands, right or left, made noise when we clapped or which came frst
hen or egg etc. These are unanswerable puzzles. But philosophers are capable of spending decades
while responding to such riddles and paradoxes. Reason is incapable of giving us any clue as to an
understanding of Reality through its dialectical acrobatics. (Mathawi: Vol. VI, 110006, 1966-67)
The dialectical nature of reason is incapable of grasping the Ultimate Reality. It also can not
grasp the Unitary Essence of Existence. Besides, reason is inherently utilitarian in nature. It is driven
by the considerations of proft and loss. As against reason, love is beyond proft and loss; it scarifes
and surrenders without asking any questions. Reason and love or diametrically opposite in their nature
and their approach to reality.
How should reason wend the way of despair? It is love that runs on its head
in that direction
Love is reckless, not Reason
Reason seeks that form which it may get proft. (Mathawi: Vol. VI, 110006,
1966-67)
(C). INTUITION
The epistemological, metaphysical and axiological views of Rumi emanate from his teleological
world-view. For Rumi, the universe is thoroughly teleological. It is by pondering over telos or purpose
of the universe that we can appreciate and appropriate what is Ultimately Real. Normal categories
of understanding such as sense-experience or reason etc., can not furnish us any clue leading to a
realisation of the ultimate ground of Being. A rational analysis of God can lead us nowhere. Only
intuition can lead us to God or Reality.
Rumis concerns can not be grasped within the western Rationalist, Empiricist, and
Epistemology. Knowledge of phenomenal world never constituted a problem in Rumis orbit of
understanding. It is the prime concern within Cartesian, Lockean and Kantian epistemological
framework. The standard skepticism advanced by Greek thinkers and running through the philosophical
writings of modern European philosophers never bothers Rumi. The fundamental epistemological
problem is not the attainment of certainty with regard to phenomenal features of the Universe but an
206
appreciation and relisation of Ultimate Reality through intuition or love. God is the Ultimate Truth,
Ultimate Goodness and Ultimate Beauty. Eros or Love is the Universal principle of appropriation,
absorption, evolution, assimilation growth and reproduction. The manifestations of love are universally
operative. Mans insatiable and indomitable will to understand, appreciate and appropriate, is also
manifestation of love.(Khalifa 1959, pp.44-45)
Rumis idea of love is, in crucial respects, in accordance with the conception of love advanced
by classical Greek philosopher namely Plato. Rumi like Plato does not subscribe to utilitarian view
of love. Not love but intellect is deeply conditioned by or imbued with considerations of proft and
loss. Love is beyond calculations and considerations. Love is nothing if not sacrifce; it is madness
searching for the Ultimate ground of Being:
Neither do they put God to any test, nor do they work at the door of any
proft or loss. (Mathawi, Vol. VI, 1974)
Again, in consonance with Plato, Rumi also emphasizes that beauty alone is worthy of love. Against
the back-drop of the monotheistic world-view of Islam, Rumi underlines that perfect and eternal
Beauty belongs to God. All that is beautiful in the phenomenal world is only a passing shadow of
the eternal beauty of God and is related to God as sunlight is related to Sun. However, love is also
ultimate principle of unifcation and assimilation. It is, in fact, the ultimate cosmological principle,
the principle of genesis and evolution of the world.
If there had not been love, how should there have been existence? How
should bread have attached itself to you and become (assimilated to) you?
The bread became you through what? Through (your) love and appetite,
otherwise, how should the bread have had any access to the (vital) spirit?
Love makes the dead bread into spirit: it makes the spirit that was perishable
everlasting. (Mathawi, Vol. V, 2012-2014)
Plato was a rationalist par excellence. For Plato, reason was competent enough to know the ground
of Being. Rather, reason for Plato was identical with Reality. There was nothing beyond reason. The
Eternal Beauty for Plato was equivalent to Eternal Truth. Whether, Beauty or Truth or Goodness, Platos
God is an Impersonal Idea. He is in the Ideal Realm transcending all our prayers or adorations. The
role of love in religion of Truth is only instrumental. Eros of Plato is at best, Spinozas intellectual
love of God. ( Khalifa Abdul: 1959, p.48)

How should the intellect fnd the way to this connection? This intellect is
207
in bondage to separating and union. (Ibid, 3699)
Reason according to Rumi can never overcome the dualism of subject and object. It can never fnd a
thread of unity running through the multiplicity of the phenomena. Reason by its nature is compelled
to split reality, to analyse, to dissect and to separate. However, it does not know how to reunify the
splited phenomena. Reason is a differentiative and separative principle. Love, on the other hand,
is the principle of assimilation. Reason is analytical and comparative whereas Reality transcends
all contradictions and all relations and therefore reason is utterly incapable to grasp the reality in
its absolute identity. Reason in indulging in self-importance, more often than not, tries to do what
can not rightfully be done by it. It is potentially a dangerous instrument at disposal of man. It has
stupendous misleading and misdirecting potential unless it is supplemented by intuitive realization
and spiritual wisdom. It is very important that reason recognize its limitations. Mans logical and
intellectual powers are limited. Our transformation is possible only through inspiration, illumination
and divine grace. It is through divine grace that our perspective is transformed. Divine revelations
are individually transformative and socially revolutionizing. Mankind has not been inspired to great
struggles by men of intelligence and scholarship. Even the most powerful kings have not been agents
of social change. It is the Prophets who have pioneered real historical breakthroughs without formal
knowledge and political power. They captured hearts of men and inspired them to great achievements.
( Afzal; 2003, p.189)
The Universal Reason and Universal Soul is man of God himself.
Do not think the Throne and the Chair to be separate from Him. (Hakim,
1959, p.111)
The knowledge bestowed by the God is supra-rational. It springs from within the Soul. Such knowledge
is termed as Ilm-i-Ladunni. A person blessed with this knowledge sees by the Light of God. The
verses given hereunder illustrate Rumis conception of Ilm-i-Ladunni.
The man of clay got knowledge from God which lighted the Universe to
the 7
th
heaven. (Mathnawi, Vol. I, 1012)
Through what was the heaven rent asunder through an eye that opened all
of a sudden.(Hakim, Khalifa 1959, p.99)
Human knowledge is the mark of our glory knowledge leading to God in the Summum Bonum of our
existence. Man has super-sensuous and supra-rational source of knowledge within him. The source
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can be tapped not by contemplation but through purifcation of heart from all that is ungodly. Rumi
brings out these common Suf theses in his Mathnavi through numerous couplets:
The Sufs book is not (composed of) ink and letters it is naught but a heart
white as snow.(Mathnawi, Vol. II, 159)
He who has an impressionless and clear breast becomes a mirror for the impressions
of the Unseen. (Hakim, p.100)
Rumi like Plato makes a distinction between opinion, knowledge and certainty. Knowledge is superior
to opinion but inferior to certainty. Our knowledge seeks certainty and once we attain certainty we
seek knowledge leading to vision. Vision is to certainty what fancy is to opinion.(Mathnawi, Vol. III,
4120-25)
Following the Quranic verses, Rumi talks of the knowledge of certainty (Ilm-ul-Yaqin), the
vision of certainty (Ain-ul-Yaqin) and reality of certainty or absolute certainty (Haq-ul-Yaqin). Take
for example, our knowledge of fre. One can become knowledgeable about fre by listening to its
various physical and chemical properties. One can read books on the fre or oneself write hundreds of
pages on various aspects of fre. However, it is one thing to become a professor or scholar of multiple
characteristics of fre, it is another thing to actually get burnt into the fre. Rumi exhorts us that if
we want real certainty or absolute certainty about fre and its various qualities, we must be actually
having a frst hand experience of burning into the fre. Similarly, propositional knowledge about what
is Ultimately Real can never satisfy our innate quest for certainty. We will have to actually burn into
the fre of love of God, with a view to realizing God beyond any shadow of doubt. Such a certainty
can not be propositional or rational. Such a certainty can be obtained in the presence of the Ultimate
Splendor and Beatitude of Reality. (Mathnawi, Vol. II, 1859-61)
Knowledge is not possible only through cognitive faculties. Man needs divine inspiration.
The Quran had repeatedly emphasized upon us to realize God through spiritual faculties breathed into
us at the very moment of our creation. Thus Rumi agrees with the Muslim epistemological tradition
that knowledge is both innate and acquired. However, the vision of Reality can be vouchsafed to us
through intuition inspired by Divine Spirit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abdul Hakim, Khalifa,The Metaphysics ;of Rumi, Lahore 1933, 1948. Ahmad Aziz, Studies in Islamic
Culture in the Indian Environment, Oxford, 1964
Iqbal Afzal; Life and Work of Mohammad Jalaluddin Rumi, Kitab Bhawan, New Delhi, 2003, p.222)
Mathnawi Rumi, vols. I-VI, translated by Qazi Sajjad Husain,
Rumi, poet and Mystic by R.A. Nicholson.
Sharif, M.M., (1963), A History of Muslim Philosophy (Vol.1), Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
Raza Zada Shafaq, Tarikh-e-Adbiyat Iran, Vo1.II, pp. 356,357
209
OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AMONG THE
SCHEDULED CASTE POPULATION IN UTTAR
PRADESH
Dr. Falak Butool*
ABSTRACT
The present paper aims to study the occupational mobility of scheduled caste population (Total Male
and Female) in Uttar Pradesh. The entire study is based upon the district level secondary data obtained
from Census of India, 2001 and the State Planning Institute, Lucknow, 2001. From the results it is
clear that fundamental mutation from primary economic activity to secondary and tertiary economic
activity is taking place in total scheduled caste population but with low pace. Thus this group is showing
positive occupational mobility. As far as the occupational mobility of male workers in construction
sector and industrial sector is concerned, it is showing positive trend. Tertiary sector is also showing
a positive sign of occupational mobility for male workers of the scheduled caste population in Uttar
Pradesh as percentage of workers involved in secondary and tertiary sector has increased over the
period of time. Scheduled caste female population of Uttar Pradesh is showing negligible amount
of positive occupational mobility.
Key words
Occupational Mobility, Scheduled Caste Population, Uttar Pradesh
INTRODUCTION
It is an unfortunate fact of the history in India that scheduled caste people have suffered deep subjugation
in our society (Narayan, 2011: xvii). The subjugation of weaker sections has been prevalent in
western societies albeit in different shape and form. Moreover, this subjugation of scheduled caste
in Indian society, at times, had been of such intensity that it resulted in complete denial of the status
of human being to scheduled caste people in certain parts of India. Patent discrimination was made
against scheduled caste people such as prohibition of using public wells, entry into temples, entry into
schools and colleges, not allowed to sit on chairs with upper caste. According to Rig Veda, which is
one of the earliest literatures of Hindus, there were four Verna in the society. They were Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vashyas and Shudras. Shudras lied at the lowest rung of the caste system and were described
as servants of others (Sachchidananda, 1977 : 17).
This classifcation of the society was basically functional and occupational in nature and character
(Mohammad, 1987: 17). However, it was the feudal character of the society more than religious
aspiration which mostly resulted in subjugation of scheduled caste in India. It was after independence,
that development and upliftment of scheduled caste people arose as major concern by the government
of India. Through various acts and commissions the government has been endeavoring to bridge the
gap between the two distinct strata of the society. By giving reservations in jobs and offering various
schemes for socio-economic and educational development of scheduled caste people, the Indian
government is trying to improve the status of this neglected group which forms a bulk of population
(Tripathi, 1999 : 57). But, in spite of reservations given in the employment and education sector,
scheduled caste people are still engaged in traditionally fxed and ranked occupation, their choice
*Guest Faculty, Womens College, A.M.U, Aligarh, U.P., INDIA
210
being limited by the birth.
It has been observed that the tertiary sector is continuously growing in the countries of
growing economy like India. Thus the fundamental shift of workers from primary sector to tertiary
sector is taking place in all the sections of the society including the scheduled caste population
(Chandana, 1989: 152). This is because of the increase in the population of the nation which in turn
broadens the base of service sector. Thus scheduled caste people may have better prospects in this sector
provided that they learn the skills of doing various jobs. Scheduled caste people
being the downtrodden segment of the society are generally involved in the least remunerative lowest
ranked jobs in which returns are very low (Gosal, 1991 : 8). Though this tradition is still prevalent
among them but few of them have migrated to the cities and acquired new technical now how which
is becoming helpful to improve their socio-economic status. Thus they are no more involved only in
their traditional jobs but are doing some other works also.
Here occupational mobility which simply means the ability of the individual to change
job after the acquisition of a new skill (Maythew, 2005: 358) may be useful in improving their socio-
economic status. Occupational mobility in case of scheduled caste people will shift them from low
paid menial jobs to well paid jobs and in turn will be helpful in improving their socio-economic status.
A micro level study on occupational mobility of scheduled caste is done by Wilson in 2004. In his
study, he has analysed the effect of the change of agricultural techniques, poverty, outmigration and
many other factors on the occupational mobility of scheduled caste population of two selected villages.
Caste wise occupational mobility in India has been studied by Majumder, in 2010. In his work he
has found that only few castes among the scheduled caste people are showing upward occupational
mobility. Jhilam, and Rajarshi, in their work have observed that advance classes are showing vertical
occupational mobility, whereas, excluded classes are showing much of their occupational mobility in
lateral direction. The occupational and industrial mobility in USA has been studied by Passado in 2005.
The impact of occupational mobility in Albenia is studied by Carletto and Kilic in 2009. Behrman,
and Taubman in (1985) have studied intergenerational earning mobility in the United States. Corak,
and Heisz in 1999 have worked upon the intergenerational earning and income mobility of Canadian
men. Hnatkovska, Lahiri, and Paul in (2011) have worked upon the impact of caste on labour mobility.
Haider, and Solon in 2006 have worked upon life-cycle variation in association between current and
life time earnings. Thus after realizing the importance of occupational mobility in the socio-economic
upliftment researcher has made an attempt to visualize occupational mobility of scheduled caste total,
male and female workers in Uttar Pradesh (UP)
Objectives
This piece of work will be meant to fulfll the following objectives
1. To show the occupational mobility among the total scheduled caste workers in Uttar Pradesh.
2. To show the occupational mobility among the male scheduled caste workers in Uttar Pradesh.
3. To show the occupational mobility among the female scheduled caste workers in Uttar Pradesh.
Database and Methodology
The entire study is based upon the secondary sources of data which have been collected from Census of
India publications, New Delhi and the Publications of the Statistical Division, State Planning Institute,
U.P., Lucknow for the decade 2001. For the analysis of the data simple percentage method is used to
calculate the work participation rates. On the basis of which occupational mobility (positive/ upward
and negative/downward) is determined. Positive occupational mobility means fundamental mutation
of the workers from lower order economic activity to higher order economic activity and vice versa
is negative occupational mobility.
THE STUDY AREA
Uttar Pradesh is a heartland state lying between 23 52 and 31 28 North latitudes and 77 4 and
84 38 East longitudes. It is bounded by Nepal and Uttarakhand in the north, Himachal Pradesh in
211
the north-west, Haryana and Delhi in the west, Rajasthan in the south west, Madhya Pradesh and
Chattisgarh in the south and Bihar and Jharkhand in the east. Thus, it is surrounded by nine states
from all the sides. Uttar Pradesh is the ffth largest state in India in terms of area, while in terms of
population it ranks frst. According to 2001 census, the total area of the state is 240,92,800 sq Kms
which form 7.6 per cent of Indias total area and a population of 166.63 million i.e. (16.15 per cent of
the national population). The whole state is divisible into seventy districts. With such a large segment of
the population of India living within its boundaries, economic development of Uttar Pradesh assumes
special signifcance. By the sheer weight of its population, economic growth in this region would
naturally affect the average level of living of the country as a whole (Techno-Economic Survey of
Uttar Pradesh,1965) and (Socio-Economic Survey of India, 2002-2003).
Occupational Mobility among the Scheduled Caste Population
Table: 1 Sector wise Change in the Distribution of Scheduled Caste Total Main Workers in Uttar
Pradesh, 2001
Mining
and
Other
than
Trade
and Other
1971 14.70 14.20 0.20 0.90 0.80 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.00
1981 13.58 11.07 NA 0.89 3.04 NA NA NA 4.50
1991 13.48 12.56 0.19 0.66 1.30 0.48 0.62 0.42 2.26
2001 8.94 8.94 0.07 0.98 1.32 1.00 0.77 0.52 1.86
Source; Census of India 1961, 1971, 1981,1991, 2001
Note: First three categories are included in primary economic activity next three heads are included
in secondary economic activity and the next two are showing tertiary economic activity and the last
one is showing unidentifed category.
It is visible from the above table that percentage of cultivators is continuously decreasing among the
scheduled caste population. This result is also confrmed by the fndings of study of Mohammad,
2001:22. As far as other categories of primary economic activity are concern they are also showing
a continuous withdrawal of scheduled caste people from these occupations. A marginal increase is
observed in the percentage of scheduled caste workers in non household industry and construction
from the initial decade (1961) to the last decade (2001) under consideration. However, household
212
industry workers are showing continuous down slope movement till 1991 and then in 2001 decade
their percentage has elevated slightly. When tertiary economic activities of scheduled caste people
are focused then it is observed that a gradual increase is observed in the percentage of scheduled
caste people working in these sectors. Thus it can be safely concluded from the above discussion that
fundamental mutation from primary economic activity to secondary and tertiary economic activity is
taking place in total scheduled caste population group but with low pace.
Table: 2 Sector wise change in the Distribution of Scheduled Caste Male Main Workers in Uttar
Pradesh, 2001
Census year Cultivators
Agricultural
Labourers
Mining
and
Quarring
Household
Industry
Workers
Other than
Household
industry
Workers
1971 25.20 19.90 0.30 1.50 1.40
1981 21.05 16.15 0.00 1.56 4.57
1991 13.72 10.61 0.27 0.60 1.36
2001 14.85 14.85 0.11 1.37 2.29
Source; Census of India 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001

It is clear from the tab 2 that percentage of male cultivators is continuously decreasing from 1961-
1991 with a slight increase in 2001. As far as male agricultural labourers are concerned, they are
showing no defnite trend and they account for 14.64 per cent of the total male workers in 1961 and
after a slight fuctuation it has become 14.85 in 2001. The people involved in mining and quarrying
are even less than half per cent of the total male workers and it is continuously showing a decreasing
trend. The male workers involved in household industries have decreased from 3.06 per cent in 1961
to 1.37 per cent in 2001 with slight ups and downs in the intermediate decades. When the trend of
occupational mobility of male workers in non household industries of the secondary sector is observed,
it is found that thier share was only 0.79 per cent in 1961 which has become 2.29 per cent in 2001
thus showing the positive occupational mobility for this sector. As far as the occupational mobility
of male workers in construction sector is concerned it is showing positive trend as its share was only
0.5 per cent in 1961 and has become 1.82 per cent 2001. Tertiary sector is also showing a positive
sign of occupational mobility for male workers of the scheduled caste population in Uttar Pradesh
as male workers in the Trade and Commerce and Transport, Storage and communication sector has
increased from 1961-2001. Thus it can be safely said that scheduled caste male workers are showing
upward mobility in the last census year as percentage of workers involved in secondary and tertiary
sector has increased over the period of time.
Table: 3 Sector wise change in the Distribution of Scheduled Caste Female Main Workers in
Uttar Pradesh, 2001
Mining
and
Other
than
Trade
and
Transport,
Storage and
1971 12.90 7.90 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.40
1981 14.93 5.38 0.00 0.32 1.32 0.00 0.00 NA
1991 14.54 7.13 0.37 1.12 0.87 0.16 0.31 0.42
2001 12.38 3.42 0.03 0.54 0.25 0.08 0.11 0.52
Source; Census of India 1971, 1981,1991, 2001

From the above table it is clear that scheduled caste female work participation rate is low as compared
to the work participation rate to their male counterparts. They are mainly involved in the agricultural
213
sector. The second important group of female workers was other workers (last head of the concerned
table). Their involvement in rest of the employment sector is mostly less than 1 per cent and which has
remained low over the period of time. Thus it can be safely said that scheduled caste female population
of Uttar Pradesh is showing negligible amount of positive occupational mobility.
Conclusions
From the results it is clear that fundamental mutation from primary economic activity to secondary
and tertiary economic activity is taking place in total scheduled caste population but with low pace.
Thus this group is showing positive occupational mobility. As far as the occupational mobility of
male workers in construction sector is concerned, it is showing positive trend. Tertiary sector is also
showing a positive sign of occupational mobility for male workers of the scheduled caste population
in Uttar Pradesh. Thus it can be safely said that scheduled caste male workers are showing upward
mobility in the last census year as percentage of workers involved in secondary and tertiary sector
has increased over the period of time. In case of scheduled caste female population of Uttar Pradesh
negligible amount of positive occupational mobility is recorded.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Behrman, J. and Taubman, P. (1985), Intergenerational Earning Mobility in the United States: Some Estimates
and a test of Beckers Intergenerational Endowments Model, The Review of Economics and Statistics,
Vol.67, No. 1, pp. 144-151.
Carletto.C and Kilic. T. (2009), Moving Up the Ladder? The Impact of Migration Experience on Occupa-
tional Mobility in Albania, Development Research Group, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington
DC, 20433, USA
Census of India (1961), Final population Totals, Paper No.1 of 1962, Ministry of Human Affairs, New Delhi.
Census of India (1971), Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe, Paper 1 of 1975, Series 1, Table C-VIII, Part
A&B, Ministry of Human Affairs, New Delhi.
Census of India (1981), Primary Census Abstract for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe, Series. 22, Paper.
2 of 1982, Ministry of Human Affairs, New Delhi.
Census of India (1991), Series-25 Part II-B (ii) Primary Census Abstract, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
Population, Ministry of Human Affairs, New Delhi.
Census of India (2001), Primary Census Abstract, Data Product No. 00-73-2001-cn-CD, Ministry of Human
Affairs, New Delhi.
Chandna, R.C. (1989), Spatial Dimensions of Scheduled Castes in India, Intellectual Publishing House, New
Delhi, p.152.
Corak, M, and Heisz, A. (1999), The Intergenerational earning and Income Mobility of Canadian men: Evidence
From Longitudinal Income Tax Data, Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 504-533.
Gosal, R.P.S. (1991), Work Force of Indias Scheduled Caste Population: A Spatial Perspective, A Journal of
the Association of Population Geographers of India, Vol. 13, June Dec, Nos. 1&2, p.8.
Gosal, R.P.S. (1993), Scheduled Caste Population and Urbanisation-A Spatial Analysis, Geographical Review
of India, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 25-38.
Haider, S. and Solon,G.(2006), Life-cycle Variation in Association between Current and Life time Earnings,
American Economic Review, Vol.96, No.4, pp.1308-1320.
Hnatkovska, V, Lahiri, A., and Paul, S.(2011), Caste and Labour Mobility, Working papers, University of British
Columbia
Jhilam, R. and Rajarshi, M. (2010), Online posted 01 february 2011/19:51
Majumder, R. (2010), Mobility in Educational and Occupational Attainments: A Comparative Study of Social
Classes, Margin: The Journal of Applied Economic Research, Vol. 4, No.4, pp. 463-494.
Mayhew, S. (2005), Oxford Dictionary of Geography, Indian Edition, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p. 358.
214
Mohammad, N. (1987), Caste and Primary Occupations: A Geographical Analysis, Concept Publishing Com-
pany, New Delhi, p.17.
Mohammad, N. (2000), Dynamics of Caste and Occupation, The Geographer, Vol. 47, No. 2, July, p .35.
Mohammad, N. (2001), Dynamics of Caste and Occupation, The Geographer, Vol. 47, No.2, July, p. 22-47
Narayan, B (2011), The Making of the Dalit Public in North India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p. xvii
Passado, E. (2005), Occupational and Industrial Mobility in the United States 1969-93, Working Paper No.416,
The Levy Economics Institute, Yew York, pp.1-32.
Sachchidananda, (1977), The Harigan Elite, Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana, p.17.
Socio-Economic Survey of India (2002-2005), Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance and Company Affairs,
Economics Division, pp. 240-241.
Techno-Economic Survey of Uttar Pradesh (1965), National Council of Applied Economic Research, New
Delhi, p.1.
Tripathi,R.M.(1999), Socio-economic Profle of Scheduled Caste Population in India, Geographical Review of
India, Vol.61, No. 1, p.57.
Wilson, C.(2004), Understanding the Dynamics of Socio-Economic Mobility: Tales from Two Indian Villages,
Working Paper 236, Overseas Development Institute, London, pp. 1-80
215
SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN AND THE PERSPECTIVES
OF 1857 REVOLT: AN ANALYSIS OF HIS
WRITING WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON ASBAB-
I-BAGABAT-I- HIND AND SARKASHI ZILA BIJNOR.
Shahid anwar siddique*
ABSTRACT :
There are various writing by the contemporary Muslim intellectuals who were eye- witnesses of
the revolts as well as had suffered due to the outbreaks of the revolts during the great mutiny which
happened in the second half of the 19
th
century as a result of the wrong policies and programmes of
the British government. As it has been perceived by various writers during that time, in this regard
one cannot ignore fact that there emerged various school thought which have contradictory view
regarding the outbreaks of revolts. The imperialistic school thought not surprisingly turn the revolt
as the most heinous crime committed by the Indians whereas some of the Indian writers took it as
war of independence or revolt against the british wrong doings but it was very diffcult to pinpoint
what actually had gone wrong and apart from anger, resentment and expression of frustration. We do
not fnd much in writings those who suffered in greater India context. The writing differs from place
to place and views differ from person to person but one thing was clear that Indians were not hiding
their anger and sense of loss from the british on slogans during the revolts in 1857.
In this regard the writing s the writing of Muslin intellectuals, scholars,
poets and others are in a way to provide true refection of the revolts of 1857.among these
scholars, poets and literary there score of names like mirza Ghalib, Altaf Husain Hali, Zauq
Delhvi, Dagh Dehalvi, Bahaur Shah Zafar, Mushaf and others are there to provide us with the
actual glimpse what happened in 1857 revolts, away them no writing could be compared with
that of the highest intellectual of the time sir syed ahmad khan who came out with his views
on the revolts of 1857 in two master pieces i.e.asbab-I-bagabat-I-hind and sarkashi zila bijnor
which are the refection and real search on truth what it happened during that time, sir syed
was quite successful in his effort in pointing out to the british short comings in regard to the
governance of British india.asbab-i-bagabat-i-hind while trying to know sir syed had pointed
out was a truth or just a myth. Without studying his work we cannot reach and conclude in
this regard, the work become important from the point of view of the british, as the british
of face severest of challenge and is survival was stake..fnding the time appropriate sir syed
consider it his prime duty to tell the british that to put the entire blame on Muslims was wrong
and the Muslims had wrongly consider the enemy of the empire and that the british was also
respectable for these acts of omission and commission in India, as the people of India were fed
up of the British policies. In another masterpiece, this deals with the revolts districts Bijnor.
*Reseach scholar epartment of history Amu, aligarh
216
He has also discussed various aspects of revolts and described the events at the district bijnor
which he has witnessed while he was serving there. Apart from these two books sir syeds
other writings and correspondence are useful for those who would like to analyse the revolts
of 1857 from Muslims perspective.
1. Contribution of sir syed Ahmed khan (Islamic- seminar paper edited by Abdul Ali
and syed ahsan page no.31).
The intellectual of document of the decedent 19
th
century India viz.poets. writer and high
offcial refected age.ghalib the greatest and most learned poets of the century, had a view of the
world and the age which was destined to be the last Mughals king and pensioner of ruling east India
company, pathetic versifer there was hardly any thinker, they had no ft to stand on and no brain to
think above their own situation. They had no imagination and energy to get out of the swamp they
were drown neck deep.
Political profle of sir syed sayyid ahmad khan a documentary record institute Islamic history,
culture and civilization Islamic university Islamic edited with notes and introduction by Hafeez Malik
printed by Mirza Muhammad sadiq at the ribbon printing press, 4 lakh road, Lahore.
The contemporary british view described 1857 as a great muting a Dalhousie after math a
brahmanical protest and a Muslim rebellion an underlying theme in all these interpretation was
the british concept of divine chastisement which implied their failure to fulfl the sacred mission of
spreading Christianity among the peoples of india.consequently, the palmers tan government designed
October 7, 1857, as a day of national humiliation, fasting, prayers. Thousands of Britons focked to
the churches to seek divine forgiveness and aid in putting down the revolt of the Indians.
Not knowing that god was on Britains side sir syed Ahmad khan also prayed in 1858 while
he was in Moradabad preparing the write the history of the revolt in the district of Bijnor.
Sir Syeds avowed impartiality should be discussed. To him impartiality did not include
treating the rebels of Bijnor as the British east India company; nor were they patriots or nationalist
exercising their right of political independence. They had defed the lawful British authority in error
of judgement, in greed and out of their ancestral pride. Consequently, sir syed always referred to
nawab Mahmud khan the central fgure of the revolt in Bijnor, as Mahmud (the cursed one) sir syed
did provide however, a faithful description of the events and distributed the blame and responsibility
impartiality between the Hindu and Muslim subjects of the company. To extant his history is reliable
and free from the distortions that frequently occurred in the British literature on the events of 1857.
The Muslim minority by Nawab Mahmud khan (a descendent of nawab najib-ud- daulah) initiated
the rebellion and consequently suffered most when the British raj was re-established.the Hindu elite
remained loyal to Britain and was appropriately rewarded by the British government. Nevertheless,
while the Hindu and Muslim elites pursued mutually exclusive ambitions, Hindu and Muslim employees
of the company (including sir syed) remained steadfast in their loyalty and devotion to their British
superiors.
Also 1857 taught sir syed lesson which was to mould his attitude toward the Hindu, and particularly
the all India national congress, in subsequent years. It convinced him that although the British raj
maintained peace between Hindu and Muslim it did not blend them into a single nationality, aspiring
to a common political end.
In fact they saw in Bijnor Hindu and Muslims apprising each other during the interruption of British raj
maintained peace between Hindu and Muslims it did not blend them into a single nationality, aspiring
to a common political and. in fact he saw in Bijnor Hindus and Muslims apprising each other during
the interruption of British rule. It was obvious to him that, it Hindus and Muslims could not close
their ranks and adjust to each others aspiration and just demands an emergency they were likely to
achieve a satisfactory modes Vivendi in peaceful times.
Sir Syeds account of the events of 1857 comprises three works, composed between 1857-58: tarikh
217
sarkashiy-idhilla Bijnor (history of revolt in the district of Bijnor) asbab i-baghawat-i- hind causes
for the revolt of India)
Sir Syed took effective measures. He wrote his book asbab baghawat-e-hidden(causes of the Indian
revolt)and the loyal mohammadans of India to neutralize the hostile attitude of the British rulers
towards the muslims.secondly,he wrote and published his famous book khutbate-e-ahmadiyyah with
a view to presenting the genuine image of Islam viz- a viz the biased propaganda launched by western
missionaries against it.
He also wrote a commentary on the bible and pointed out the basic similarities and commonalities
that came from ulama, he attempted a rational interpretation of the quran well as started a parochial
entitled tahzibul-akhlaq.
(Sir Syed Ahmad khan.a selected bibliography (seminar papers) kabir Ahmad khan page 71-2-3,
edited Abdullah and syed ahsan.)
Sir Syed lived in a period of multi-feasted crises for Indian muslims.after the muting of 1857 the
challenges that faced sir syed were three fold. First the British rulers had developed a hostile attitude
towards the Muslim whom they held solely responsible for the revolt. Secondly, the Christian
missionaries were busy attacking Islam and its practices by subjecting to biased criticism the
fundamental principle of Islam including the life of the prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).
thirdly, the attitude of the orthodox ulma and their aversion to western sciences also posed a great
problem for sir syed.
Sir syeds perception of Islam: (iqbal hey)edited by Abdul ali and syed ahsan institute of Islamic
studies Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, page 94-95.
Altaf hussain hali would suggest Islam India, writes hali, was surrounded by three dangers. frst the
Christian missionaries who under the patronage of the English rulers were proceeding against islam.
their newspaper, preachers and propaganda literature spread hatred and attacked Islam and the character
of the prophet of islam.the second danger which the Muslim faced was due to the political changes
in the country and a complete ascendancy of the English power in India relegating the Muslims to
the status of subject nation, the third danger to Islam was from the speed of English education which
was expanding rapidly. Before the outbreak of the rebellion of 1857, the Muslim had kept themselves
from modern education.
That the civilized one has become the master of every source of income of the uncivilized country
would say, the barbarians plundering is harmful, but the war of plunding in the disguise of science
and making.
In lengthy note on one of his poems, zamzamah-i-qayser, which was composed in 1878.hali bitterly,
criticized those eight writers who were harping, rather exaggeratedly, on the barbarity, of early Muslim
thing of india.in that note describing the behaviour of the civilized towards the uncivilized nation.
hali said:
The fact is that one part of the world has progressed so much compared to the rest of the world that
old technique of exploitation has become useless. Previously things were acquired by killing and
plunding.now days it is possible to acquire much more without shedding a drop of blood. Exploitation
is achieved industries and trade. So much so that when a trade agreements is signed between civilized
and civilized governments this taken for.
Like a syed Ahmad, hali suppoted the British role, but his support was merely a matter of expediency.
He praised the British administration but openly criticized its policy of divide at impera.in one of his
(completes) he described the policy for persevering India empire in the following way.
Policy said, in a conquredkingdom. Ferment division in order to maintain your supremacy reason
advising against this said,
Uttar no such word, even unguardedly: judgement said act upon what policy advices and do not
neglect the advice of reason either go on doing what has to be done. But utter no indiscreet word (hali,
divan, frstpublished wid.reprint, Delhi, 1945, pp.44-45)
Muslim politics in modern India, 1857-1947, edited mushier v.haq meenakshi prakashan, Meerut,
218
India, p.33-34, 36-37.
The poet altaf Hussein (1837-1914) is well know by his nom de phonic, hali.he was born to rather
poor family in panipat, a town not very far from delhi.his effort to get the best education according
to the standard o that time was interrupted more than once.hali got petty job in nearby district in the
offce of the district collector.he was about twenty year olds when the muting broke out. He returned
home and stayed there jobless for about four years. after many ups and down he fnally got a job in the
Punjab government book department, Lahore, it was a kind of translation because text books in Urdu
which consisted mainly of material translated from English.Halis was in favour of the educational
policy of syed ahmad, and gradually the two men become close. Finally syed Ahmad managed to
steal him from government. Service from then on hali remained with syed Ahmad (tarjuma-I-hali)
hali concept of qualm is not basically different from syed Ahmad has done. To hali qawm and vatan
(mother land) are closely related. It was natural, in his opinion, that more than one qawm.in other
words several qawns would have to merge into one quam.
The margins of clanricarde while discussing in the House of Lords in February, 1857, the system under
which the government of India was administered, stated. The truth was, that the whole system by which
India was governed tended to degrade the natives and the render them cunning sordid and deceitful.
syed ahmad khan pointed out that the social measures of the government, the activities of the
missionaries, and the statement of government offcials, combined to create the impression that the
rulers intended the conversion of the people of India to Christianity. The propaganda of the Christian
mission was on the increase since the permission to battle in India in 1813 was granted to them.
Their preachers were seen in the market places and at the fairs often with police escort. so wrote
sir syed. The missionaries too had introduced a new mode of preaching the gospel. Religious tracts
containing questions and answers now began to be printed and distributed among the people.....of
their own accord. They used to frequent Mohammedan mosques and Hindu temples as well as fairs,
for the purpose of pressing, to certain districts, moreover, they were even allowed on a chaprasi or
policeman from the thanah (police offce) to attend them. These persons did not content themselves
with merely preaching the gospel, but used to allude to pious men and seared places of other religions
in highly disrespectful manner, which gave much offence and pain to their hearse, and served to sow
in the hearts of the people the seeds of disaffection to the government (Edwards and Merivle, life of
sir Henry Lawrence, voll.11,p.322-23)
the primary causes of rebellion are infancy .everywhere the same it inevitability results from the
existence of a policy obnoxious to the disposition aims, habits and views, of these by whom the
rebellion is brought about this it follows that widely spread disaffection cannot spring from any solitary,
or local cause universal rebellion must arise from universal ground for discontent or form stream
deriving from many different sources, but fnally merging into one wide- spreading, turbulent water.
The rebellion on 1857, did not originate from a single cause but from a complication of causes. As
regards the rebellion of 1857, the fact is that for a long period many grievances material had been
collected. It wanted but the application of match to light it, and that match was applied by the mutinous
army.
The distribution of chapattis had not league for its abject in the cause of the year 1856 and almost
simultaneous with the outbreak, chapattis were passed from hand to hand in many districts. Happened
at that time to be raging in Hindustan. Some have imagined that these chapattis were used as a kind
of talisman to keep of the cholera. The superstitions Hindustanis (Indian) being in the habit of using
such talisman.
The subject of the proclamation which was found in the tent of a Persian prince discussed.
The dispatch of Farman by the ex- king of Delhi to the king of Persia not improbable, but not
the origin of the rebellion.
The annexation of Oudh not the cause of the general rise or do I believe that the annexation of the
Oudh was of this rebellion. No doubt, men of all classes were irritated at its annexation, all
219
agreed in thinking that the honouras east India company a had acted in defance of its treaties.
The national league not framed with the view overthrowing the government of strangers.
Declaration of Lord Amherst in 1872 to the effect that the sovereignty of India belongs to
the British government.
The muhammadans did not contemplate jihad against the Christians prior to the outbreak.
None of the acts committed by the Muhammadan rebels during the disturbances were in
accordance with the tenets of Muhammadan religion
A large number of the Moulvies who considered the king of Delhi a violator of the law left
off praying in the royal mosque.
The Bengal army was not previously in league for an outbreak
Nor was there any league between the army and the ex-king through it is not improbable that
some sepoy or non commissioned offcer may have been his disciple.
The non- admission of such a member proved a hindrance to the development of the good
feeling of the Indian subjects towards the government.
The non-admission of native as a member into the legislative council was the original course
of the outbreak.
This mistake of the government then made itself felt in every matter connected with Hindustan.
All causes of rebellion, however various, can be traced to this one and if we look at these
various causes separately and distinctly we shall, i think, fnd that they may be classed under
fve heads.
1. Ignorance on the part of the people: by which i mean mix apprehension of the
intention.
2. The passing of such laws and regulations and forms of procedure as jarred with
the established of such as were in themselves objectively.
3. Ignorance on the part of government of the condition of the people; of their
modes of thought and of life and of the grievances through which their heats
were becoming estranged.
4. The neglect on the part of our rulers of such points as was essential to the good
government of the Hindustan.
5. The bad management as disaffection of the army i shall now proceed to consider
these fve heads and under them may be classed their subheads, distinctly, and
in detail.
6. Interference in matters of religion
7. Sucundra orphan asylum.
8. Religious discussion being carried to a great height during the present time.
9. The offcer assumed the missionary function preaching of the gospel by the
missionaries.
10. The establishment of missionary school and the covenanted offcers attending
of them.
11. Village schools
12. Introduction of female education
13. Alterations in the system of education in large college
14. Government proclamation of the subject of admitting in preferences to other
220
candidate.
15. Introduction of the messing system in the jails.
16. Circulation of Mr. Emends letter from Calcutta.
17. Interference in religious matters more repugnant to the feelings of the
muhammadans.
18. Promulgation of certain acts in cases where in the parties are of one religion.
19. Promulgation of objectionable laws.
20. The resumption of mafas (revenue free land)
21. Public sales of zamindari rights.
22. Heavy assessment of lands
23. Abolition of talookdari rights particularly in Oudh province.
24. Introduction of stamped paper.
25. Civil administration of Bengal superior to that in the Punjab but requires revision
in certain ports.
26. The ignorance of government of the state of the country and their subjects.
27. Overwhelming poverty of the Indians, particularly of the muhammadans,
28. The same cause induced them to serve the rebels for one anna and half annas, or
is seer of hour per day.
29. The stoppage of stipends and pension.
30. The investment of capital in government loan.
31. I will proceed to show what duties government ought to have fulflled and which
did not fulfl.
32. Neglect in matters which should have received consideration of government.
33. Want of cordially towards the Indians
34. In ancient times as long as cordiality was not observed by the reigning powers,
tranquillity was not established.
35. Treating the Indian with contempt.
36. The uncouth address of local authorities towards the natives.
37. Few in number, wherever they are held dear by the natives.
38. The ill treatment more repugnant to muhammadans exclusion of natives from
high appointments.
39. The not holding of durbars by the governor of India and not conferring rank and
honour due to merit according to the usage of former emperors.
40. The observation of rule by lord anevland and Glenborough a very proper one.
41. The facts of the rebellion in India appeared more serious to the authorities than
they in reality were.
42. The * of the English forces.
43. The employment of Hindu and muhammadans in the same regiment.
44. The pride of Indian forces and its causes.
45. The impropriety of punishing the non commissioned offcers at Meerut which
touched the variety of Indian forces.
46. Want of confdence in the India forces towards government after occurrence.
47. Why the * not break out in the Punjab.
In contrast to those observe who, like Alexander duff saw, the uprising in the seminar of 1857 as
221
evidence of a great conspiracy, or like disrachi, saw it as an expression of Alvin occasioned among
the people by unnecessary reform, there were many who insisted that it was funda an army mutiny.
Reliance on Indian troops for the maintenance of british contract was, he believed a dangerous
practice likely to lead to further out bro
The cartridge question was to my mind indubitably, the immediate cause of revolt. But the
army had for long, seen and felt its power. We had goneon, year by year.
Marx saw the violence of 1857 as an extension of the social process England had already initiated.
From Karl Marx, the revolt in the Indian army and dispatches from indiaquoted ink.
Marx and F.Egles.
The frst Indian was of independence 1857-1859. Moscow: foreign language publication house (n.d)
pp.40, 56-57.on of the very few analysis of the events of 1857 from Indian source was written by sir
syed Ahmad khan (1817-1898) one of the most remarkable Indian of nineteenth century.
Descended from a family that had held high positions under the Mughals emperors, as a young man
he had witnessed the decay and degradation of the court at Delhi. He entered the service of the east
India Company as a judicial offcial in 1847 and he was stationed at bijner in Bareilly district of what
is now the state of Uttar Pradesh, when the uprisings against the British took place. The area, which
had been under British rule since 1801, was a major centre of the revolt, but Ahmad khan protected
the British offcials with the local chieftain that British could not be eliminated from India, so he had
Best accept it after the was over.syed ahmad khan won great fame for his writings urging the need
for Muslims to come to terms with the british and to accept what the west had to offer by way of
modern learning.
From George bruee malleson, the Indian mutiny 1857, New York: scribers, pp.17-19, 23-27.
All modern historian that there was no really coordinated advance planning is the view that
a widespread and well organized conspiracy had been at work for some years plotting the
overthrow of the British.
Mellesson identifed three principal fgures as leader of the conspiracy: Nana sahib, the adopted son
of the last peshwa, the leader of the Maratha; Maulvi Ahmad-Allah,a Muslim religious leader.
REFRENCES;
Contribution of sir syed Ahmad khan (Islamic studies seminar paper edited by Abdul Ali and syed ahsan pageno.31)
Political profle of sir syed ahmad khan a documentary record institute Islamic history, culture and civilization Islamic
university Islamic edited with notes and introduction by Hafeez Malik printed by- mirza Muhammad sadiq at
the ribbon printing press,4 lack road, Lahore.
Sir Syed Ahmad khan selected bibliography (seminar papers) kabir Ahmad khan page 71-2-3, edited Abdullah and
sayyid ahsan.
Hali,divan,frst published with reprint, delhi,1945,pp.44-45
Muslim politics in modern india, 1857-1947, edited mushir v.haq meenakshi prakashan, Meerut, india, p.33-34,36-37.
Edwards and Merivle, life of Sir Henry Lawrence, voll.11, p.322-323.
From Karl Marx, the revolt in the Indian army and dispatches from India quoted ink.marx and f.Engels.
The frst Indian was of independence 1857-1859.Moscow:foreign language publication house (n.d) pp.40,56-57 from
George M Malleson, the Indian mutiny 1857,new York: scribers, 1891,pp.17-19,23-27.
222
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN INDIAN
RETAIL SECTOR: OPPORTUNITIES &
CHALLENGES
Mohd Ajmal*, Asif Pervez**
ABSTRACT
FDI has an important contribution in the growth of a developing country it is an important
means to reorganize the production facilities globally and regarded as an important
vehicle for Economic development particularly for developing economies. On November
24, 2011, Indian Government approved a proposal and promotes FDI in retail sector by
providing up to 51% for single brand segment and 100% in multi brand segment. It gives
opportunities for the Global retail giants to enter in India retail sector. According to the
investment commission of India, the retail sector is expected to grow almost three times
its current levels to $660 billion by
2015.Retail has played a major role in improving the productivity of the whole economy
at large the positive impact of organized retailing could be seen in USA, UK and Mexico
and also in China. Retail is the second largest industry in US, it is also one of the largest
employment generators. While India presents large market opportunities given the number
and increasing Purchasing power of consumers, there are signifcant challenges as well
given that over 90% of trade is conducted through independent local stores. Indian retailing
is one of the pillars of its economy and accounts for 14 to 15 percent of its GDP and the
Indian retail market is estimated
to be US$ 450 billion and one the top fve markets in the world by economic value. India is
one the largest growing retail markets in the world, with 1.2 billion people. The present paper
is outcome of descriptive research applying secondary data with the objective of focuses on
the overview of the structure of Indian retail market sector along with the opportunities and
challenges of FDI in retail sector of India and the opportunities and challenges for
foreign retailers in India retail industry.
KEY WORDS: FDI, Indian retail market, Opportunities and Challenges, Foreign Retailers
INTRODUCTION
Foreign direct investment is defned as an investment by an entity/person resident outside
India
in the capital of an Indian Company under schedule 1 of Foreign Exchange Management
Regulation, 2000. Foreign Direct Investment differs from foreign portfolio investment, which
is another kind of foreign investment where a foreign institutional investor invest in equities
listed on a nations stock exchange.FDI plays an important role in development of a nation as it
*Research scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh -202002 (UP),
**Research scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh -202002 (UP),
223
is not only a source of capital, but also increase competitiveness of domestic market, strength
infrastructure, raise productivity and generate employment. India adopt new economic
policy and open its economy for foreign investor in the year 1991 followed by balance
of payment crises, but and since then it has been an issue of debate discussion on the risk
of allowing FDI in the country. Since then India has been a favorite investment destination
for foreign investor because of Indias large consumer base, potential for investment and
supporting economic policy and better infrastructure.
India is a food defcit country, with incidence of malnutrition in children and because of
poor infrastructure and logistics, food spoilage is about 30% of food harvest. Although 100%
foreign direct investment has already been allowed in cold chain infrastructure, yet there has
been no interest of foreign investor in building cold storage as there is no potential
demand from organised retail sector.
Retail market in India constitute a share of around 15% in GDP of India, employing around
40 million Indians in retail and logistic market, it has been estimated to be US $ 450 billion
and one of the top fve retail market in the world by economic value but organized retail
market is only
4% of the retail market. Retail market in India growing at a very fast rate with 1.2 billion
people in the country and India continue to be the third most attractive destination for
investment by transnational corporations (TNCs) during 2013-15 after China and USA as
stated in a recent survey by UNCTAD based on responses from 159 countries.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Bhattacharya, R. (2012). in his research paper entitled The opportunities and challenges
of FDIU in Retail in India analyze the current retail scenario in India, investigate the
controversial views of the various stakeholders and evaluate the likely challenges and threats
of FDI in both single and multi-brand retail in India and concluded that it is very diffcult
to predict the future of Indian retail sector. But the government of India must be cautious
about the apprehensions raised by the critics and adequate safeguards must be taken so that
the positive effects may outweigh the negative ones.
Tiyagi, H. (2012). study various opportunities and challenges of Foreign direct
investment in Indian retail industry and came to the conclusion that FDI in retail would
have an adverse impact on small retailers but the impact would be short lived and would
be weaken over time.
In another study Gupta, A. (2010). Analyze strategic issues and implications of foreign
direct investment in Indian retail sector and concluded that FDI in Retail trading should be
opened up to substantially improve productivity and distribution system through modern
format retailing
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To analyse present structure of retail sector
in India
2. To evaluate challenges and Opportunities for Foreign retailer in Indian retail
industry
3. To study Challenges and Opportunities of FDI in retail industry
in India
224
4. To suggests certain measure for growth of FDI In retail sector in India
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The study is descriptive in nature and based on secondary data collected from various
research papers, reports, case studies, books, journals, newspapers and online database and
websites of DIPP (Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion), RBI (Reserve Bank of
India) and UNCTAD (United Nation Conference on Trade and Development).
BACK IN GROUND OF FDI IN INDIAN RETAIL SECTOR
Foreign direct investment in India allowed in 1997 in cash and carry wholesale with a
prior approval from government, later the approval requirement was relaxed and automatic
permission was granted, with 100% ownership in the year 2006 with foreign ownership
of 51% in single brand retail in Indian retail outlets, but it could attract only around $1.8
billion,1.5% of total FDI fows in the country between 2000 to 2010.Until 2011 FDI in multi-
brand retail was not allowed in India, but reform in the retail market took place India on 20
August 2012 when 51% FDI was approved in multi-brand retail with some specifed condition
to be fulflled, also single brand retail was allowed 100% ownership raising it from previous
51% with revised condition. These market reforms paved the way for retail innovation and
competition with multi-brand retailers such as Walmart, Carrefour and Tesco, as well single
brand majors such as IKEA, Nike, and Apple.
FDI Policy Changes in Retail in 2012
On 20
th
August 2012, new policy was approved for foreign direct investment in both
single brand retail and multi brand retail in India. Government introduced the following
measures for FDI policy in retail
Policy for FDI in Single brand Retail
1) The Investor should be an owner of the brand
2) There is no condition of investment towards the back end infrastructure
3) There is no condition for location of the store
4) In respect of proposal involving FDI beyond 51%, 30% sourcing would
mandatorily have to be done from domestics SMEs and cottage industries artisans
and craftsmen
5) Products to be sold should be of a single brand only, sold under the
same name internationally
6) While the proposals on FDI will be sanctioned by the centre, approvals from
each state government would be required
Policy for FDI in Multi brand Retail
1) Minimum investment of US $100 million by foreign investor
2) At least 50% by the foreign company to be in back end infrastructure
3) Stores to be restricted to cities with a population of one million or more(53
cities as per 2011 Census); given constraints around real estate retailers are allowed
to set up stores within 10 km of such cities
4) At least 30% of manufactured items procured should be through domestic
small amd medium enterprises (SMEs)
5) There is no restriction on brand
6) While the proposals on FDI will be sanctioned by the centre, approvals from
each state government would be required
AN OVERVIEW OF RETAIL SECTOR IN INDIA
Retail means selling of Goods to its fnal consumer for consumption and not to Industrial
225
buyer or mediator for its processing or further sale.The term Retail was defned by Delhi
High Court in 2004 as sale for fnal consumption in contrast to a sale for further sale or
processing. A retailer purchases goods from its manufacturer, store it, maintain its stock and
sale to fnal consumer for some proft margin on it. Retail market contributes around
15% of Indias GDP employing around 40 million people of the nation. Retail sector in
India has been estimated at around US
$450 billion with a share of only 5% organised retail
sector.
Structure of Retail Sector in India
Retail sector in India is divided in two
Classes
1) Organized Retailing
2) Unorganized Retailing
Organized retailing means the trading activities which are undertaken by licensed retailers,
that is, those who are registered for sales tax, income tax, etc. For example the corporate-
backed hypermarkets and retail chains, privately owned large retail businesses etc. While
unorganized retailing refers to the traditional formats of low-cost retailing, for example, the
local kiranashops, owner manned general stores, paan/beedishops, convenience stores, hand
cart and pavement vendors, etc.
Types of retailing in India
1) Single Brand Retailing
2) Multi Brand Retailing
Single Brand Retailing means that a retail store with foreign investment can sell only one
Brand goods that is sold internationally under a single brand, for example Adidas,
Reebok etc. A foreign investor can sell only that brand in a retail store for which permission
is granted to it, for selling another brand, a separate permission have to be obtain to sell
goods of other brand in other store.
Multi Brand Retailing means that a Retailer with foreign investment can sell goods of different
brands in the same store under the same roof.FDI in Multi Brand Retail will lead the global
retailer Players like Walmart, Carrefour and Tesco to open their stores offering a range
of different Brands under same roof
Peculiarities in Indian Retail Market
Indian Retail sector is different from retail sector in advanced country where mode
of distribution of goods and services are either through an independent retailer or directly
from manufacturer. Small and medium enterprises dominate the Indian retail market with a
large number of Intermediaries like wholesaler, commission agent, stockiest and distributor
who operates at local level
With increase in Per capita income, growing consumerism, change in taste and preferences,
people in India becoming brand conscious. There has been an increase in disposable income
of Indian people by 20.9% between 1993 to 2003,also with easy credit facility, and variety
of goods at various price levels has increased consumerism in India
Limitations in Retail Industry in India
India does not have suffcient and adequate infrastructure facility in retail industry, India
is the second largest producer of fruit and vegetables but there is no suffcient cold storage
facility. There are only 5386 standalone cold storage with a capacity of 23.6 million MT,
80% of this facility is used for potatoes only. This lack of cold storage facility causes
226
heavy losses to the farmers. Indian retail sector in dominated by Intermediaries, they often
break norms and their prices lacks transparency. Farmers in India realize only one-third of
total prices against two-third of total prices realize by farmers in advance nations.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOREIGN RETAILERS IN INDIA
Challenges
1) The frst and foremost challenge that foreign retailer would be facing in India
is itself from unorganized retail market in India which constitute about 95%
retail market in India. Indian retail market is dominated by small and medium
enterprises. Indian retail sector is also distinct as it has large number of intermediaries
like commission agents, stockiest, distributors etc. Also the tax structure is in favor
of these small retailers as most of the small unorganized retailers are not registered
and taxes for even registered retailers are negligible but foreign retailers would
have to pay heavy taxes that will ultimately increase their operating expenses and
cost of their product.
2) Infrastructure facility in India for foreign retailer are not adequate, undeveloped
supply chain, absence of IT management, lack of trained human resource will put
forth a challenge for Management
3) Frequent changes in the prices, product obsolescence, low proft margin, and
dissimilarity in consumer groups are the factor that may lead to huge losses for
foreign retailers
4) Consumer credit facility is not very much developed in India
5) It will be diffcult to attract consumer from traditional kirana stores specially in the
food and grocery segment
6) FDI in single brand has been allowed to the extent of 100% with revised condition
and in Multi-Brand to the extent of 51% with some specifed condition. This shows
that FDI has not been allowed in India freely and healthily to protect the interest
of the domestic companies and domestic retailer
7) FDI in retail has been an issue of debate and the country has always hesist to allow
FDI in retail because of its probable risk of endangering livelihood of local retailer.
It has always been an issue of opposition for the government.
8) There may be a segment in the country who feels nationalism and proffered only
Indian goods
Opportunities
1) Indian organized retail industry is one of the most developing sector in the economy
with huge growth potential,. Organized retail market account for only 5%-6% and
expected to grow at a very fast rate
2) Indian retail industry stood at US $350 billion in 2007-08 and estimated to
attain US
$660 billion by 2015
3) Recently India has shown Liberalize policy towards FDI in retail allowing 100%
FDI in
Single brand retail and 51% FDI in multi-brand retail although with specifed
conditions
4) India is a country with a large consumer base of around1.2 billion people, it provides
a huge opportunity for foreign players to cater the demand for consumer goods in
227
the country
5) With increase in the education level, increase in per capita income, increase in
disposable income of people and increase consumerism, taste and preferences
of people in the country has change people becoming more brand conscious,
hence creating an opportunity for global brand.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF FDI FOR RETAIL SECTOR IN INDIA
Challenges
1) Foreign direct investment in Indian retail industry may endanger livelihood of around
40 million people in the country working as small retailer, foreign retail players like
walmart once enter the market can sale the goods at much lower price for years to
wipe out the competitions from small local retailers, ruining their business.
2) Foreign retail player may sale the goods at much lower price initially but may
increase the prices once they established, that may create infationary condition for
the consumer.
3) FDI in retail may beneft only big farmers who collaborate with multinational
companies comprising only 10% of total farmers small farmers. who will sale
directly to the market, will be seen as competitors. Also big farmers not be in
beneft in the long run as they will be depended only on foreign retailer for selling
their product.
4) Foreign retailers will open their stores in the metropolitan cities and therefore
rural people will not be beneftted by FDI in retail.
5) FDI in retail sector will lead to increase for real estate prices in the cities.
6) FDI in retail sector will ultimately disintegrate current supply chain in the country
and will encourage monopoly of foreign retailers.
Opportunities
1) FDI in retail industry in India will remove all the intermediaries between farmers
and retailers hence farmer will be beneftted.
2) Removal of intermediaries between producer and retail will lead to reduction in
the prices of consumer goods and will help in reducing infation, which has been a
problem for the economy especially in last a few years.
3) India is a food defcit country, food spoilage account for 30% of total harvest because
of inadequate infrastructure, Big retail chain will also invest in infrastructure
like cold storage and therefore food can be prevent from spoilage.
4) FDI in retail will bring foreign capital, along with technology and global best practices
which will bring professionalism and skill development in Indian employees.
5) FDI in retail will increase organized sector in retail, therefore along with increase
in tax revenue for government global players cannot evade tax like retailer in
unorganized retail sector.
6) FDI in retail industry will generate employment for people in the country.
7) Consumer satisfaction will also increase as consumer will have more variety to
choose within, consumer will have better quality of product and that too at a much
lower price.
8) FDI in retail will lead to overall growth in the Gross Domestic Product, leading to
growth and development in India.
228
CONCLUSION
India is growing at a very fast GDP growth rate of 7-8% and one of the fastest
growing emerging market economy second to China only. But still India lacks in
infrastructure facility, there is huge population in the country living under poverty line, there
are incidences of farmers committing suicide, India is still a malnutrition country, there
is incidence of peoples death out of hunger. India open its economy in 1990s and since
then with increase in FDI in the country, GDP growth rate has increase , living standard
of the country has increased. Today is a world of globalization, India has to integrate its
economy with the global world if it has to develop at a much faster rate and to provide
better standard of living to the people of India with Indian people consuming world class
brands. India is a country with very huge resources, and India need foreign investment
to exploit these resources.
SUGGESTIONS
1) FDI in retail sector should be Introduce phase wise in the country both
geographically and level of operation.
2) Small local retailers should be provided with suffcient fnance facility, and
should be encouraged to sell quality goods and registered themselves.
3) Local Players in the retail market should be provided with fnance facility and
technical knowledge to become competitive with the global players.
4) A Regulatory body should be established, with statutory powers, that regulate
working of retail Industry and constitute norms for the industry as and when
needed.
5) Working of Foreign retailers should be well regulated, but at the same time it
should not discourage foreign investors.
REFERENCES
Bhattacharya, R. (2012). The Opportunities and Challenges of FDI in Retail in India, IOSR
Journal Of Humanities And Social Science, 5 (5), 99-109
Tiyagi, H. (2012). Impact of FDI in Retail-Boon or Curse, VSRD International Journal of
Business and Management Research, 2 (12), 594-600
Gupta, A. (2010). Foreign Direct Investment In Indian Retail Sector:Strategic Issues And
Implications, IJMMR 1 (1), 55-68
Agarwal, P. (2011). Foreign Direct Investment in Indian Retail Sector - An Analysis, Available
from: http://www.legalindia.in/foreign-directinvestment-
A.T. Kearney Report (2011). Retail Global expansion: A portfolio of opportunities, Chicago,
USA
Balasubramanyam, V.N., & Mahambare, V.(2002). Foreign Direct Investment in Developing
countries, Lancaster University Management School, Working paper-1.
Baskaran, K. (2012). FDI in Indias Multi Brand Retail- Boon or Bane, Universal Journal of
Management and Social Sciences, 2(1), 1-16.
Babu, S. H. (2011). Foreign Direct Investment in India and Its Economic Signifcance , IJRCM,
1(6), 140- 145
Fdi Policy In Multi Brand Retail (2011) Ministry of Commerce, Government of India
International Journal of Business Economics and Management Research , 2(6)
Economic Survey, (2009-10). Ministry of Finance, Government of India, New Delhi.
Indian retail kings around the world. Rediff, 6 December 2011.
229
Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion and Foreign Exchange Management
Act 1999
Kalhan, A. (2007).
Imtiaz, M. (2012). FDI in organized retail in India: look to the multi brand opportunities,
IJRCM, 3(12) , 122-125
Websites
www.PlanningCommission.nic.in
www.unctad.org
www.rbi.org.
in www.dipp.
nic.in
230
ROLE OF POLICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA
Dr. Najibul Hasan Khan
*

The concept of police has a long history. Its characteristic feature is that the concept has been narrowed
down more and more. Police, politics and policy are clearly related words. The words derive
from Latin politia, meaning civil administration or the State, stemming from the Greek polis
(city) and politik (that which belongs to the city state, to civil society).Originally the word police
encompassed the entire responsibility of the State, including religious functions (where these were
still the responsibility of the State). Later the concept was used only for secular functions of the State
and again later only for certain aspects of these State functions.Only in the 19th Century is the concept
restricted to those functions of the State that encompass protection against threat. Police agencies
(as opposed to the police function) as we know today, are relatively new. In fact the frst civil, public
police, was the Metropolitan Police of London, formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1829. Other countries
followed, with most developed democracies having police for some 100-150 years. In many formerly
colonized countries the police were implanted by colonial rule, primarily serving the interests of the
colonial power at the expense of the local people.
Police system in early India The common belief is that police system is a British Creation. It is not
correct to assume that the concept of police is foreign importation and is a European innovation. The
idea of police was familiar to Indian long before the British came to India. Even as early as the Epic
Age of Ramayana, we fnd examples of the employment of police for the purpose of keeping peace
and regulating traffc
1
. In the code of Manu, the lawgiver of ancient India, there are references of police
system. One of the main duties of the ruler, according to these laws, was to restrain violence and punish
the evildoers. During the Vedic period of Indian history, we fnd examples of the police offcers for
the purpose of maintaining law and order. A policed society is also revealed in the Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakit literature
2
. It

is further evident from the recorded history of India that the kings of ancient India
evolved an indigenous system of policing society long before the British thought of a regular police
system. Police, as a state department, was well established during the imperial Rule of the Mauryas
and the Guptas. Kautilyas Arthashastra gives an elaborate description of Vigilence and Surveillance
characteristic of modern police system
3
.
The police force in the totalitarian countries stands on a different footing. As against the independence
of the judiciary from any arbitrary interference by the executive and standing of the police as the
agent of the Law in democratic societies, the executive in the totalitarian states wields the ultimate
control over law and all its offcials. The police are not only one of the ultimate sanctions of the state
but also frequently used as such
4
. In democratic countries, police forces are agents of the law of the
land. Law entrusts their duties and power to them and they are answerable in law for their actions
5
.
They are the employees of the community, for the most part uniformed. Their special purpose is to
ensure that community laws are observed and they employ force, and wear uniform by having an
*Assistant Professor, Vivekananda College of Law, Aligarh.
231
exclusively domestic mandate and have the initial point of contact between citizen and enforcement
machinery. British, American and India policemen are prototype of this model.
Western scholars unanimously hold the view that the India Police System is a creation of the British
rule in India. They further point out that it is diffcult to trace anything answering to the police system
6
.
It has, however, been conceded that from the Vedic period, the changing patterns of governments
notwithstanding the protection of life and property of the people has been the cardinal function of
the state
7
. These scholars hold that it is diffcult to isolate references to police organization in ancient
Indian polity as the mention of different form of crimes, administration of criminal justice and the
structure of internal security system are inextricably linked with the broad stream of religion, ethics
and political institutions. Unfortunately, these scholars have failed to appreciably understand and
analyse the origin and development of the law enforcement institutions in ancient India since western
police organizations themselves cannot be traced to antiquity. The police as a department had become
a well established administrative institution during the Mauryan Empire.
7
Modern Police System
Respect for human rights lies at the heart of good governance. In a democratic society, it is the
responsibility of the State to protect and promote human rights. All State institutions whether they
are the police department, the army, the judiciary or civil administration have a duty to respect human
rights, prevent human rights violations, and take active steps for the promotion of human rights
8
.
The role of the police is especially signifcant in this respect. The police is charged with the responsibility
of maintaining order and enforcing laws. Therefore, the onus of bringing those who break the law
including laws which protect peoples human rights before the criminal justice system lies on the
police. Unfortunately, many a time, while discharging this duty, actions of the police confict with
human rights. Police offcers are pressured to get quick results, often with unoffcial guarantees that
they may use any means possible to accomplish the task at hand. However, the police as protectors
of the law have both a legal duty and a moral obligation to uphold human rights standards and act
strictly in accordance with the law and the spirit of our Constitution
9
.
The Constitution - the Supreme Law of land - entitles everyone living in India to protection of their
human rights. Part III, the chapter on Fundamental Rights, which is referred to as the heart of the
Constitution, guarantees basic human rights to all. It pledges that the State will safeguard human rights
and will protect citizens from undue invasions on their liberty, security and privacy. The Supreme
Court has over the years, explained and elaborated the scope of Fundamental Rights. They have
strongly opposed intrusions upon them by agents of the State, by asserting that the rights and dignity
of individuals must always be upheld. The Court has laid down certain directives for law enforcement.
These directives deal with various aspects of police work at the station house or cutting edge level,
such as registration of a case,conduct of an investigation, carrying out of an arrest, treatment of an
arrested person, grant of bail, questioning of a suspect, and protection of the rights of women, poor
and the disadvantaged. They also have the force of law. An offcer who wilfully or inadvertently
ignores Supreme Court directives can be tried in court under relevant provisions of the Indian Penal
Code and under the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971
10
.
The National Human Rights Commission too has issued guidelines for police offcers. The Commission
has been established under a Special Act of Parliament to protect and promote the human rights of
all people living in India. The National Human Rights Commission addresses violations of human
rights by recommending registration of criminal cases against the guilty, disciplinary action against
errant offcers, and payment of compensation to the victims. Because an overwhelming majority of
complaints received by the National Human Rights Commission concern the police, the Commission
has made it mandatory to report any case of custodial death or rape within 24 hours and to provide
it with a video-flm of the post-mortem examination
11
. The Commission has also issued guidelines
to the police on encounter deaths, lie detector tests, arrest, and police-public relations. Guidelines of
the National Human Rights Commission are increasingly being subject to positive interpretation by
the courts. This means that offcers accused of violating human rights may be called upon to explain
232
why these guidelines were not followed.
This compilation includes sixteen landmark judgments of the Supreme Court and four signifcant
National Human Rights Commission guidelines dealing specifcally with human rights and policing.
While the directives/ guidelines mentioned here do comprise the core of the jurisprudence on human
rights and policing, this is by no means an exhaustive list. The directives/ guidelines mentioned here
lay out the correct procedure to be followed by Station House Offcers in the conduct of their offcial
duties. Nonadherence to these judgements/guidelines is taken to be a sign of malafde intention and
breach of good faith. It also invites legal and disciplinary action against the offcer concerned
12
.
Human rights advocates as well as academics often argue that good policing means policing in line
with international human rights standards. Although this is no doubt true, it must be understood that
international human rights standards offer only limited guidance for day-to-day police work. In fact,
good police work can never be fully captured in rules and regulations, however numerous and detailed
they might be. The necessary discretion required by police to carry out their functions presents problems
for those human rights advocates preferring to have clear norms against which police behaviour can
be measured. Many police fnd the reasoning of human rights advocates to be at best, and theoretical
to say the least, refecting a lack of understanding of their reality and placing an unrealistic burden on
police work. Human rights advocates on the other hand say that police use this as an excuse to sidestep
critiscim. Police and human rights are two domains that refect differing perspectives on rights and
security. Though the relations between the two felds may seem obvious, differences in fundamental
frames of reference between the two may lead to major miscommunications. In this paper we will
take a closer look at how the two domains relate to one another. We start by exploring the police as a
professional group and policing as an activity
13
.
Human Rights
The expression human rights denotes all those rights, which are inherent in our nature and without
which we can not live as human beings. In other words, human rights being eternal part of the nature
of human beings are essential for individuals to develop their personality, their human qualities,
their intelligence, talent and conscience and to enable them to satisfy their spiritual and other higher
needs. Further it is described that the rights, which are natural and inherent for the life and happiness
of every individual, are called human rights. These rights are indispensable for the maintenance of
human dignity and the individual enjoys these rights from birth to death. In fact human rights are
the very essence of a meaningful life, and human dignity is the ultimate purpose of the Government.
The purpose of securing human rights as such is to provide protection to these rights against the abuse
of power committed by the organ of states; to establish institution for the promotion of living condition
me of human beings and for the development of their personality, and at the same time, to provide
effective remedial measures for obtaining redress when these rights are violated. Kare Vasak has aptly
remarked that the human rights are essentially individual in character. They are meant to be enjoyed
by individuals and they constitute a social phenomena by virtue of those for whom they are intended
14
.
Police and condition of Human Rights in India
Despite an exhaustive list of precautionary measures provided to safeguard the interests of people,
violation of their rights continue to be committed by the police everyday. The practical position on
ground us quite different. The police has not been able to win the confdence of community at large.
There has been continuous occurrence of police brutality and high handedness that has created an
atmosphere of distrust and discord. Lately, the frequency of offences by the police has assumed alarming
proportions. Sankar Sen, former Director General of Police (Investigations) who also worked with
the National Human Rights Commission said in so many words that, despite all the precautions,
it is unfortunate that the reports of police violence and brutality received from various parts of the
country convey an impression that the police forces in our country are full of sadist and blood thirsty
maniacs who relish the sight of broken skulls and blinded eyes
15
233
Some of the infamous police actions are:-
1. Torture and violence under police custody: - Custodial violence in India existed since times
immemorial. No period in the India history is bereft of this menace. It was understandable to a
certain extent during progressive regimes of foreign rulers and the absolute kingships but responsible
democracy would also compete to equal the past record is quite depressing. Unfortunately, even
after independence, police has not changed its methods of investigation and control of crime. Police
regularly resorts to more and more brutal techniques of investigation and extraction of confessions.
Torture in police custody is a common feature. In fact torture of under trails by police dates back
to the Vedic age. Kautilyas Arthashastra speaks about various kinds of torture such as, burning of
limbs, tearing apart by wild animals, trampling upon by elephants and bulls, cutting of limbs and
mutilation
16
. Torture is considered to be the most dependable weapon of police to extract confession
from the most hardened of criminals.
2. Custodial deaths: - In India, on an average, 1000 deaths occur in police custody every year.
Unreported cases of custodial deaths may be much more. The state of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar usually
are at the top of the custodial deaths chart. Torture of detainees, both with criminal and political
backgrounds, in police custody remains endemic despite the fact that there are clear-cut directions
to the police not to employ third degree methods on the under trails, either to extorts information or
confession, or for simply seeking revenge to settle some old personal scores
17
.
3. Encounter Deaths: - Police in India has given birth to the concept of deaths in encounter battles
it fghts in self-defence, against person accused of being involved in criminals activities. It mean
that the police confronts the criminal on a tip off from an informer or simply comes across them
while on patrol duty and on being challenged they are fred upon. In the ensuing exchange of fre, the
criminal get killed, often alone, as his accomplices manage to escape under the cover of darkness. It is
feared\alleged that what actually happens is that the person suspected of being involved in a number
of criminals cases gets acquitted through courts orders for want of suffcient witnesses. Or, in some
cases, he gets out on bail and then starts his usual criminals activity again. When the police takes a
hardened criminals into custody, his arrest is kept unregistered, and the police simply kills him in cold
blood and later reports that the person was killed in some encounter and exchange of fre with them.
18
4. Preventive arrest: - Throughout the history of independent India governments have felt obliged to
formulate laws to deal with cases of heinous nature on the plea that ordinary laws cannot effectively
tackle the situation. Whether it is the problem of Naxalites, insurgency or terrorism, government get
specifc laws passed by parliament supposedly to deal with such situations. Defence of India Rules
(DIR) or Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) or Prevention of terrorist Act (POTA) are laws
made by the parliament from time to time to deal with situation
19
. Such laws are made tackle people
who are involved in the anti-national activities, there are number of clauses that gives the police extra-
ordinary powers to detain people for specifc periods without being produced before magistrate. It
creates immense scope for the police to act arbitrarily.
Good policing involves respecting human rights and upholding the Rule of Law. This has been strongly
emphasised by the Supreme Court and the National Human Rights Commission. As protectors of
people rights, police offcers are expected to display integrity, transparency, accountability and most
of all respect for human dignity. Rule of Law requires that the police . an integral part of the criminal
justice system must respect and uphold the rights and liberty of individuals.
Sadly, despite democracy and freedom for over ffty years now, there still is a lot of distrust between
the public and the police. People see the police as an authoritarian organization, removed from society,
with little or no respect for the rights of the ordinary person. However, today we live in a democratic
country and the police as a vital component of the State must operate according to democratic norms.
Individual rights occupy a pride of place in our constitutional culture. Any encroachment upon them,
whether it is non-registration of a First Information Report, launching a malicious investigation, illegally
detaining suspected persons or their families, carrying out an improper arrest, using excessive force,
234
or torturing suspects to extract confessions goes against the basic principles of democratic policing.
Sharing information with the public, securing their cooperation in policing, and acknowledging that
individuals have a right to privacy and security of their person are essential elements of democratic
policing- the furtherance of which, is the aim of this compilation.
In a democratic society, the police serve to protect, rather than impede, freedoms. The very purpose
of the police is to provide a safe, orderly environment in which these freedoms can be exercised.
A democratic police force is not concerned with peoples beliefs or associates, their movements or
conformity to state ideology. It is not even primarily concerned with the enforcement of regulations
or bureaucratic regimens.
Instead, the police force of a democracy is concerned strictly with the preservation of safe communities
and the application of criminal law equally to all people, without fear or favour. These are some most
common complaints against the police in our country, which causes serious violation of the human rights
related to life, liberty and dignity of its citizens, which is supposed to be safeguarded, by the police.
REFERENCES
1. Nickel, James. Making Sense of Human Rights: Philosophical Refections on the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, Berkeley; University of California Press, 1987.
2. Sohan, Loius B, The new International Law: Protection of the Rights of Individuals rather than States,
32 Am.ul.Rev.1 (1982) reprinted in Thomas Buergenthal and Dinesh Shelton, pp.9-17.
3. Baehr, Peter R, The Role of Human Rights in Foreign Policy, Machmillan, London (1994)
4. See laws promulgated in the reigns of Urukagina of Lagash (3260B.C), Sargon of Akkad (2300BC) and
Hammurabi of Babylon (1750 B.C).
5. See Henle, S.J, A catholic view of human rights: A thomistic refection in Alan S Reosenbaum, The
philosophy of human rights, international perspectives, (1980).
6. See inaugural address of Justice PN Bhagwati, Supreme Court of India in the seminar on Human Rights.
7. ibid.
8. The original Carta was in Latin consist of 70 clauses.
9. The Bill of Rights was offcially entitled as an Act for declaring the rights and liberties of the subject and
for setting the succession of the crown. Charles II enacted it on the occasion of the accession of William of
orange and Mary Stuart to the throne of England.
10. Sweden in 1809, Spain in 1812, Norway in 1814, Belgium in 1831, Denmark in 1849, Prussia in 1850 and
Switzerland in 1874 made provision for the fundamental rights of man.
11. See Salmond on Jurisprudence, Eleventh edition (1957), pp 27-28.
12. Sinha, S. Prakash Human Rights philosophically, IJIL Vol 18(1978), p. 153.
13. Ibid, p. 155.
14. Chandra, U, Human Rights, Allahabad Law Agency, Allahabad (2004).
15. See Justice Sujata V Manohar, Judiciary and Human Rights, IJIL, Vol. 36, 1996, no 2, pp. 39-54, pp. 40-46.
16. Another instance from the Emergency era is reported in Niyamavedi v. CBI (1999) 1 Ker LT 56, where the
confessions of a police offcer who pulled the trigger in a fake encounter a quarter of a century ago reopened
hitherto unresolved questions.
17. A.D.M.Jabalpur v. Shiv Kant Shukla (1976) 2 SCC 521.
18. As witnessed in cases concerning bonded labour, undertrial prisoners including women in protective
custody, for instance, Bandhua Mukti Morcha v Union of India (1984) 3 SCC 161; Hussainara Khatoon v.
Home Secretary, State of Bihar (1980) 1 SCC 81 et seq.
19. Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol. 18, p. 158.
235
RATIONALE FOR PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON
HEALTH IN INDIA
Dr. Mohd. Shahid J. Ansari*
ABSTRACT
India has registered an appreciable level of economic growth in the contemporary globalization
era but health outcomes are not commensurate to her giant size and resources. The health status of
Indias population is highly unfavorable vis--vis both the developed and developing countries. It has
among the highest infant and maternal mortality ratio in the world. It is estimated that 3.3% of Indias
population gets impoverished each year on account of illness. In such a scenario public expenditure
on health becomes imperative.
The present paper is a humble attempt in support of public spending on health in India. Present
health scenario of India and importance of health in the development are prime concern. Theoretical
as well as empirical bases for public spending on health are taken into study.
Key-words
Health, Human Development, Human Resource Development, Demographic Dividend, MDGs,
DALYs, SC, PHC, CHC, IMR, CMR, MMR, SPM, Globalization
INTRODUCTION
After six decades of Indias independence and being a republic nation, we are credited to substantial
achievements. We are recognized as the citizens of a responsible nation among international
community. Our economy of a trillion dollars has transformed from agrarian to the fastest developing
economy of tertiary sector. Having second largest population of this planet, we have the potential to
become an economic power-house. But it cannot be realized until we successfully meet the challenges
before the nation. Highest number of the worlds poor, illiterate and under-nourished people is sheltered
here. Worlds third highest HIV infected persons and one-ffth TB patients inhabit here. One out of
every nineteen children born dies before his frst birthday. More than half of women are anaemic and
maternal mortality is also very high at 212. Almost 20 percent of global maternal deaths occur in
India. 330 lakh people get impoverished every year due to high out-of-pocket expenditure on health.
Health is prerequisite for the all-round development of a nation. Improvement in the health
status directly contributes to human happiness and therefore, has an intrinsic value. Health is a basic
component of human development, and hence determines societys well-being. Health of the people
has a deep impact on the process of development through creating human capital. It determines the
average expectation of life, productive age bracket, production and productivity, earning capacity,
employment, purchasing power and poverty prevailing in the economy. A highly advanced health
scenario will ensure a sustainable supply of human resources that is instrumental in the production
channel. It is a well-known fact that economic development is a function of labour, capital and natural
resources. Among these inputs healthy and skilled workforce is the most active and instrumental factor
in the determination of development level of an economy. Healthy and skilled workforce not only
*Assistant Professor of Economics, Daulat Ram College, University of Delhi.
236
generates income and output but also presents a higher level of their demand.
Role of Public Expenditure
To ensure sustained supply of healthy human resource, public spending is inevitable for developing
countries like India where more than one third of the population is living below the poverty line and
another large proportion is not able to bear the costly private health services and facilities. Health
outcomes are very poor in the international perspective and there are wide disparities prevalent in
health facility and outcomes at all levels in the country- state, rural/urban, sex and class etc. Health
as a vital public good and a basic human right urgently requires government involvement to correct
the situation.
Public expenditure is particularly undertaken to fulfll those wants which the individuals in
their capacity cannot satisfy on their own, due to lack of will and/or inability. The benefts of education,
medical aid or low cost housing are so diffused that they cannot be captured without government
intervention. Some other goods are so meritorious that the market mechanism cannot achieve optimal
resource allocation. These merit goods effciently provided through the public budget do not take
into account consumer preferences. These goods include health, education, water supply, sanitation,
housing etc. and they are considered not to be affected by the income of the individual concerned.
Hence, provision of merit goods by the governments or community is more equitable in nature and
ensures inclusive growth and distributive justice. Provision of health and other merit goods directly
affects the targeted sections of the society (Bhargava, R.N. 1977).
Rationale for Public Expenditure on Health in India
India is not only a country but a continent in itself in respect of human and natural resources. It is
home to the second largest world population and the largest number of youth which has come to be
referred to as demographic dividend. If these resources are not properly and effciently appropriated,
development potential cannot be fully realised and development would never be inclusive and
sustainable. Indias rank is low on the measuring rod of human development index - a composite
index constituting health, literacy and per capita income. This situation is prevailing since the last
more than one decade and though the index has improved the rank has gone down further because
other countries have performed better on the human development front. Human resource is a very
special kind of input in the production channel as it is both a means as well as an end. Ever since
human capital was identifed as the residual factor in economic development by Denison, investments
in health and education have become the focus of policy action. Acknowledgement of the signifcance
of human resources by Schultz in his presidential address at the American Economic Association gave
it respectability in academic circles. In the words of Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, the objective of
all economic activities is to maximize the welfare by enhancing entitlements to satisfy maximum
needs. India has a plethora of labour and abundant natural resources; therefore, appropriate policy for
progress is to develop human capital as frst priority by making provision for health and education.
Gandhian and Rawlsian philosophy of welfare laid emphasis solely on the welfare of the
last person. They have argued that the most vulnerable and destitute section should be benefted by
the governments plans and programs and if they are benefted and their entitlements are augmented
then it is improvement in the real sense. These sections should be benefted through the provision of
health, education, housing, water supply and sanitation etc. Our constitution directs the state to make
provision for child and maternity care in particular and public health in general (Das, B.K. 2003 and
Basu, K. 2003).
Indian economy is at the crossroads. The development paradigm has changed. The Nehruvian
path of socialist approach has yielded place to the liberal and neo-liberal approaches. Globalization
has been truly global in its impact and no sector has remained unaffected. The critical role of investment
in social sector, particularly health and education, in our march towards economic growth with a
human face needs to be underlined.
The service sector makes up more than half of Indias GDP and this sector is growing faster
than agriculture and industry. Indias overall growth prospects will depend on this fastest emerging
237
sector that is based primarily on human skills and requires more investment to generate human capital
through health and education.
India having 16.5 percent of world population accounts for 20 percent burden of diseases of
world total. To make the world free from diseases and to ensure a healthy environment for achieving
Millennium Developments Goals(MDGs), India should especially be targeted. It is well known that
three out of eight goals are directly health oriented and the remaining either indirectly affect health
or are affected by health.
The Indian economy is an agrarian economy and about three quarters of population live in rural
areas of acute shortages of health facilities. Average distance covered by rural people for hospitalization
is 19 km. while this distance is only 2.2 km for urban people. Only 15 percent of health services
reach the rural areas inhabited by 73 percent of the population. Further, these facilities are mostly in
a defunct state. Therefore, patients are bound to move towards costly private health facilities. During
last decade, private sectors share of health services has increased from 60 percent to 80 percent.
India is home to the largest number of the poor of this planet who constitute about 37.2 percent
of the population, with a vast disparity at states/regions levels according to Tendulkar Panel. Nearly
400 million people are living in conditions of starvation and about the same number live a hand to
mouth existence. They cannot avail of essential medical facilities without government assistance.
Only a microscopic minority is in a position to face any eventuality (Tina Edwin. 2010).
The World Bank and WHO have conducted a joint exercise to compute the loss of man-days
lost due to illness. The disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost in 1990s was estimated at 344 per
thousand of population for India whereas the corresponding fgure was 117 for established market
economies and 178 for China.
National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health has estimated that 3.3 percent of Indias
population (330 lakhs) is impoverished every year due to expenses on illness. The poorest 10 percent
of population rely on sale of their assets or borrowings entailing intergenerational consequences. It
becomes the moral responsibility of the government to bear this expenditure. However, the state has
miserably failed to perform its duty towards its vulnerable citizens. According to a World Bank report,
it is estimated that Indians spent nearly Rs. 84,600 crores out of pocket on health care expenses in the
year 2004, amounting to 3.3 percent of Indias GDP for that year. If we consider only those who are
working, the annual income loss to households associated with NCDs (Non Communicable Diseases)
is estimated to be Rs.28,000 crores (Annual Report on Health, GOI,2010).
The health scenario in India is far from satisfactory. It is lagging far behind not only the
advanced economies but also many developing and underdeveloped economies. There is inadequate
provision of proper immunization, maternity and child care, emergency services and so on. 20 percent
of health expenditure is borne by the government and remaining heavy burden of 80 percent is borne
by people themselves. The case is just reverse in advanced economies like UK, France, Germany,
Canada etc. (World Health Statistics, 2009).
Health is purely a merit good which generates positive externalities; it affects not only health
status of the people but also working and learning capacities which impact on development. Lack of
provision of health care to tackle contagious and communicable diseases affects other healthy persons
of the society.
After independence central and state governments have taken initiatives to develop health
infrastructure and training of health staff, paramedics and medical personnel, yet there is a large defcit
and population burden is seen on health centres- Sub Centres/Primary Health Centres/Community
Health Centres. Therefore, it is imperative to augment funds for the health sector (Rural Health
Statistics, 2010).
Rural health infrastructure is not so developed and conducive to attract trained health personnel
including paramedics to serve the needy persons in these areas. Neither do rural people have access
to urban health centers. Nor can innovations like mobile health clinics and telemedicine, technologies
which may be an effective alternative in the Indian perspective reach the affected persons. For this
238
bare minimum, governments have to come to the forefront and resume the responsibilities to achieve
their declared targets of 2020 and Millennium Development Goals to reduce infant mortality rate,
child mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, malnutrition etc.
From the demographic point of view, India has to invest more on maternity and child care
particularly, and overall health generally. It is a well-established fact that high IMR creates the
scenario of uncertainty of survival of the new-born which is an important factor responsible for
frequent pregnancies and child birth. This situation leads to population explosion and takes a toll on
the mothers health in terms of high maternal morbidity and mortality. In such a scenario of an already
burdensome population, it will become a permanent bottleneck in the way of economic development.
From the security point of view, health is not only an individual matter in the era of globalization
but it is a global phenomenon. Viruses, bacteria and other pathogens have never respected national
borders. Globalization is eroding national borders and thereby creating new health challenges that pose
a threat to national and global security. Frequent outbreaks of pandemics like SAARS and widespread
prevalence of HIV/AIDS expose faw in health system and undermine national security and diplomatic
relations with the world community. Hence, to control the situation, world order should be developed
in such a way that health for all must be ensured (Yuk-ping, C.L. and Thomas, N. 2010).
It is established that more than one-third of the diseases are caused by polluted environment.
The suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the environment is responsible for life threatening diseases
which can be successfully checked by the government and through cooperative actions. It requires
regulating vehicular fuel norms and making rules and regulations for factories which are posing threats
to the environment. There is a dire need to make provision of potable water, fresh air, housing and
sanitation for the increasing as well as ever expanding population in urban centres particularly, and
for overall population generally by the governments and public authorities.
In the international perspective, UN has declared a set of MDGs which target to reduce IMR,
CMR, MMR, hunger, malnutrition etc. at global levels. These targets cannot be realized without
targeting one-sixth global population inhabiting India. UN has to adopt a need-based approach and
should facilitate Indian multi-layered governments and organizations in this regard.
There are wide inter-state/regional disparities on human development in terms of health,
education and income. At one end of the spectrum, Kerala shines even among developed nations while
Orissa and Bihar peer with Sub-Saharan countries. This exposes the faws of our plans and policies
based on trickle-down theory. The basis of earlier approach of development is per capita income
which is itself a fawed parameter as it does not consider the distributive aspect of development.
Without considering the distributive aspect, the entitlements cannot be enhanced to fulfll human
needs. Therefore, a large investment is required to overhaul the health sector which will improve
health outcomes and help India to achieve a higher rank in Human Development Index.
Conclusion
Indias health condition is very poor in international perspective and to achieve MDGs, one-sixth of
global population should be especially targeted. Its contribution to total disease burden at the world
level is more than its population, i.e. one-ffth. Most of the diseases are curable but due to lack of
health infrastructure and facilities the condition is very worrisome. Public expenditure is limited to
only one-ffth of the total expenditure on health. So, the governments should come up to address this
issue to harness the benefts of demographic dividend and to lead India on the way of inclusive
growth and sustainable development.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmad, Nighat (2009): Inclusiveness in Health, UPUEA Economic Journal, Vol.2, No. 2&3.
Ahmad, Nighat and Ansari, M. Shahid (2007): A Study of Inter-state Disparities in Health in India, UPUEA
Economic Journal, 3
rd
Annual Conference, No. 3.
239
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RajkumarSen, Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi.
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Allahabad.
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Deep and Deep Publication, New Delhi.
Dreze, Jean and Sen, Amartya (1999):Indian Development Selected Regional Perspectives, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Tina Edwin (2010): Rural Poor Estimated at 42 Percent (Based on Tendulkar Report), The Economic Times,
New Delhi, Dated 12.01.2010.
Yuk-ping, Catherine Lo and Thomas, Nicholas (2010): How is Health a Security Issue? Politics, Responses
and Issues, Health Policy and Planning, A Journal on Health and Development, Vol. 25, No. 6, November,
Oxford University Press, London.
GOI (2005): Report of the National Commission on Macro Economics and Health, Government of India.
MOHFW (2010): To the People on Health-Annual Report-2010, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, New Delhi.
MOHFW(2010): Rural Health Statistics in India 2010, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government
of India, New Delhi.
UNDP (1996): Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme, Oxford University
Press, New York.
UNDP (2003): Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme, Oxford University
Press, New York.
UNDP(2005): The State of Human Development, Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi.
UNDP (2008): Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programs, Oxford University Press,
New York.
WHO (2001): Report of Commission on Macro Economics and Health, World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland.
WHO(2009): World Health Statistics; World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Bank (1989): India, Poverty, Employment and Social Services, A World Bank Country Study, World
Bank, Washington D.C.
World Bank(1991): World Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York.
240
CRISIS IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA-
ARE WE HEADING TOWARDS RIGHT DIRECTION?
Md Shahnawaz*
ABSTRACT
The dictums such as Aristotles Education is the best provision for old age, Francis Bacons
Knowledge is power, Edward Bulwer-Lyttons, Pen is mightier than sword and many others
are well known. They unveil the fact that education is a tool by which we can change our life as
well as the life of others. Higher Education plays a vital role in the overall development and growth
of a country. It imparts in depth knowledge and understanding so as to expose the students to new
frontiers of knowledge in different walks of life. Further, it is not only broadens the cerebral power of
the Individual within a narrow specialization but also gives a wider perspective of the world around.
India is now considered to be one of the most promising economies of the world. It is evident by the
fact that Indias Higher Education system is third largest in the world after China and United States.
Still there are some Issues and Impediment which needs immediate attention, for example, Poor
Access, Girls Drop-Out in Higher Education, Commercialization,and Inadequate Infrastructure.etc.
This paper is an attempt to discuss the Issues and Impediments in the Higher Education in India.
Key Words. Poor Access, Caste based Reservation, Girls Drop-out in Higher Education,
Commercialization, and Inadequate Infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION:
Education is most important for a nation or a society. Only a literate community, with a sizable chunk
of educated people in its fold can fourish, prosper and develop in the modern world. It is said that
a nation advances in proportion to education and intelligence spread among masses. Development
of any country depends 20 per cent on natural resources, 16 per cent on infrastructure and 64 per
cent on human resources. This calls for a high quality and well trained human resources from our
education systems. Education is the foundation of the structure, which the society is. On the basis
of this foundation only the future of a country or a nation is largely determined and its standard is
destined by the standard of education its citizens are being imparted. (Chronicle 2010)
Indias Higher Education system is third largest in the world after China and United States. The main
governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grant Commission of India which enforces its
standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. (India,
2009).Accreditation of Higher Education is overseen by 12 autonomous institution established by the
University Grant Commission.

(NIC, 2011).

As India is a developing country and the dream of APJ
Abdul Kalam (former president of India) is India become a developed country by 2020.But, the main
challenge before the country in the new era is to become a developed society by the year 2020.Even
after 63 years of independence, higher education is not accessible to the poorest and the people living
in rural areas. In present scenario the rural children do not get the good quality of primary education.
Objectives:
1. To review the higher education system in India.
*Senior Research Fellow, Department of Political Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
241
2. To assess the basic problems and crisis faced by higher education in India.
3. To suggest some remedial measures for the improvement of higher in India.
Higher Education in India:
A university is a place where new ideas germinate, strike roots and grow tall and sturdy. It is a unique
space, which covers the entire universe of knowledge. It is a place where creative minds converge,
interact with each other and construct visions of new realities. Established notions of truth are challenged
in the pursuit of knowledge.
Higher Education plays a vital role in the overall development and growth of a country. It imparts
in depth knowledge and understanding so as to expose the students to new frontiers of knowledge
in different walks of life. Further, it is not only broadens the cerebral power of the Individual within
a narrow specialization but also gives a wider perspective of the world around. In the present day
knowledge society where the world is highly competitive, it is only the higher education that provides
qualifed and trained human resources to keep pace with the fast changing world. (Singh, K.P & Ahmad,
S.2011).It is on the record that the Government of India has been quite concerned to ensure progress
in the growth of higher education as it is aware that knowledge society can be built on the fabric of
higher education only. A good number of Commissions and Committees were set up by the Government
of India to study the major concern / issues of the Indian higher education system and suggest ways
and means to overcome them. A number of reports were tabled to the Government and some of the
signifcant ones include University Education Commission (1948-49) under the chairmanship of Dr.
Radhakrishanan; Education Commission Report (1964-66) under the chairmanship of Prof. Daulat
Singh Kothari; National Policy on Education (1968); National Policy on Education (1986); Acharya
Ramamurti Committee Report (1990); Programme of Action (1992); Report to the Nation: National
Knowledge Commission (2005); Report of the Committee on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher
Education (2009), etc. These Commissions and Committees have deeply studied the issues, challenges
and problems of the Indian higher education system.
Growth of Higher Education in India:
There were 20 universities and 500 colleges at the time of independence. At present, there are 519
universities and university-level institutions-243 State Universities, 53 State Private Universities, 40
Central Universities, 130 Deemed Universities, 33 institutions of national importance established
under acts of Parliament, fve institutions established under various state legislations. There are 25,951
Colleges including around 2,565 Women Colleges. Out of 25,951 Colleges, 7,362 Colleges (28%)
have been recognized under section 2(f) and 5,997, Colleges (23%) under section 12-B of the UGC
Act, 1956.At the beginning of the academic year 2009-2010, the total number of students enrolled,
in the formal system, in the Universities and Colleges has been reported as 136.42 lakhs-16.69 lakhs
(12.24%) in University Departments and 119.73 lakhs (87.76%) in affliated colleges. The enrolment
of women students at the beginning of the academic year 2009-2010 is 56.49 lakhs which constitute
41.40% of the total enrolment. Of the total enrolment, 14.72% women have been enrolled in professional
courses. The women enrollment as a percentage of total enrollment in states is highest in Goa (59%)
and the lowest in Bihar (30%).In terms of absolute numbers of women enrollment, Uttar Pradesh
tops the list of states with 8.00 lakhs, followed by Maharashtra (7.8 lakhs).The number of doctoral
degrees (PhD only) awarded by various universities (during 2007-2008) was 13,237.Out of which, the
faculties of sciences had the highest number with 4574 degrees, followed by the faculties of arts with
4405 degrees. These two faculties tighter accounted for 67% of the total number of doctoral degrees
awarded. The regular faculty strength in universities was 0.90 lakhs (15%) and 4.98 lakhs (85% in
Colleges, totaling 5.89 lakhs in the beginning of the 2009. (Praveena K.B & Srinivasan, KS, 2010)
Issues and Impediments in Higher Education in India:
According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities in the year 2008, about 8% of the universities
of USA fgured among the top 500 universities of the world. The corresponding fgure were 26 for
UK, six for Japan,8 for China,35 for Australia,4.5 for South Koria,50 for Singapore and lowest 0.5
for India. Out of the total of 388, only two Indian universities were included in the list of top 500 in
242
the world that too at the lower ranks. These were Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore (301-400)
and IIT Kharagpur (401-500).None of the Central Universities, which consume huge public funds,
could fnd any place in the list, not even at the bottom.(Chauhan,C.P.S,2010)
India has the lowest Enrolment ratio for higher education. Canadas percentage is 87 per cent, Australia
80 per cent, Finland 74 per cent, New Zealand 63 per cent, Norway 62 per cent, Belgium 56 per cent,
UK 52 per cent, France 51 per cent, China 15 per cent and in our country, it is just around 10 per cent.
India is also one of the lowest in terms of number of universities as per population. USAs population
is about 28 crores and they have nearly 2500 universities; Germanys population is 8 crores and they
have 350 universities; UKs population is Six Crores and they have 125 universities and in India whose
population is 125 crores has about 350 universities. Several experts estimate that we must have at
least 1000 universities more and the higher education enrolment ratio should be increased by 20 per
cent in the next years to meet the challenges of countrys development. (Galgotia, 2011)
There is a need for deep introspection by the academia on the origins and the extent of the crisis that
the higher education system is going through and on its own role in exacerbating this crisis. This
introspection would reveal that there has been a willing abdication on part of the academic community,
of the autonomy which was available to it. Education was made subservient to ideological compulsions
which led to its loss of respect. (Yashpal, 2009).Although, Indian higher education system is playing
an important role in developing the Indian society as well as the economy. But there are some issues
and impediments which are hampering the way of higher education, which are as follows
1. Poor Access.
Poor access is one of the major challenges before the Higher Education in India. The Gross Enrolment
Rate (GER) measures the poor access level in India. For higher education GER has risen from 0.7 per
cent in 1950-51 to 1.4 per cent in 1960-61, and 8 per cent in the early 2000.The current GER which
is about 10 per cent stands very low when compared to the world average of 23.2 per cent, and an
average of 54.6 per cent for developed countries, 36.3 per cent for countries in transition, and 11.3
per cent for developing countries. In view of the projected population in the age group of 18-23 years
for 2011-12 which is 144.287 million, the access to higher education for all eligible in the country
will be a major issue before the policy makers.
2. Caste based Reservation.
The next challenge before the higher education in India is caste based reservation. This is a fact that,
too overcome the deep rooted problem of social inequity, successive governments have introduced
caste based reservations in higher education. At present the caste-based reservation is applicable
in only government funded institutions, which includes institutions of excellence and amount to
approximately 49 per cent of the total seats. Due to the caste based reservation, better talent coming
from non-reserved category is deprived of the admission in good institution, which creates social
unrest and used as a tool to make vote bank by the political parties.
3. Over-Concentration on Traditional Education.
In India most of the educational institution has been provided traditional type of education. According
to the HRD Ministry of India total 11698 institutes are providing general education and only 5284
institutions are providing professional education. There are 2053 Medical institutes, 1274 Polytechnic
Colleges, 2513 Management, Law and Agricultural Colleges and 1669 Teachers training colleges in
India. But most of these institutes are located in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.(Shahnawaz &Raza,M.H,2011)Remaining other states
has too much low facilities of higher education, professional, and technical education.
4. Girls Drop-Out in Higher Education.
During the frst three fve-year plans the government gave more emphasis on enrollment than on
improvement of the quality of the education. Consequently, the majority of those who were enrolled
in classes left the school. The teacher-student ratio was not so good and the quality of education was
very bad, at that time Pull and Push factors have also played an important role in this context.
243
5. Problem of Quality Education.
In an environment of global competitiveness it is more important that the products of the higher
education institution of our country are as competent as graduate of any other country of the world
but it is very unfortunate that Indian higher educational institutions suffer from large quality variation
in so much so that a NASSCOM- Mac Kinsey Report 2005 has said that not more than 15 per cent
of graduates of general education and 25-30 per cent of technical education are ft for employment.
The various regulatory bodies regulating higher education have constituted an autonomous body for
assessment and monitoring quality standards in the institutions under their purview. For example,
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) by UGC, National Board of Accreditation
(NBA) by AICTE, Accreditation Board (AB) by ICAR, Distance Education Council (DEC) by NCTE
etc. Though there exists an autonomous body for assessment and monitoring quality standards in the
institutions of higher education they suffer from two major defciencies. First, the quality norms of
such councils are not comparable with international standards. Secondly, the enforcement process
is not stringent. Besides this most of our Colleges and Universities are providing traditional courses
and education programmes. Some programmes are necessary to maintain our moral and social values
but not all. Hence there is an urgent need to change these types of courses and restructure educational
programme in Indian college and university education.
6. Commercialization.
One of the adverse effects of Commercialization is that in our country education has become a
commodity of business. Taking full advantage of the situation the clever businessmen abandoned
their traditional businesses and started to invest in the education sector by opening new colleges and
universities because they saw huge monetary returns for meager investment. They are in education
just to make money not for any other sake. They give preference to their motive of earning maximum
profts.
7. Political Interference.
Political interference is one of the biggest challenges before higher education in India. In many
universities, political party based students unions are working. Some politicians want to exploit the
feeling of the students through students union. Teachers, Vice-Chancellors and many other staff of
the educational institutes are appointed by the infuence of political leaders and parties. Hence, the
quality of teaching as well as the administration of these institutes gets badly affected by the political
parties and leaders. (Kapur, 1975)
8. Inadequate Infrastructure.
As we know that infrastructural facilities are most important part of learning process. But in India most
of educational institutes belong to rural area and infrastructure of the rural areas institutes is in very
bad condition. Most teachers in rural institutes are teaching by chalk and talk. When, we compare this
system at the global scenario, we found that our educational system far away from the technological
advancement in the education system. According to a study only 20 per cent of the institutions have
the basic minimum laboratory equipment, suffcient books, journals and other facilities. Only few
urban institutes have advanced technology and learning equipment.
9. Medium of Instruction.
In our Colleges and Universities medium of instruction is generally English, except in a few universities
and colleges where the regional languages are being used as the medium in the under graduate classes.
There is a school of thought who advocates that English should be replaced by regional languages as the
medium of instruction at the university level as early as possible. The question has been engaging the
attention of the universities and the government for some time. The UGC appointed a committee to study
the problems likely to arise from a change in the medium of instruction, and its main recommendation
was that the change from English to Indian languages as media should be preceded by an adequate
preparation of teachers for the purpose and production of suitable textbooks and other literature needed
in the various languages. It was further recommended that, when the regional languages is made the
244
medium, English should continue to be a subject of study for all the students and care should be taken
to see that the standard of English was maintained.(Prophets of Education,2009)
10. Outdated Examination system.
Examination system in Indian education is outdated in todays dynamic world. Because this system
is related to memorial capabilities of the students, this system can not focus on his/her creative and
thinking abilities. Today it is very essential that, how the higher education can increase the creative
abilities of the students. All college and university students have to appear for fnal examination
designed to test what they have acquired over the years? The examination papers are set by external
examiners and are mainly of the essay type. The external examination is considered essential for the
maintenance of educational standard and is the only type of evaluation which has generally accepted
among the Indian educationists. Thus the infuence of the fnal public examination and the absence
of tutorial work have tended to lay an excessive stress on the memory rather than on understanding
and refection.
11. Unfavorable Attitude of the Government.
The state has understanding that, the investment in the educational institutions is unproductive,
therefore government does not invest much it may be due the reason that the return of educational
investment are late.
12. Mushrooming of Deemed and Private Universities.
Mushrooming of deemed and private institutes is another threat to the higher education system in
India. Actually the concept of deemed and private universities was proposed by the Radhakrishanan
Commission (1948-49).From 1956 until 1995, there were only 36 deemed universities. Their number
rose to 103 by February 2008.Indeed, between march1995 and March 2008 nearly 400 applications
were fled seeking deemed university status. At the time of the freeze ordered by Honorable Mr. Kapil
Sibal the total number of deemed universities stood at 127, of which the highest number, 29 is in
Tamilnadu, Maharashtra has 21 and Karnataka 15.Many of these universities are a far cry from the
original concept. (Frontline, 2009). The number of deemed and private universities is increasing day
by day. Many private deemed universities are predominantly concerned about revenue generation
rather than promoting academic and research activities.
13. Out-Dated Curriculum.
The syllabi of many universities reveal the extent of academic backwardness and mismatch between
the demand and the content of the curriculum. They spell out subjects which are neither job-oriented
nor self-employment oriented. When students enter the world of work, they are surprised that there
is hardly any job for the course they have studied and eventually throng the abode of unemployment.
(Ray, 2010)
Remedial Measures
1. There is a need to introduce new and technical courses; some tailor made courses according
to the market requirement should be introduced.
2. The government should not give permission for the establishment of traditional colleges and
permit only those courses that are needful to nation building and development of society.
3. Caste based reservation should be removed from higher education and it should be based on
socio-economic status.
4. The centre and state government should develop a separate infrastructural fund for educational
institutes for providing better infrastructural facilities.
5. Dropout rate of girls in higher education should be given due attention.
6. Examination system needs to be changed and it should be based on practice and creativity.
245
References
1. Chronicle Year Book (2010), Chronicle Publications,p.256
2. Chauhan, C.P.S (2010) Are We Heading Towards World-Class Universities, University News-Special Issue,
Vol. 48(28) July23-24, 2010, AIU, New Delhi, pp.27-35.
3. Frontline (2009), New Delhi, July2009, p.5.
4. Galgotia, S. (2011) Education Ascent the Hindu, p.6.
5. Higher Education (2011), National Informatics Center, Government of India., Retrieved on 10-01-2011
from http://www.education.nic.in/highdu.asp.
6. India Country Summary of Higher Education World Bank. Http://siteresources.worldbank.org,Retrieved
on 10-01-2011.
7. India (2009) A reference Annual (53
rd
Edition) p.237.
8. Kapur,J.N.(1975) Current Issues in Higher Education in India, New Delhi, S Chand and Co. Pvt Ltd,p.49.
9. Praveena, K.B& Srinivasan, K.S (2010), Privatization of Higher Education: problems and perspectives.
University News Vol. 48(49) Dec6-12, 2010, AIU, New Delhi, p.18.
10. Prophets of Education (2009) (Vol-29) World Higher Education (UNESCO), New Delhi, Sarup Book
Publishers Pvt Limited, p.235.
11. Ray, D.P (2010) Higher Education: New Challenges and Emerging Roles, University News, Vol.48 (28)
July 12-18, New Delhi, AIU, pp.72-75.
12. Shahnawaz,M. & Raza, M.H (2011) Challenges Before Higher Education in India, Paper Presented in the
International Conference in Bangalore University, Bangalore, on 3-5 Feb, 2011.
13. Singh, K.P. & Ahmad, A (2011) Higher Education In India: Major Concerns, University News, Vol.49 (29)
July 18-24, New Delhi, AIU, pp.1-5.
14. Yashpal Committee (2009), Report of the Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher
Education, Human Resource Development, New Delhi, p.49.
1.
246
LEGALITY OF ELECTRONIC CONTRACT IN
INDIAN LEGAL ENVIRONMENT
Azmat Ali,*
ABSTRACT
The usage of e-contracts has increased exponentially in the recent time. The present article attempted
to examine various dimensions and legality e-contract in Indian legal environment. The author attempts
to highlights legality in formation of e-contract and examine the inadequacies of the information
technology act, 2000.
INTRODUCTION
The Charles Babbage of England is considered as the father of modern computer who conceived an idea
to develop computer in 19th century. (WWW) the World Wide Web has brought new opportunities that
challenges to various people. The businesses utilize it for their beneft by expending their activities in
physical space in reach of the potential customers. Thus contracting becomes a fundamental element
in e-commerce world. The electronic contracting raises various new legal issues.
General notion is that the internet has brought us in the third wave society, which is likely to
make signifcant changes in the very foundation of every economy. Internet has offered tremendous
information incentives in all felds. Internet has fascinated online execution of commercial transaction
popularly called e-commerce. E-commerce transactions include buying and selling of goods
and services on the internet. It results from numerous electronic contracts between the parties who
are doing business.
It refers to paperless exchange of business information using electronic data interchange the
contracts on internet or the online contracts are also knows as human-less contracts. In this way, without
the interposition of human interaction both the offeree and the offerror may assent to the agreement
contemporaneously. The rules relating to the formation validity and enforcement of these contracts are
contained in the enactment and the parties are bound to abide by the stipulations and negative covenants
in that statue relating to the drafting of legal agreements. Chapter 3 of United Nations commission on
international trade laws model law addresses the law relating to the formation of contract concluded
electronically. It establishes that contract created by the exchange of data messages i.e. offer and
acceptance of offer , being in the form of data messages, are enforceable and cannot be denied validity
or enforceability on the sole ground that data messages were used for that purpose.
1) MEANING AND CONCEPT OF E-CONTRACT
E-Commerce has become a part of our daily life because E-Commerce has popularized by
superfuous technological advancement. E-Commerce means buying and selling goods and services
through online consumer services on the internet. Generally, the e word refers electronic, which
is used as prefx in commerce. The effectiveness of E-Commerce depends on electronically made
contracts. It is known as E-Contracts.
*Research Scholar, D/law,AMU,Aligarh
247
According to Sir William Anson, a contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more persons
by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearance on the part of the other or others.
It is made to assist people for formulating and implementing commercial contracts, E-Contract
assists in drafting and negotiating successful contracts for policies within e-businesses. It provides an
archetype contracts for the sale of products and supply of digital products and services to consumers
as well as businesses
1
. Consequently, Electronic Contracts is a legally enforceable promises or set of
promises that are concluded by electronic medium
2
. Similarly, an E-contract is a contract modelled,
executed and enacted by a software system. Computer programs works automate business processes
that govern by e-contracts. E-contracts can be mapped to inter-related programs, which have to
be specifed satisfy all the contract requirements. These programs are unable to handle complex
relationships between parties to an e-contract. It is an electronic or digital contract agreement drafted
and signed in an electronic form. An electronic agreement can be drafted in the same manner as
a normal hard copy agreement is drafted E-contract is a contract modelled, specifed, executed and
deployed by a software system
3
. E-contracts are conceptually quite similar to traditional (paper based)
commercial contracts. Vendors having presented their products, prices and terms, prospective buyers
consider their options, negotiate prices and terms (where possible) then they place orders and make
payments. After that, the vendors deliver the purchased products
4
.
(2) FORMATION OF ELECTRONIC CONTRACT
conventional law of contracts is not suffcient to address all
The issues are that arise in electronic contracts. Therefore, the Information Technology Act (IT Act) may
solve some of the peculiar issues that arise in the formation and authentication of electronic contracts
5
.
2.1) Essentials Of An Electronic Contract
The electronic contract requires the following necessary ingredients to the formation of E-contract..
2.1.1) Offer
In the transactions (whether online or conventional), the offer is not made directly one-on-one. The
consumer browses the goods and services, which is available on the merchants website and then
chooses what he likes to purchase.
Although, the offer is not made by website displaying the items for sale at a particular price, it is actually
an invitation to offer and can be revoke at any time before the time of acceptance. The customer on
placing the products in the virtual basket or shopping cart for payment therefore, makes the offer
6
.
An offer is distinguished from an invitation to treat. In invitation to treat, a person holds himself out as
ready to receive offers, which he may either accept or reject. This is not an offer but merely a preliminary
communication in any negotiation. The display of goods with price tag attached, advertisement, and
auction is to be considered as examples of invitation to treat. In the case of Eckhardt Marine GMBH
v.Sheriff Mahkamah Tinggi Malaya & Ors
7
, The Court of Appeal held that the advertisement is an
invitation to treat and the subsequent offer from the appellant created a binding contract.
2.1.2) Acceptance
When a valid offer is made, acceptance of offer is also to be made for the formation of a valid agreement.
It is necessary that the acceptance must be made while the offer is still open. Section 2(b) the Contract
Act states that when the person to whom the proposal is made signifes his assent thereto, the proposal
is said to have been accepted. A proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise. The acceptance must
be absolute and unqualifed
8
. The acceptance is often undertaken by the business after the offer has
been made by the consumer in connection with the invitation to offer. An offer may be revoked at any
time until the acceptance is made.
Modes of acceptance for forming electronic contract
2.1.2.1) E-mail
The communication of Offers and acceptances can be made entirely by e-mail, or can be combined
with paper documents, faxes, telephonic discussions
9
etc.
2.1.2.2) Web Site Forms:
The seller can offer goods or services (e.g. air tickets, software etc) on his website. The customer
248
places an order by completing and transmitting the order form available on the website. The goods
may be physically delivered later (e.g. in case of clothes, music CDs etc) or be immediately delivered
electronically (e.g. e-tickets, software,mp3
10
etc).
2.1.2.3) Online Agreements:
Users is need to accept an online agreement for avail the services e.g. clicking on I accept while
installing software or clicking on I agree while signing up for an email account
11
.
2.1.3)Lawful Consideration
Any contract to be enforceable by law must have lawful consideration
12
. The consideration means each
party of the contract must promise to do or give something for the other side in consideration. This
element of exchange is known as consideration. Section 26 of the Contracts Act says that a contract
without consideration is void. Consideration is an act, abstinence, or promise by a promisee or by
any other person at the desire of a promisor. The consideration may be of three types as executory,
executed and past consideration
13
. Therefore, if there is an auction site facilitates a contract between
two parties where one person provides a pornographic movie as consideration for purchasing an mp3
player, such a contract is void
14
.
2.1.4) INTENTION TO CREATE LEGAL RELATIONSHIP
An agreement to be enforceable by law must be made with the intention to be legally bound. So for
as, online contract is concerned, the existence of intent is normally automatic. However, an unclear or
deceptive web site may probably deceive the consumer by making an unwanted contract. There is need
to ensure that commercial web sites explicitly state the prices and terms of their digitalized services. The
customer should be able to go through a sub-sequence of web pages detailing the terms and conditions
of the transaction before making a purchase
15
. The EU Council Directive on E-Commerce says that
the e-shop owner should take three steps in contractual process before concluding the contract, as they
are offer, acceptance and acknowledgement of receipt. This will ensure that the acceptor knows that
he is going to enter into a valid contract and there will be legal consequences when there is a breach
16
.
2.1.5) CAPACITY TO FORM CONTRACT
All agreements are contract if they are made by free consent of the parties competent to contract. Every
person is competent if he is major, of sound mind and not disqualifed from contracting by any of the
existing law. As for as online contract is concerned, there is a possibility that minors may enter into
commercial contracts. Generally, a contract made by a minor is void. In the case of Mohori Bibee v.
Dhurmodas Ghose
17
, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council held that all agreement entered
into by the minors are void. Similarly, if a minor purchase goods online using his parents credit card,
the minor or his next friend will be able to recover any money paid, even if the contract is discovered
to be void. As a precautionary measure, the vendor should obtain as much information on the person
clicking the Accept button as possible for evidentiary purposes. The vendor should also obtain
specifc information from the purchaser, such as his/her name, address, age,
18
etc. The only possibility
for an e-business to enforce a contract entered into by a minor when the minor misrepresented or
cheated the other about his age.
3) INPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF ELECTRONIC CONTRACT-
The importance of electronic contracts is that it is much faster and convenient than the
conventional (paper based) form of contract. Now days, Business frms are facing huge pressure to
perform better, faster and cheaper services while maintaining high levels of guaranteed results. In
this new world of collaborative commerce and collaborative sourcing a standard business, process is
simply inadequate. The Conventional form of contracts using documents and all paper work are more
time taking and seems expensive than the new electronic forms
19
. Electronic contract has affected the
traditional roles and attitudes of sales and purchasing departments as well as lawyers. As there is an
important component for trusted e-business in a global environment, E-contracting will reduce time
to contract, improve the collaboration between the trading partners and reduce minimize fnancial
and legal risk.
In other words, E-contracting can not only protect contractual partners in electronic environment
249
but also reduce time to contract and reduce process costs. It can also provide new opportunities on
contract management, contract content re-use and contract monitoring.
There are several benefts of e- contracting listed below as
E- Contract avoids errors from the contractual documents.
The contents of the previous document can be re used after closing it just by saving it as
drafts.
E- Contract reduces the time for the contract.
It provides machine-process able document.
It minimizes risks in a contractual agreement for ad hoc business relationships over public
networks (such as internet).
It also reduces the contract managing cost
20
.
4) KINDS OF E-CONTRACT
These are basic forms of E-contract following as
1) The click wrap or web-wrap agreements.
2) The shrink wrap-agreements.
3) The electronic data interchange (EDI)
4.1) THE CLICKWRAP OR WEB-WRAP AGREEMENTS
A click-wrap agreement are those in which a party having gone through the terms and conditions
provided on the website or in program has to be indicated his assent to the same either by way of
clicking on an I Agree icon or decline the same by clicking I disagree. Such kind of contracts is
extensively used on the Internet, whether it be granting of a permission to access a site or downloading
of software or selling something by way of a website
21
. A buyer cannot use the software until he or she
has clicked on the button accepting the terms and conditions of the agreement. Click-wrap agreements
require buyer action to start use software but do not give guarantee cognizance of the agreement terms.
Buyers give assent to the contract without even reading it to use the product. Buyers cannot negotiate
and has to accept the terms as-is. Most courts fnd these agreements to be enforceable. There is no
doubt that click-wrap agreements may be accepted without users actually reading or understanding
contract terms when manifesting their assent
22
.
4.2) SHRINK WRAP-AGREEMENTS.
Shrink-wrap agreements have derived their name from the shrink-wrap packaging that contains
the CD Rom of Software. The terms and conditions of accessing the particular software are printed
on the shrink-wrap cover of the CD and the purchaser having gone through the same tears the cover
to access the CD Rom. Sometimes additional terms are also imposed in such licenses, which appear
on the screen when the CD is loaded to the computer. The user always has the option to return the
software for full refund if the new terms fnd unreasonable
23
. Similarly, Courts are concerned about
buyers actually receiving notice of the sale, consciously agreeing to the sale, and conditioning the
sale on acceptance of the license
24
.
4.3) ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE (EDI)
The Electronic Data Interchange means the electronic communication between trading
partners of structured business messages to common standards from computer application to computer
application. In other words, these are contracts used in trade transactions, which enables the transfer
of data from one computer to another. In this way, each transaction in the trading cycle (for example,
commencing from the receipt of an order from an overseas buyer, through the preparation and
lodgement of export and other offcial documents, leading eventually to the shipment of the goods)
can be processed virtually, no paperwork. In the other side, there is exchange of information and
completion of contracts between two computers and not an individual and a computer
25
.
The Electronic Data Interchange is the computer-to-computer transmission of information used
by contracting commercial parties to send and receive standard forms generally purchase orders
and invoices. Parties agree on the standardized terms of the transaction and transactions quotes and
250
automatic responses to them. Purchase orders are one of the most common uses of EDI. For example,
Wal-Mart, a large retailer, uses EDI repeatedly order large quantities of consumer goods for its thousands
of stores. EDI enables the ordering and invoicing of these goods between computer systems. Contract
offer, acceptance, and assent occur automatically
26
.
5 ) E- CONTRACT AND I NFORMATI ON TECHNOLOGY ACT, 200 0
27

Indian law provides for the authentication of electronic records by affxing a digital signature. The
law provides the use of an asymmetric crypto system and hash function and recommends standards
to be adhered.
Chapter IV of the Information Technology Act, 2000 contains sections 11, 12 and 13 and is titled
Attribution, Acknowledgment and Dispatch of
Electronic Records.
Attribution of Electronic Records
According to section 11 of the IT Act
11. An electronic record shall be attributed to the originator
(a) if it was sent by the originator himself;
(b) by a person who had the authority to act on behalf of the originator in respect of that electronic
record; or
(c) by an information system programmed by or on behalf of the originator to operate automatically.
According to section 2(1)(za) of the IT Act, originator is a person who:
1. sends, generates, stores or transmits any electronic message or
2. causes any electronic message to be sent, generated, stored or transmitted to any other person.
The term originator does not include an intermediary.
Acknowledgment of Receipt
According to section 12(1) of the IT Act
Where the originator has not agreed with the addressee that the acknowledgment of receipt of electronic
record be given in a particular form or by a particular method, an acknowledgment may be given by
(a) any communication by the addressee, automated or
otherwise; or
(b) any conduct of the addressee, suffcient to indicate to the originator that the electronic record has
been received.
Where the originator has stipulated that the electronic record shall be binding only on receipt of an
acknowledgment of such electronic record by him, then unless acknowledgment has been so received,
the electronic record shall be deemed to have been never sent by the originator.
Where the originator has not stipulated that the electronic
record shall be binding only on receipt of such acknowledgment, and the acknowledgment has not
been received by the originator within the time specifed or agreed or, if no time has been specifed
or agreed to within a reasonable time, then the originator may give notice to the addressee stating
that no acknowledgment has been received by him and specifying a reasonable time by which the
acknowledgment must be received by him and if no acknowledgment is received within the aforesaid
time limit he may after giving notice to the addressee, treat the electronic record as though it has
never been sent.
Time and place of dispatch and receipt
Save as otherwise agreed to between the originator and the addressee, the dispatch of an electronic
record occurs when it enters a computer resource outside the control of the originator.
Save as otherwise agreed between the originator and the addressee, the time of receipt of an electronic
251
record shall be determined as follows, namely:
(a) If the addressee has designated a computer resource for the purpose of receiving electronic records,
(i) Receipt occurs at the time when the electronic record enters the designated computer resource;
Or
(ii) If the electronic record is sent to a computer resource of the addressee that is not the designated
computer resource, receipt occurs at the time when the addressee retrieves the electronic record;
(b) If the addressee has not designated a computer resource along with specifed timings, if any, receipt
occurs when the electronic record enters the computer resource of the addressee.
Save as otherwise agreed to between the originator and the addressee, an electronic record is deemed to
be dispatched at the place where the originator has his place of business, and is deemed to be received
at the place where the addressee has his place of business.
.
The provisions of sub-section (2) shall apply notwithstanding that; the place where the computer
resource is located may be different from the place where the electronic record is deemed to have
been received under sub-section (3).
For the purposes of this section,
(a) If the originator or the addressee has more than one place of business, the principal place of
business, shall be the place of business;
(b) If the originator or the addressee does not have a place of business, his usual place of residence
shall be deemed the place of business;
(c) Usual place of residence, in relation to a body corporate, means the place where it is registered.
CONCLUTION
It may be said that electronic contracts are quite similar to the hardcopy contract. All
electronic contracts are valid as legalised by the information technology act and one could be liable
if there is any infringement with the terms and conditions. When contracts are formed online without
human interaction, there is possibility of facing new problems and grievances. The contract formation
issues are usually arisen when one purchases goods or services online.
E-contract is a contractual agreement, represented in digital information and signed with electronic
signature of the parties. E-contract helps in drafting and negotiating successful contracts for consumer
and business e-commerce as well as related services. It is designed to assist people in formulating
and implementing commercial contractual policies within e-businesses. It contains model contracts
for the sale of products and supply of digital products and services to both consumers and businesses.
The e-contracts have their own merits and demerits. On one hand the reduce costs, save
time, reducing paper work, hence increasing automation. E-Commerce is expected to improve
the productivity and competitiveness of participating business by providing unprecedented access
to an online global market and place with millions of customers as well as thousands of products
and services. On the other hand, in Electronic Contract, the proposal focus not on humans who
make decisions on specifc transactions, but on now risk should be structured in an automated
environment. Although e-contracts are legalized in, India by information technology act, 2000 (as
amended in 2008) but still majority feels insecure while dealing online. This is due to the felling of
insecurity amongst consumers while dealing online. Electronic contracts are almost same as other
hand copy contracts as for as evidentiary value is concerned.
252
(Endnotes)
1 Raina,KapilEvidentiary Value Of E-Contracts visted at http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l127-E-
Contracts.html, kapilraina@legalserviceindia.com
2 Jawahitha,Sarabdeen & Hamid ,Noor Raihan ab, electronic contract and the legal environment,www.irfd.
org/events/ wf2003/papers_global/r38.pdf
3 Electronic Contracts- A Basic Understanding http://www.lexvidhi.com/article- details/electronic- contracts-
a-basic-understanding-41.html
4 Khandelwal, Rishabh, understanding e contracts and its impacts visited at http://accessindia.org.in/
pipermail/accessindia_accessindia.org.in/2009-july/028297.html,email at mukesh.jain57 at gmail.com
5 Nagpal, Rohas, Ecommerce - Legal Issues pub. Asian School of Cyber Laws ,visted at www.asianlaws.
orglibrarycyber-lawselectronic-contracts.pdf
6 ibid
7 [2001] 3 CLJ 864
8 Jawahitha, Sarabdeen & Hamid, Noor Raihan Ab, electronic contract and the legal environment,www.irfd.
org/events/wf2003/papers_global/r38.pdf
10 ibid
11 ibid
12 ibid
16 ibid
17 (1903) 30 Cal 539; 30 1 a114, PC (India)
19 Xu, Lai and Vrieze, Poul de,E-contracting challenges(2005) CSIRO ICT centre Australia
20 ibide
21 Electronic Contracts- A Basic Understanding http://www.lexvidhi.com/article-details/electronic-contracts-a-
basic-understanding-41.html
22 Khandelwal, Rishabh Understanding E Contracts And Its Impacts visited at http://accessindia.org.in/
pipermail/accessindia_accessindia.org.in/2009-July/028297.html,Email at mukesh.jain57 at gmail.com
23 ibid
24 Supra note.22
25 Electronic Contracts- A Basic Understanding http://www.lexvidhi.com/article-details/electronic-contracts-
a-basic-understanding-41.html
26 Khandelwal ,Rishabh Understanding E Contracts And Its Impacts visited at http://accessindia.org.in/piper-
mail/accessindia_accessindia.org.in/2009-July/028297.html,Email at mukesh.jain57 at gmail.com
253
DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE
AND STATUS OF MALNUTRITION AMONG
MARGINAL FARM FAMILIES IN U. S. NAGAR OF
UTTARANCHAL STATE
Dr. Kusum Lata*
ABSTRACT
Even though self suffciency of food production has been achieved, the population still lacks access
to balanced food. The subjects of marginal farm under study were observed to have per capita intake
of cereals near to recommended quantities. However, consumption of pulses, vegetables and milk was
found far below the requirements which led to various types of malnutrition. 36.12 percent subjects
suffered from chronic energy defciency, 21.63 per cent from low weight and 11.76 per cent from
obesity of grade II.
INTRODUCTION
Poverty is one of the greatest enemies of our country. About 36 per cent of the population still lives
below poverty line. The attainment of food security is going to be the biggest challenge for the country
in the future. In India about 53 per cent of farmers are marginal having cultivated land up to one ha.
The attainment of food security on such farms would also be a great problem. Such farms are also
characterized by low productivity of crops and low level of farm income which in turn affects level
of consumption of foods and nutritional status.
Diversifcation of agriculture is being advocated as an effective ways of raising farm income
specially of marginal and small farms. In view of these facts, it was considered pertinent to examine
the degree of diversifcation of agriculture and its effect on availability of foods and level of farm
income, level of consumption of various foods and prevalence of malnutrition among family members
of marginal farms in U. S. Nagar district of Uttaranchal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in Rudrapur block of U.S. Nagar, district of Uttaranchal.
From Rudrapur block, 4 villages were selected randomly. 50 marginal farmers from all the four villages
were selected in probability proportional to their numbers. The study pertained to the year 2002 03.
ANALYTICAL TOOLS
Ai
n
1 i
Ai
Pi
=
=
Where, Pi = proportion of income of i
th
crop or milch animals in the total farm income
Ai = net income from i
th
crop or milch animals in total farm income
Total net income generated by all crops and milch animals were calculated using the formula :

Ai
n
1 i=
*Assistant Professor, School of Nutrition, Food Science and Technology College of Agriculture, Hawassa
University
254
where, i = 1, 2------------n
n = number of crops and milch animals
For determining degree of diversifcation of agricultural production, Composite Entropy Index
(CEI) in revenue form was computed using following formula.
The composite entropy index was calculated by using following formula :

=
=
n
1
1 Pi n log
n
1 i
C.E.I.

The value of C.E.I. increases with increase in numbers of crops and milch animals and ranges between
0-1.
For calculating net farm income, per capita per day availability of various foods, descriptive
statistics like average, percentage were used.
The various types of malnutrition among subjects were determined by computing body mass
index (BMI). From view point of malnutrition, subjects were categorized as chronic energy defcient
grade I (mild), grade II (moderate), grade III (severe), normal, obese grade I, obese grade II.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
DEGREE OF DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND LEVEL OF
FARM INCOME ON VARIOUS SIZE OF MARGINAL FARMS
Results related to diversifcation coeffcient and magnitude of farm income has been presented
in Table 1. Depending upon the cultivated area possessed by marginal farmers, they were classifed
in to four classes i.e. farmers having cultivated land as 0.40, 0.60, 0.80 and 1.0 ha, respectively. The
overall size of farm was 0.736 ha.
A perusal of Table 1 indicated that degree of diversifcation did not bear any trend of relationship
with size of cultivated land. The highest diversifcation of production was observed of farm on 0.80 ha
and minimum at 0.40 ha size of farm as indicated by the value of diversifcation coeffcients. Farmers
derived farm income from two sources i.e. crops and milch animals. The contribution of milch animals
in total farm income ranged between 11.35 and 25.22 per cent. Thus, mixed farming was a dominant
feature of marginal farms. Being small size of holding, farmers did not get employment throughout
the year on the farm, hence farmers earned non farm income through wages, services pettyshop etc.
More than 50 per cent of the total income was derived through non farm income sources on all size of
farms except one hectare size. The farm income varied between Rs. 21463 and 46543 and non farm
income between 31650 and 50310 on various sizes of marginal farms.
PER CAPITA/DAY INTAKE OF IMPORTANT FOOD MATERIALS AND DEVIATION FROM
RECOMMENDED QUANTITIES BY ICMR
The average size of family in term of adult units, per capita per day income and per capita
actual food intake on various sizes of marginal farms have been presented in Table 2.
As in evident from Table 2, the size of family varied between 4.75 and 6 units. The overall
family size was 5.26. Per capita per day income ranged between Rs. 30 and 54. The minimum per
capita per day income was Rs. 30 on the farm size of 0.40 ha while maximum of Rs. 54 was found
on farm size of 0.8 ha. However, the overall per capita per day income observed was Rs. 39. Infact,
per capita per day income did not show any defnite relationship with size of farm.
An analysis of food intake indicated that, the consumption of cereals was more than 95 per cent
of the recommended quantity on farm of 0.80 and 1 ha while it was upto 95 per cent on the remaining
two categories i.e. 0.40 and 0.6 ha. Thus, the cereal intake by the subjects was near to recommended
quantities. The consumption level of pulses and vegetables on all the categories of farm was quite
low. Consumption of pulses ranged between 25.13 g and 29.29 g as against recommended quantity
of 60 g. Similarly consumption of vegetables was also found quite low ranging between 64.38 g and
88.02 g. Thus, status of vegetable consumption was much disappointing compared to pulses. The
consumption of milk was found to be better compared to pulses and vegetables. It happened because
255
most of the sample farmers had maintained milch cows or buffaloes.
However, the overall result indicated that subjects under study were defcient in the matter of
pulses, vegetables and milk consumption. Anyhow, the status of cereal consumption was comfortable
compared to intake of other three food materials.
STATUS OF MALNUTRITION AMONG SUBJECTS OF MARGINAL FARM FAMILIES
The problem of malnutrition among the subjects of study was identifed in the form of chronic
energy defciency, low weight and obesity. The result pertaining to these aspects have been given
in Table 3. Table 3 reveals that 10.23 per cent subjects were suffering from severe chronic energy
defciency while percentage of subjects suffering from mild CED was 6.19. About 19.7 per cent
subjects suffered from mild CED. Thus, of the total subjects under study, 36.12 per cent were observed
to suffer from various types of chronic energy defciency. The problem of low weight was found in
21.63 per cent subjects. Obesity was also found in the subjects and around 50 per cent subjects were
affected from this malady.
Table 3 : Percentage of subjects suffering from various types of malnutrition
Types of malnutrition Percentage of subjects
Chronic energy defcient grade-I (mild) CED-I) 19.70
CED grade-II (moderate) 6.19
CED grade III (severe) 10.23
Low body weight but normal 21.63
Normal 92.14
Obese grade-I 38.74
Obese grade-II 11.76
REFERENCES
ICMR. 1990. Nutritional requirements recommended dietary allowances for Indians. Hyderabad National
Institute of Nutrition. p 83 .
Haque, T. 1995. Regional trends of pattern of diversifcation of the rural economy in India. Indian Journal of
Agril. Economics. 40 (3) : 291 297.
Saleth, R. M. 1997. Diversifcation strategy for small farmers and landless : some evidence from Tamil Nadu.
Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 52 (1) : 73 86.
Department of Agricultural Economics, C. S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur 1996.
Study on diversifcation of Agriculture in district Farrukhabad. Uttar Pradesh : An Economic Analysis.
256
FACTS AND FICTION: HOW CLOSE AND HOW
FAR? A BRIEF STUDY OF SELECT NOVELS BY
AMITAV GHOSH
Dr. Nazia Hasan*
History has been a compelling and motivating force in the writings of Indian English fction. Though,
the subject matter of the earlier writers may not be termed as history, but they did depict the social
and political scenario of their times. However, later those very issues and events became part of our
history. Historical themes come naturally to most of the writers because past can always be drawn
upon to explain the present. When we do it consciously, it becomes a post-colonial move in todays
terminology. The seminal work of Raja Rao, Kanthapura took lead as a historical novel and soon
became a beacon of light and direction for major novels like Waiting for the Mahatma, Inquilab, Azadi,
Train to Pakistan, Midnights Children, The Shadow Lines and many more. What is common to all
these novels spanning a period of around ffty years is their refection of history.
Meenakshi Mukherji, very accurately describes the early novels written in India as narratives of
resistance (1974:36) to the experience of colonisation and slavery in so many forms. In its evolutionary
period, the Indian novel found features of history and national movement seeping quite naturally and
imperceptibly in the thematic fabric. These novels show that use of history was not only ardent but also
extensive. Most of the times, its use assumes a a signifcance beyond mere factuality. Rather, authors
fctionalize facts to create a beautiful confuence of history, myths, philosophy and metaphysics. The
present paper looks at the rich oeuvoir of Amitav Ghoshs fctions in the light of history. He adds
Anthropology, Geography and Economics as well, bringing his tales and telling closer to life and its
reality; that too in a distinguished manner. His is an ingenious experiment, being artistically richer
as well. It becomes more of a motif, a metaphor, a centre than just a background or an outline with
writers like Rao, Rushdie, Ghosh, Tharoor and Qurraitulain Hyder. Most of these writers are found
to be confding in history consciously or unconsciously, making it a perennial and celebrated theme.
Amitav Ghoshs works intimately relate to history. The sweeping changes brought by New Historicism
fnd a direct refection in his fctions, telling of facts of the bygone eras in a humane mode, looking at
the unseen aspects, going beyond the mainstream. He rejects the meta-narratives to relish the small
details which make any life worth living and recording. His multiple variances and playful manner
of subverting the offcial version of history with a seriously scholarly keenness make his writings
interesting and incisive. The Circle of Reason, The Shadow Lines,The Glass Palace and most of the
others present history as a collective memory, gathering past and present in a symbiotic fashion.
He never encapsulates the facts rigidly, rather lets them fow to fnd shape in the patterns of time,
fctionalized yet retaining their strengths of truth. In his craft, it becomes more of a continuous process,
fashioned by a transformed view and marked by a constant change.
Amitav Ghosh reinforces the legacy of post-colonial fction in his peculiar treatment of history. His
works emphasize upon the need to revise and relocate history in the present context. His vision, as
refected in his writings, stand in close proximity to the views of the renowned historian and philosopher,
Edward H. Carr who defnes history as a continuous process of interaction between the historian and
*Womens College, AMU.
257
his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past (1962: 12). History is thus, a bridge
joining the society of today and that of yesterday. It is not an abstract and isolated body of knowledge.
Past makes sense to us only in the light of the present, having an important role to play I helping our
observation and understanding of the present.
The seminal novel entitled The Circle of Reason (1986) is an attempt to trace the history of a young,
newly independent nation like India. It does not claim to provide a case history or to recapitulate the
saga of bygone times directly. But some important parts of Indian history have been hinted to; as the
early reactions to Western sciences, the unknown village traders, craftsmen, silk weavers from Bengal
and Kerala making their way to the illustrated parts of the world, their contribution in making India
known for its hidden wealth, the separation of Bangladesh as a nation and its bloody aftermath are
some important events that the book talks about. The central character, young Alus escape from one
place to other in search of security and the ever elusive home adds a tragic lilt to the story. Ghosh
proves it true that history is a trajectory of events that causes dislocations, disjunctions, movements
and migrations which eventually replace solid markers with the shadow lines and destabilize our
notions of the past in the reverberations of the present (2003: 15). The protagonists embarking on a
new journey Towards the West, after a long winding sojourn through Bengal, Kerala, Al Oued and
others replicates the same. Colonisation worked as a force of moving populations from one place to
another for various reasons as Sea of Poppies depicts so tenderly. Ila and Thamma in The Shadow Lines
(1988) are in the same league of moving populations even after years of the long awaited independence.
They are victims of displaced, divided, partitioned and globalised diaspora lives. Their very beings are
deeply overshadowed by the 1971 partition of east Bengal, the wars with China and Pakistan, the very
close riots of 1964 and 1984 so much so that even an escape to the power-packed colourful West,
i.e London, does not fnd them salvation. That land of worldly riches and English dreams also bears
the unforgettable wounds of world wars. The novel makes a signifcant statement on the meaning of
political freedom, nationalism, migration and dislocation of people; all ravaged by the moves and
turns of history and history in the making. It also shows how man indeed is handcuffed to history
(1995: 09) as claimed by Saleem Sinai.
The other two novels are post-colonial renderings in the empire writing back mode. The cyber novel,
The Calcutta Chromosome (1995) takes the Eurocentric dualisms set up by the west between science
and mysticism which incited the Edward Saidian revolt in Orientalism. India and the East taken as just
the Other, the exotic Orient without mind or conscience, was not just unfair on the Western part but
they also lost on it. As Tabish Khair points out the failure of say Roland Ross, the state scientist or
D.D. Cunningham to discover the Calcutta chromosome and the ability of Mangala-Lakhan, the native
savages to do so, stems from the failure of the colonisers concept of rationality in comprehending the
colonial subaltern (2001:307). It is a discursive defeat and an index of alienation on the Occidents
part. In a way, Ghosh tries to restore a history to the Orient, the long suppressed subaltern at both
national and international levels.
Ghosh performs the same responsibility in In an Antique Land (1994), of restoring historicity to the
Egyptian Fellah people and the Indian coastal life. He shows how they were in a closer relationship in
the 11
th
century and have seen better days as friends than they do today. Western colonialism impending
on both of these rich lands played havoc, damaging not only the economic, political life but also severed
the cordial links binding the oldest of the two civilizations. Their natural umbilical cord was torn in
the vested acts of European explorers and traders between the two mystical and mysterious places.
They tampered with their history itself by emptying the Egyptian Genizas religious and scholarly
writings and records. What Ranajit Guha called dominance within hegemony proved true for this
earliest of civilizations. Both of these two cultures, two religions and communities which fowered
together before the fall of colonialism upon them, have been made to drift apart in indifference to
such an extent that the past seems a lie, an impossibility- erasing a large chunk of its history. Today
few know the vanished truth of relationship centuries ago.
Thus, colonialism came as a jolt, a sandstorm setting curtains of anonymity on a particular phase of
258
our shared history. Ghosh tries to lift out that dense and dark mask in a glaring world of indifference
around. He writes, the remains of those small indistinguishable, intertwined histories, Indian and
Egyptian, Muslim and Jewish, Hindu and Muslim, had been partitioned long ago (IAAL: 399),
unfortunately this partitioning had achieved unexpected success. Ghoshs endeavour in relocating a
lost archive is simply daring because few care about such forgotten parts of history. He knows the
repercussion of popular discourses which get wider audience day by day. But Ghosh writes with hope
that all these discourses and narratives, these fndings and revelations may be accredited somewhere
in the future. He re-conceptualizes the very process of remembering the past and there is an implicit
emphasis on a friendlier and frontier-less world. His books hint at a world where secular, harmonious
life is possible as was there in the 13
th
century when the same religions, customs and communities
defned people across the oceans. The past can be helpful in understanding and improving our present.
All these features make In an Antique Land a unique and vital attempt towards the documentation of
South Asian history and the discovery of anew history, a new world.
The Glass Palace (2000) deals with the burden of the colonial past that keeps the whole Indian
subcontinent heaving even today; and how a migrant post-colonial generation is weighed down by
it. The Shadow Lines narrator here comes back in the persona of Jaya, the granddaughter of the
protagonist. The novel sensitively talks about people displaced and dislocated by the march of
history. It reinforces such peoples efforts to collect bits of their fractured pasts to gain a lost legacy,
an identity. The Glass Palace witnesses the tempest of colonialism and how it leveled all with its
force. The monarchs were deported, the common people enslaved and dislocated- a hopeless world,
a radar-less periphery became their destiny. But the struggle for survival can change the course of
history; any spectator will approve that. Ghoshs fction provides a more convincing history, and perhaps
South East Asia never got such an incisively historical treatment I any other fctional writing. No
doubt, Ghosh turned down the Commonwealth Writers Prize of 2001 for this novel which questions
the very concept of a third world!
The Hungry Tide (2004) is another novel standing for Ghoshs concern for the individual against a
broader historical and geographical backdrop. It is set in the Sunderban, one of the largest mangroves
of the world, stretching across coastal India and Bangladesh. It makes the natural habitat of the Bengal
tigers and the Gangetic dolphins. But as a stroke of Colonisation, the land parts are also shared by the
deported human society. It leads to confrontations between local populace and the natural habitats,
making a part of the history behind this novel. The tides constant attack upon he land uproots everything
aiming at permanence even of a foreign government! Ghosh takes it as a symbol for the ebb and fow
of history. The characters Piya, Nirmal, Nilima, Fokir and all others are unhistorical individuals but
they exhibit a capacity to change lives and views. Thus, the novel boasts of a revolution from below,
standing for the subaltern power and consciousness. Once again, Ghosh ripples the waves of offcial
history in The Hungry Tide.
Conclusively, we fnd that each of the novel by Ghosh depicts his deepening love and passion for
unravelling facts. He brings out the hidden and suppressed histories in the garb of fction, proving
that reality indeed is stranger than fction!
REFERENCES:
1. Bose, Brinda. Amitav Ghosh: Critical Perspectives, Delhi: Pencraft International, 2003.
2. Carr, Edward H. What is History? The George Macaulay Trevelyan Lectures, London: Macmillan and
Co. Ltd, 1962.
3. Ghosh, Amitav. In an Antique Land, Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1992.
4. Ghosh, Amitav. The Circle of Reason, Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1986.
5. Ghosh, Amitav. The Glass Palace, Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 2000.
6. Ghosh, Amitav. The Hungry Tide, London: Harper Collins, 2004.
7. Ghosh, Amitav. The Shadow Lines, Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1988.
259
8. Guha, Ranajit. Dominance within hegemony and its historiography, Subaltern Studies: Writings on
south Asian History and Society, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982.
9. Khair, Tabish. Amitav Ghoshs The Calcutta Chromosome: The question of subaltern agency, Babu
Fictions: Alienation in Contemporary Indian English Novels, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
10. Mukherji, Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction, New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann, 1974.
11. Rushdie, Salman. Midnights Children UK: Vintage, 1995.
260
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING,
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT; ITS IMPACTS ON
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
Dr. Mohd Ashraf Ali* , Sarfaraz Javed**
ABSTRACT:
Training and development of employees is critical in organizations in this era of competition due to the
fact that organizations need to survive, grow and develop. Consequentially, training and development
has become an issue of strategic importance. Although many scholars have conducted research on
training and development practices in organizations in both developing and developed economies, it
is worth mentioning that most of the research has concentrated on the benefts of training in general.
There is however, limited focus on evaluation of training and development practices in organizations
and yet, training and development of employees is critical for the survival and growth of any entity.
Enhancing organizational effectiveness is one of the main concerns of every organization in recent
years. In addition, leadership development is a process that can improve the organizational effectiveness
and its performance. This study introduces the training activities and knowledge sharing as two
variables which impact on the relation of leadership development on organizational effectiveness
and help to enhance the organizational effectiveness. The results of this study show that by using the
training activities and knowledge sharing with the enhancement of leadership development,
the organizational effectiveness would enhance. In addition, six training activities are introduced as
the most important methods in this study. These activities are Case study, Role play, Action
learning, 360 degree feedback, Job rotation, and Job assessment. Highlighting the importance
of the issue may encourage the other researchers to work on different aspects of the study. It might
aware the organizations managers and make them pay more attention to grow their future leaders,
and make them focus on training the leaders by different methods and promote knowledge sharing to
be more competitive and effective.
Keywords: training activity, knowledge sharing, leadership development, organizational effectiveness
1. INTRODUCTION:
Good leadership makes a signifcant impact on organizational success. Bennis (1987) asserted that
the leadership in each organization is the factor that enables the workforce and determines success or
failure in those organizations. The attitudes, behaviors, and actions that were previously successful are
suddenly no longer effective and new requirements continue to emerge for modern leaders, employees,
and organizations. Size, role clarity, specialization, and control which were old organizational success
factors have shifted to some new concepts such as speed, fexibility, integration, and innovation.
Many studies suggested that effective leadership development has positive effects on organizational
performance and outcomes .According to Llewellyn (2002), organizational effectiveness outcome
is achieved through strategic design created by leadership. Skilled leaders who have the ability to
carry out strategic tasks and transfer knowledge tend to develop effective environments. The focus
of current organizational issues apparently is on a leaders ability .Effective leaders believed training
will improve organizational results. Leadership development, Employee development and training
*Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, AMU Aligarh
**Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, AMU Aligarh
261
are essential parts of successful organizations. Leadership development is a process that improves
leadership capabilities and organizational performance. Enhancing leadership effectiveness in
organizations through uncertainty and changing environment is the main purpose of the leadership
development programs. Training is considered as the process of upgrading the Knowledge, developing
skills, bringing about attitude and behavioral changes, and improving the ability of the trainee to
perform tasks effectively and effciently in organizations (Wills, 1994; Palo et al, 2003; Robert et al,
2004). Similarly, Stewart (1996) combines the two concepts of training and development and gives
an organization function which has the outcome of ensuring that the contribution of individuals and
groups in achieving the organizational objectives through the development of appropriate knowledge,
skills and attitude of the employees.It is widely accepted that training is necessary to develop
leaders and has an effect on leadership development and organizational effectiveness. On the other
hand, knowledge sharing is an important issue that has an infuence on organizational development,
performance and also, organizational effectiveness. Therefore, this study proposed training activities
and knowledge sharing as two important variables in the relationship between leadership development
and organizational effectiveness.
2. Training Activities: Training is transferring information to organizations members to positively
improve the effectiveness and productivity of organizations. Training enables organizations to act
more effectively because of having valued employees. Training is also needed to develop new leaders.
There are many benefts to both organization and individuals to accomplish training activities. Training
makes employees feel that they are part of the organizations family. Training creates the sense of
belonging in all employees. He believes that with training activities, while the organization will be
more successful at attracting and retaining employees, it already has a pool of employees who are
prepared to replace the ones leaving.Leadership is changing as the world is and therefore, the theories
of training are changing. It is obvious that old training pedagogy are not suitable for new leadership
skills trainings especially with the increasing pace of management methods introduced these days.
In traditional ways of learning there are many things to teach and memorize but in reality, using
and understanding them are not easy. Furthermore, it is a fact that in direct practice especially in
learning activities like lecture, reading and writing the concept of lessons will be forgotten more
easily .Enhancing the skills of employees is the aim of training and development. It creates the
professional development and enhances the employees skills. It also makes knowledgeable workforce
with fewer mistakes. Increasing job satisfaction and employee morality, enhancing the employee
motivation, improving the effciencies in processes and fnancial gain, raising the ability to obtain new
technologies, developing the innovation in strategies and products and reducing employee turnover
are other important benefts of training. Noe (2002) also mentioned other benefts of training such as
better prepared employee to achieve the organizational goals, more productive staff that are able to
meet the challenges of change in the organization during learning and work on new programs.
Training and development are designed to have these benefts. To harmonize with the changes in
organizations, development of training programs is becoming more challenging for organizations
to be meaningful. Many researchers used some practices for leader and leadership development
including 360-degree feedback, networking, action learning, specifc job assignments, corporate case
studies, computer simulations, experiential learning. Hernez-Broone& Hughes (2004) concluded that
mentoring, job assignment, 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, and action learning are the
most prevalent leadership development practices in the 21st century. Furthermore, Naquin (2006)
asserted that leadership development training programs should include a variety of methods, such as
lectures, case study analysis, role playing and group discussion. Grove (2007) stated that 360 degree
feedback, executive 173 coaching and mentoring, networking, job assignments and action learning
as important leadership development methods. These traditional or conventional trainings might be
formal or informal. Sometimes employees feel that trainings do not provide them with suffcient skills
or knowledge. The improper trainings can result conficts between employees and their organizations
262
and this would impact on the organization performance and effectiveness.
Training and development in the organizations will improve the employees job satisfaction,
performance and commitment. This will lead the organizations toward their goals.Training is essential
for leadership development success. Conger (1992) believes that training plays a vital role in leadership
development. Bennis and Nanus (1997) also believe in the power of training leaders. When they stated
that major capacities and competencies of leadership can be learned, they asserted that training can
affect people in a way that it can change them to become a successful leader.As the pace of life in
societies is increasing, the rate of changes in the organizations is increasing as well.
3. Evaluation Of Training And Development Practices: Based on the management axiom nothing
will improve until it is measured, the training programmes have to be assessed in terms of the
programme itself, of the behavior outside the training environment and whether or not it has desired
effect. In other words, training has to be assessed in terms of training transfer (Wickramasinghe, 2006).
Evaluation determines the effect of training at individual, departmental and organizational levels
(Willis, 1998). Though several approaches are used to evaluate training programme in organization
but there is no one best way of evaluation, just as there is no best way to train employees. Training
results can be best identifed mainly on the organizational performance which is triggered by employee
performance. This involves the comparison of statistical indicators of performance before and after
training took place. The measurement indicators include sales volume and revenue, levels of customer
complaints, quality and quantity variables in cost reduction, productivity ratios, cost ratios in terms
of stock level and debt collection periods and industrial relations (labour turnover rates; absenteeism,
grievances) (Thomas, 1992). Moreover, effective training can be gauged by the capacity of trainees to
apply knowledge, skills and abilities gained in training to their work environment and maintain them
over time in their job contexts (Pidd, 2004; Pearsons, 2002) .However, (Berman et al, 2001) argues that
training effectiveness is onstrained because of inadequate transfer of learning from training environment
to workplace environment.(Berman et al, 2001) also critics the current belief that effective training is
necessary, the argument is that training is not suffcient in improving performance. This line of argument
emphasizes that no discussion of the effectiveness of training would be complete without considering
the role of human resource utilization. However, most training attempts to improve the organization
and process performance by addressing only one level (the job level) and only one dimension of the
job level (skills and knowledge). As a result the training has no signifcant long term, training oney
is wasted, and trainees are frustrated and confused. If inappropriate training method is used then the
results will not play any role into the business organization, which will be waste of resources. (Rolf,
2002) outlines some of theconsequences of inadequate training as poor planning skills and decision
making, which in turn will impair the organizations proft and success. Other symptoms of inadequate
training include overtime, high labour turnover and poor employee morale.
4. Knowledge Sharing:In fact knowledge sharing is an important factor that has an infuence on
organizational development and performance. In general, knowledge sharing has benefted at both
individual and organizational level. At the individual level, the opportunity for employees to develop
their skills and performance will be provided by knowledge management which is made possible
when these employees work together and share their knowledge.Knowledge sharing is considered as
an important process of knowledge management. Lee (2001) defned knowledge sharing as activity
of transferring or disseminating knowledge from one person, group, and organization to another.
Knowledge sharing means individuals willingness to share what they have or have created in an
organization. There are many opportunities which will be created through knowledge sharing that can
help maximize the ability of organizations to meet the needs and to create solutions which is business
advantage. In addition knowledge management has two important benefts at the organizational level.
Open exchange of information, accessibility of coworkers, confrming and cooperative interactions
and an overall culture of sharing knowledge, all affect various communication climates. Furthermore,
263
reward system as one of the aspects of organizational climate critically drives from knowledge sharing.
First, throughincreasing effciency, productivity, quality and innovation the organizational performance
will be improved; which later better decision making, improving process, data integration and broad
collaboration will emerge. Many authors found positive relationship of knowledge management and
leadership characteristics such as sharing vision, team working, innovating, problem solving,
trust and communication. Allee (2000) stated that providing the ways in which individuals can
share their knowledge support the leaders needs of inspiring a shared vision. Knowledge sharing is
also the most important element of innovation. According to Lin (2007), one of the factors that enable
the organizations to develop innovation and creative abilities is the employee willingness to donate
and collect the knowledge. In addition, Berends (2005) emphasizes the role of knowledge sharing in
problem solving. Best knowledge management planning builds trust which aids to reduce cultural
barriers and changes the way of sharing knowledge between individuals and groups. Helesen (1996)
explained that as leaders need to walk the talk, showing the leaders interest to knowledge sharing may
help. Knowledge sharing is a type of communication. Aligning leaders and individuals toward the
organizational vision would be supported by communities of practice which is known as a knowledge
sharing activity. Greengard (1998) explained that knowledge sharing will build an environment where
sharing can take place in group thinking, giving rewards, and developing personal skills. Knowledge
sharing leads to higher team performance. Its valuable effect on team coordination and decision making
leads to improve team working.
5. Discussion and Conclusion: In conclusion, this study introduces training activities and knowledge
sharing as two important requirements for enhancing the organizational effectiveness. Performing
a quantitative approach to fnd out the importance of each factor as a moderator in the relationship
between leadership development and organizational effectiveness is useful for other researcher and
would be the next step to continue this study. Better innovation thinking, better decision making and
better communication also, explained as more important results of knowledge sharing. They asserted
that in the process of Leadership development will improve if the managers and employees pay more
attention to collecting and donating the knowledge the organizational outcomes.
6. REFERENCES
S. Killian, Designing Leadership Development Initiatives: Clarifying the Why, Who, What, How and
When.Development and Learning in Organizations. 2010, 15-18.
W. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader. Wilmington, MA : Perseus Books Group, 1989.
Daft, R. L. Management. 7. Mason. OH : South-Western College, 2005.
Bandura, Toward A Psychology of Human Agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science.2006, 1(2):
164-180.
F. Amagoh, Leadership Development and Leadership Effectiveness. Management Decision. 2009,
47(6):989-999.
M. Sashkin, W. Burke, Understanding and Addressing Organizational Leadership In: K. E. Clark and M.
B. Clark.Measures of Leadership. West Orange, NJ : Leadership Library of America, 1990, pp. 52-58.
N. Llewellyn, When to Call the Organizational Doctor. Human Resources Magazine.2003, 47(3):79-81.
E. Walton, S. Dawson, Managers Perceptions of Criteria of Organizational Effectiveness. ournal of
ManagementReview. 2001, 7:418-428.
J. E. Barbuto, M. E. Burbach, The Emotional Intelligence of Transformational Leaders: A Field Study
of ElectedOffcials. Journal of Social Psychology. 2006, 146(1): 51-64.
J.E. Obsorne, The Impact of Training on Leadership Development. Glassboro, New Jersey : Rowan
University,2003. Doctoral Dissertation. 3149741.
C. Hurt, S.R. Homan, Growing Leaders. Industrial and Commercial Training. 2005, 37(3): 120-123.
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Mohd Bakhari, Z.M. Yusof, The Relationship Between Knowledge Sharing, Employee Performance
andService Delivery in Public Sector Organization. Public Sector Management Review. 2009, 3(1):
37-45.175
J. Yang, The Impact of Knowledge Sharing on Organizational Learning and Effective. Knowledge
Management.2007, 11(2): 83-90.
G. Leard, Benefts of Training for Both the Organization and Employees. Heilum. [Online] 2010. [Cited:
11 15,2010.) http://www.helium.com/items/1774143-training-and-its-benefts-why-train-workers-is-
training-necesary.
R. Noe, Employee Training and Development. 2. New York : McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2002.

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