PROJECT REPORT ON

GETTING ENERGY METER DATA GETTING ENERGY METER DATA

THROUGH GSM MOBILE THROUGH GSM MOBILE
CONTENTS
1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT WORK
4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF GSM
5. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION
6. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
7. ELECTRICAL METERING INSTRUMENT TECHNOLOGY
. DETAILS ABOUT ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS
!. SMART ENERGY METERS " AN O#ER#IEW
1$. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF !C SERIES CONTROLLERS
11. DETAILED DESCRIPTION ABOUT RS232
12. HARDWARE DETAILS
13. SOFTWARE DETAILS
14. CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES
GETTING ENERGY METER DATA GETTING ENERGY METER DATA
THROUGH GSM MOBILE THROUGH GSM MOBILE
ABSTRACT
This is innovative project work introduced in the field of wireless
communications. The main aim of the project work is to collect the energy
consumption data of individual house remotely. The advantage of using
this system is that the data can be gathered accurately and automatically
without going near to the energy meter.
These days GSM based project works are gaining popularity
because of unique facilities provided by the GSM network. The term GSM
stands for Global System for mobile communications and the network is
designed based on European standards. Many concepts from simple to
comple systems are designed based on this technology for various
applications! but here the system designed with GSM module is quite
unique and it is quite useful for state electricity departments.
To prove the concept practically! a real working module is designed
with a very high resolution electronic energy meter. This energy meter
displays the number of units consumed by the consumer through the
seven segment displays. "hen the consumer wants to know the number
units consumed! he#she just needs to send an SMS to the GSM that is
interfaced to the energy meter. The energy units$ information in the form of
consumable units will be displayed in the digital display and the same will
be sent in the form of SMS to the consumer mobile from which the unit$s
information is asked. %s the energy is consumed! the display shows in
increment mode. These types of systems are very much helpful for the
consumers to have vigilance over the energy consumed and control
accordingly. The eisting Electronic energy meter can be modified for the
purpose& our State Electricity department need not spend much amount for
the changes. The simple modification to be done is to transmit the
consumed data information by the energy meter through the GSM
technology.
'n this regard the communication link will be formed between the
mobile and GSM module! after decoding the secret code passed by the
operator#consumer! the GSM module interfaced with microcontroller
transmits the data to the mobile that is displayed in the display. % S'M card
is required for the GSM module for the communication with the mobiles.
CHAPTER % 2
INTRODUCTION
The proposed project work is focused about smart energy meters&
the subject of smart energy meters is gaining popularity because of wide
range features offered by them. The concept implemented here is quite
innovative! using GSM technology. There by the consumer will have
continuous vigilance over his#her energy consumption wherever he#she
may be throughout the "orld.
The present system of energy meter reading and collecting the
pending bill amount from the energy consumers involves lot of nuisance&
the energy suppliers as well as energy consumers both are facing many
problems because of the out dated schemes implemented in energy
management system by the state electricity department. The bill collector
who is visiting each and every house for collecting the meter reading and
raising the bill is holding a hand held equipment! the meter reader enters
the data of up to date energy consumption details along with service
number (meter number) through a small keypad of billing machine! since
this job is done manually human errors will be there and quite often wrong
bills are produced. This is quite inconvenient for the energy consumer!
either consumer number or energy consumption data printed wrongly! than
the consumer may have to roam around the electricity office to rectify the
fault. Similarly the department is also responsible for the faults and it is
answerable to the customer! in addition to this the electricity department
should involve lot of their employees to visit millions of houses. To avoid all
these problems this innovative project work is taken up by which lot of man
power can be saved and above problems can be abolished.

The main intention of the project work is to design a smart energy
meter that can be monitored through GSM modem. 'n this regard! the
electronic energy meter is converted as smart meter and the output of
energy meter (number of units) is transmitted through GSM modem to the
concern mobile phone from which the request is placed. Since GSM
modem acts as a transceiver it also receives command signals from
another mobile phone. This kind of system is not eisted in our country! it
is a first of its kind! the advantages and applications of this system are
plenty! and are described in further chapters.
*ow coming to the smart energy meters! the potential for smart
meters to offer consumers better information about! and control over their
energy use! leading to both financial savings and control over the energy
consumption! has been discussed for a number of years. %ll state
Electricity departments looking for advanced technology to wider their
benefits! cost effective solutions are encouraged! therefore as an
engineering student! to serve my nation and to emerge an effective
solution to the present situation! this new concept is designed to bring to
the notice of our state electricity department. The detailed description of
the project work is provided in net chapter.
The present system of meter reading is having its own draw backs&
the electricity board is sending their bill collectors to the consumer house
to record and raise the bills of consumed energy. Generally! this collection
of data is carried out at a frequency of one month. The electrical charges
payable by an individual is then calculated based on the consumption data
and the electrical charges (which are usually fied as slabs) per unit of
Electricity. The charge per unit of consumption varies from slab to slab.
The charges go+up with increase in slabs. Thus this method of data
collection has its own advantages and disadvantages. 'f the data collection
is not carried out at a fied interval! there is always a chance that the
charges payable by the consumer is erroneous. ,y implementing this kind
of system can eliminate bill collectors who is visiting each and every house
for taking consumed energy data. *ow the consumer is responsible! such
that he will have awareness of the number of units consumed and can use
the electricity in a more efficient manner.
,efore getting in to the details! it is necessary to know the
importance of Microcontroller! because it is playing major role in this
project work. %s the technology advanced particularly in the field of Micro+
controllers! many tedious tasks are left over to these processors& the role
of computers to solve such problems is minimi-ed! because it is bulky and
costliest affair. Micro controllers are small in si-e and acts as mini
computers. These funny devices are playing major function in all the
activities! particularly in industries there is no such electronic instrument or
machine that functions with out Microcontroller. 'n domestic side also!
many house hold electronic gadgets like T. and its remote! telephone!
microwave oven! /0 player! home security systems! washing machines!
etc! can not function without micro controllers! in our day to day living have
become a part of information and we find micro+controllers at each and
every application. Therefore the trend is directing towards Microcontroller
based project works.
The 12/34 is having 15b memory power and is aimed to send the
information regarding available energy in the form units. 6ere for this chip
the program is prepared in Embedded 7/$ which requires more memory
when compared with machine language. The output of the chip is fed to
GSM modem through 8S494& the function of 8S 494 is to convert the
/M:S logic in to TT; logic which is accepted by the GSM modem.
The combination of microcontrollers and GSM modem working
together can create tremendous changes in the technology! with the
advancement of technology particularly in the field of energy management
systems! all the activities right from the basic needs to the compleity can
be achieved. ,ased on this technology centrali-ed energy monitoring
station can be designed from where all the energy meters of a particular
area can be monitored and controlled accordingly. 'f required meter
tampering information along with consumer number also can be
transmitted through GSM modems and the same can be displayed! if
required meter out put can be disconnected remotely through mobile
phone. The detailed description of GSM technology is provided in the
further chapters.
CHAPTER % 3
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT WORK
Since the concept is practical oriented! it is decided to develop a real
working system for the live demonstration. Therefore the process begins with
electronic energy meter! here we required very high accuracy energy meter!
such that it should able to measure and display the consumed energy perfectly.
The energy output of the meter is designed to drive different loads like lamps
and heaters! for this purpose! in the demonstration module 9 pins socket is
provided. The energy meter is designed to generate pulses according to the
load applied to it. The duration between the two pulses vary according to the
load! if the load is constant! pulses are produced at stable intervals! and
otherwise pulse rate is differed by varying the load current. Since the meter is
said to be very accurate! it generates <=>> pulses per unit! means one
measuring unit is divided in to <=>> parts. ?inally the energy meter generates
only <>> pulses per unit! initially to enhance the accuracy one unit is divided in
to <=>> parts so that it can measure very minute loads also accurately. ;ater for
the calibration purpose <=>> pulses are converted into <>> pulses! means the
meter itself internally! with the help of an encoder <= pulses are converted into
one pulse.
Generally any energy meter in the world is popularly known as watt hour
meter! and it is defined as <>>>" hour! means when <>>> watts load is applied
to the meter for one hour! then the meter should display one unit! the unit for
consumption of electricity! this is universal standard. %s per the above
description! when <>>> watts load is connected! the energy meter should
generate <=>> pulses in one hour! when the load is reduced by 3>@! and then
same numbers of pulses are produced in two hours. Therefore the time taken
by the energy meter to measure one unit A <>>> # applied load. The energy
meter used here offers many latest features like tamper proof! reverse polarity
indicator! accurate measurement! high end result! continuous monitoring of
phase and neutral currents! etc. The detailed description of this meter is
provided in following chapters.
The analog pulse produced by the energy meter is converted in to a pure
digital pulse. The circuit named as digital pulse generator is designed with ;08!
lamp and 333 timer '/. The '/ is configured as monostable mode of operation!
triggers at <#9 B 4#9 voltage levels of operating voltage. 'nitially the process
begins from pulse output from energy meter! whenever the meter generates a
pulse! the lamp glows momentarily and the light intensity will be fallen on ;08
(;ight 0ependant 8esistor)! by which voltage level falls down by less then <#9
.cc! which in turn triggers the '/ and generates a perfect square pulse. The
detailed description of this digital pulse generator is provided in following
chapters.
The output of the digital pulse generator circuit is fed to microcontroller
unit! depending up on the energy consumption! this circuit generate square
pulses and these pulses are stored in microcontroller. This controller can be
called as primary unit! and main functions of this unit is as followed.
To acquire data from energy meter (consumed energy information in the
form of pulses).
To display the available or consumable energy information in the form of
units through a seven segment display connected at the output port of
microcontroller.
,ased on the pulses produced by energy meter! the micro controller
increment the units and the same is displayed in the seven segment display
unit (digital display).
?inally the GSM unit waits for command signals from the mobile to get the
consumed units! based on this command signals received from the mobile
phone and decoded by the controller unit! the controller transmits the
consumed units data to the same mobile through the GSM modem.
The above mentioned are the important functions of the microcontroller
unit and the program is prepared to perform these functions accurately. The
display section is designed with four digits! two digits are used after the decimal
point! so that one unit is calibrated in to <>> equalent parts and starts counting
in increment mode.
The microcontroller unit designed with 12/3<#34 chip acquires the data
from energy meter and forwarded to the GSM modem through M%C 494. The
main function of the GSM modem is to send the available consumed units
information of the energy meter to the concern mobile phone! here if required
the data can be transmitted to the multiple mobile phones. Since it is a
prototype module! here only one mobile number is stored in the system! such
that the system sends the information to that particular mobile when requested.
The other main function of the GSM modem is to receive the request
information from the mobile phone. Generally this mobile phone is under the
control of electricity department or the consumer! only authori-ed person should
utili-e this phone. To get the energy meter data through this mobile! initially
some pass word information has to be generated! if the pass word is correct
then only the microcontroller unit accepts the command signals. The secret
code is passed along with the command signals& the command signals are
differed based on the energy meter by the energy consumer. The detailed
description of the GSM technology is provided in net chapter.
CHAPTER % 4
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF GSM
I&'()*+,'-)&.
GSM (Global System for Mobile /ommunications) is a digital cellular
communications system. 't was developed in order to create a common
European mobile telephone standard but it has been rapidly accepted
worldwide. GSM is designed to provide a comprehensive range of services and
features to the users not available on analogue cellular networks and in many
cases very much in advance of the old public switched telephone network
(DST*). 'n addition to digital transmission! GSM incorporates many advanced
services and features like worldwide roaming in other GSM networks.
H-/')(0 )1 GSM 2&* ,344+42( 5)6-43 R2*-).
The idea of cell+based mobile radio systems appeared at ,ell
;aboratories (in ES%) in the early <2F>s. 6owever! mobile cellular systems
were not introduced for commercial use until the <21>s. 0uring the early <21>s!
analog cellular telephone systems eperienced a very rapid growth in Europe!
particularly in Scandinavia and the Enited 5ingdom! but also in ?rance and
Germany. Each country developed its own system! which was incompatible
with everyone elseGs in equipment and operation. ,ut in the beginnings of
cellular systems! each country developed its own system! which was an
undesirable situation for the following reasonsH
The equipment was limited to operate only within the boundaries of each
country! which in a unified Europe were increasingly unimportant.
The market for mobile equipment was limited! so economies of scale!
and the subsequent savings! could not be reali-ed.
'n order to overcome these problems! the /onference of European Dosts
and Telecommunications (/EDT) formed! in <214! the Group Special Mobile
(GSM) in order to develop a pan+European mobile cellular radio system (the
GSM acronym became later the acronym for Global System for Mobile
communications). The standardi-ed system had to meet certain criteria$sH
Good subjective speech quality
Support for international roaming
%bility to support handheld terminals
Support for range of new services and facilities
Spectral efficiency
;ow mobile and base stations costs
/ompatibility with other systems such as 'ntegrated Services 0igital
*etwork ('S0*)
'n <212 the responsibility for the GSM specifications passed from the
/EDT to the European Telecommunications Standards 'nstitute (ETS'). The
commercial use of GSM started around mid+<22<. ,y the beginning of <22I!
there were <.9 million subscribers worldwide. ,y the beginning of <223! there
were => countries with operational or planned GSM networks in Europe! the
Middle East! the ?ar East! %ustralia! %frica! and South %merica! with a total of
over 3.I million subscribers. %s of the end of <22F! GSM service was available
in more than <>> countries and has become the de facto standard in Europe
and %sia. Dresently! GSM networks are operational or planned in over 1>
countries around the world.
T3,7&-,24 *3'2-4/
GSM is a cellular network! which means that mobile phones connect to it
by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in a
number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges
for 4G and EMTS frequency bands for 9G). Most 4G GSM networks operate in
the 2>> M6- or <1>> M6- bands. Some countries in the %mericas (including
/anada and the Enited States) use the 13> M6- and <2>> M6- bands
because the 2>> and <1>> M6- frequency bands were already allocated. Most
9G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 4<>> M6- frequency band
The rarer I>> and I3> M6- frequency bands are assigned in some
countries where these frequencies were previously used for first+generation
systems.
GSM+2>> uses 12>J2<3 M6- to send information from the mobile station
to the base station (uplink) and 293J2=> M6- for the other direction (downlink)!
providing <4I 8? channels (channel numbers < to <4I) spaced at 4>> k6-.
0uple spacing of I3 M6- is used. 'n some countries the GSM+2>> band has
been etended to cover a larger frequency range. This Getended GSMG! E+
GSM! uses 11>J2<3 M6- (uplink) and 243J2=> M6- (downlink)! adding 3>
channels (channel numbers 2F3 to <>49 and >) to the original GSM+2>> band.
Time division multipleing is used to allow eight full+rate or siteen half+rate
speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots
(giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a T0M% frame. 6alf rate
channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for
all 1 channels is 4F>.199 kbit#s! and the frame duration is I.=<3 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maimum of 4 watts
in GSM13>#2>> and < watt in GSM<1>>#<2>>.
GSM has used a variety of voice codes to squee-e 9.< k6- audio into
between 3.= and <9 kbit#s. :riginally! two codes! named after the types of data
channel they were allocated! were used! called 6alf 8ate (3.= kbit#s) and ?ull
8ate (<9 kbit#s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding
(;D/). 'n addition to being efficient with bitrates! these codes also made it
easier to identify more important parts of the audio! allowing the air interface
layer to prioriti-e and better protect these parts of the signal.
GSM was further enhanced in <22F
K<4L
with the Enhanced ?ull 8ate (E?8)
codec! a <4.4 kbit#s codec that uses a full rate channel. ?inally! with the
development of EMTS! E?8 was refactored into a variable+rate codec called
%M8+*arrowband! which is high quality and robust against interference when
used on full rate channels! and less robust but still relatively high quality when
used in good radio conditions on half+rate channels.
There are five different cell si-es in a GSM networkMmacro! micro! pico!
femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to
the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where
the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof
top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top
level& they are typically used in urban areas. Dicocells are small cells whose
coverage diameter is a few do-en meters& they are mainly used indoors.
?emtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider$s network via a broadband
internet connection. Embrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of
smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
/ell hori-ontal radius varies depending on antenna height! antenna gain
and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of
kilometres. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical
use is 93 kilometres (44 mi). There are also several implementations of the
concept of an etended cell! where the cell radius could be double or even
more! depending on the antenna system! the type of terrain and the timing
advance.
'ndoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by
using an indoor picocell base station! or an indoor repeater with distributed
indoor antennas fed through power splitters! to deliver the radio signals from an
antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are
typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors! for eample in
shopping centers or airports. 6owever! this is not a prerequisite! since indoor
coverage is also provided by in+building penetration of the radio signals from
nearby cells.
The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum+shift keying (GMS5)!
a kind of continuous+phase frequency shift keying. 'n GMS5! the signal to be
modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low+pass filter prior
to being fed to a frequency modulator! which greatly reduces the interference to
neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).
%rchitecture of the GSM *etworkH
The GSM mobile telephony service is based on a series of contiguous
radio cells which provide complete coverage of the service area and allow the
subscriber operation anywhere within it. Drior to this cellular concept!
radiophones were limited to just the one transmitter covering the whole service
area. /ellular telephony differs from the radiophone service because instead of
one large transmitter! many small ones are used to cover the same area. The
basic problem is to handle the situation where a person using the phone in one
cell moves out of range of that cell. 'n the radiophone service there was no
solution and the call was lost! which is why the service area was so large. 'n
cellular telephony! handing the call over to the net cell solves the problem.
This process is totally automatic and requires no special intervention by the
user! but it is a comple technical function requiring significant processing
power to achieve a quick reaction.
The functional architecture of a GSM system can be broadly divided into
the Mobile Station! the ,ase Station Subsystem! and the *etwork Subsystem.
Each subsystem is comprised of functional entities that communicate through
the various interfaces using specified protocols. The subscriber carries the
mobile station& the base station subsystem controls the radio link with the
Mobile Station. The network subsystem! which is the main part of which is the
Mobile services Switching /enter! performs the switching of calls between the
mobile and other fied or mobile network users! as well as management of
mobile services! such as authentication.
M)6-43 S'2'-)&.
The Mobile Station (MS) represents the only equipment the GSM user
ever sees from the whole system. 't actually consists of two distinct entities.
The actual hardware is the Mobile Equipment (ME)! which is anonymous and
consists of the physical equipment! such as the radio transceiver! display and
digital signal processors. The subscriber information is stored in the Subscriber
'dentity Module (S'M)! implemented as a Smart /ard. The mobile equipment is
uniquely identified by the 'nternational Mobile Equipment 'dentity ('ME'). The
S'M card contains the 'nternational Mobile Subscriber 'dentity ('MS')! identifying
the subscriber! a secret key for authentication! and other user information. The
'ME' and the 'MS' are independent! thereby providing personal mobility.
Thus the S'M provides personal mobility! so that the user can have
access to all subscribed services irrespective of both the location of the terminal
and the use of a specific terminal. ,y inserting the S'M card into another GSM
cellular phone! the user is able to receive calls at that phone! make calls from
that phone! or receive other subscribed services. The S'M card may be
protected against unauthori-ed use by a password or personal identity number.
The ME provides generic radio and processing functions to access the
network through the radio interface as well as an interface to the user
(microphone loudspeaker! display and keyboard) together with an interface to
some other terminal equipment (fa machine! D/).
The S'M contain all the subscriber+related information stored on the
userGs side of the radio interface.
The MS is operational only when a valid S'M is placed in a ME.
B2/3 S'2'-)& S+6/0/'35.
The ,ase Station Subsystem is composed of two parts! the ,ase
Transceiver Station (,TS) and the ,ase Station /ontroller (,S/). The ,TS
houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and transmits and receives
signals on the cellsG allocated frequencies with the mobile station.
% ,S/ operates with a group of ,TSs and manages the radio resources
for one or more of them. The ,S/ is the connection between the MS and the
*etwork Subsystem. 't manages the radio channel (setup! tear down! frequency
hopping! etc.) as well as handovers and the transmission power levels and
frequency translations of the voice channel used over the radio link to the
standard channel used by the Dublic Switched Telephone *etwork or 'S0*.
N3'8)(9 S+6/0/'35.
The central component of the *etwork Subsystem is the Mobile services
Switching /enter (MS/). 't acts like a normal switching node of the normal
telephones of the land lines and in addition provides all the functionality needed
to handle a mobile subscriber! including registration! authentication! location
updating and inter+MS/ handovers. These services are provided in conjunction
with several functional entities! which together form the *etwork Subsystem.
The MS/ provides the connection to the public fied network (DST* or 'S0*)
and is the interface between the GSM and the DST* networks for both
telephony and data.
Thus the MS/ is primarily responsible forH
Traffic management
/all set+up
/all 8outing to a roaming subscriber
Termination
/harging and accounting information
A::4-,2'-)&/ )1 GSM M)*35
GSM is world$s most famous Mobile platform. Mobile phones with S'M
cards use GSM technology to help you communicate with your family! friends
and business associates. GSM systems have following advantages over basic
landline telephony systemsH
<. Mobility
4. Easy availability
9. 6igh uptime
GSM technology is being mostly used for talking to family! friends and
business colleagues. "e use communication feature of Telephone landlines for
'nternet! e+mail! data connectivity! remote monitoring! computer+to+computer
communication! and security systems. 'n the same way we can use GSM
technology and benefit from its advantages.
% GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless
network. % wireless modem behaves like a dial+up modem. The main difference
between them is that a dial+up modem sends and receives data through a fied
telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio
waves.
% GSM modem can be an eternal device or a D/ /ard # D/M/'% /ard.
Typically! an eternal GSM modem is connected to a computer through a serial
cable or a ES, cable. % GSM modem in the form of a D/ /ard # D/M/'% /ard
is designed for use with a laptop computer. 't should be inserted into one of the
D/ /ard # D/M/'% /ard slots of a laptop computer.
;ike a GSM mobile phone! a GSM modem requires a S'M card from a
wireless carrier in order to operate.
%s mentioned in earlier sections of this SMS tutorial! computers use %T
commands to control modems. ,oth GSM modems and dial+up modems
support a common set of standard %T commands. "e can use a GSM modem
just like a dial+up modem. 'n addition to the standard %T commands! GSM
modems support an etended set of %T commands. These etended %T
commands are defined in the GSM standards. "ith the etended %T
commands! we can do things likeH
8eading! writing and deleting SMS messages.
Sending SMS messages.
Monitoring the signal strength.
Monitoring the charging status and charge level of the battery.
8eading! writing and searching phone book entries.
The number of SMS messages that can be processed by a GSM modem
per minute is very low ++ only about si to ten SMS messages per minute.
GSM FEATURES
:ne of the remarkable features is the Subscriber 'dentity Module (S'M).
S'M being memory device stores information such as the subscriber$s
identification number! list of countries and networks where the subscriber is
entitled to service! privacy keys etc. % S'M consists of four+digit personal
identification number to activate service from any GSM phone. S'M$s is
available as smart cards that may be inserted into GSM phone or plug+in
modules! which are portable and removable.
The second feature is on+the+air privacy that the GSM system provides.
The privacy is maintained by encryption of the digital data according to a
specific secret cryptographic key that is known only to the cellular carrier and
the key is changed with time.
GSM INTERFACES
The different interfaces used in GSM listed as followsH
1. GSM (2*-) 2-( -&'3(12,3. This is the interface between MS and ,TSs.
2. A6-/ -&'3(12,3. The one connecting the ,TS to a ,S/ is known as %bis
interface. This is responsible for carrying traffic and maintenance data.
3. A -&'3(12,3. This is the interface between a ,S/ and a MS/.
GSM CHANNELS.
There are two types of GSM logical channelsH
Traffic /hannelsH These channels carry digitally encoded user speech or
data.
/ontrol /hannelsH Signaling and synchroni-ing commands between ,S and
MS are transmitted through these channels.
GSM SER#ICES.
The GSM services in different spheres are listed as followsH
<. 0ata services include computer to computer communication and packet
switched traffic.
4. Telephone services which include fa services. .ideote and telete are
also supported by GSM.
9. Mobile originated traffic and standard mobile telephony are included in
teleservices supported by GSM.
I. 0ifferent other services includeH
call diversion caller line identification
call wait SMS services
CHAPTER % 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION
The block diagram and its description of the project work is eplained in
brief! for better understanding the total block diagram is divided in to various
blocks and each block eplanation is provided in this chapter. The complete
block diagram of the project work is provided at the end of this chapter. The
following are the blocks.

<) Electronic Energy Meter
4) 0igital Dulse Generator
9) Microcontroller
I) ;atch
3) 0igital 0isplay
=) 8S 494
F) GSM Modem
ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER.
'n this block! %0FF3< Energy metering '/ is used. This is a custom built
'/ produced by the analog devices! ES%. 0etails # 0atasheets of the '/ is
collected from 'nternet! world wide website& httpH##""".analog.com
(/) %nalog devices! 'nc! 4>>>.
This block takes the proportional voltage! proportional current in a fied
duration so that the energy consumed! i.e.! Energy A . N ' N t. These two
signals are fed to the metering '/ %0FF3<! after stepping down the voltage
under measurement with the help of step+down potential difference *etwork
using resistors and for the current! with the help of current transformer
(,asically this is a step+up transformer). The internal clock is constructed with
crystal oscillator for counting the pulses. Thus the output %/ signal is
proportional to the energy consumed from the %/ mains supply. 'n addition to
the generation of %/ output! this customi-ed '/ provides high accuracy!
meeting international specifications! errorless than >.<@. 'n this dedicated '/! it
monitors continuously both the phase and neutral (return) currents. % fault is
indicated when these currents differ by more than <4.3@. Then the billing is
continued taking the larger of the two currents.
The output of the '/ is taken across Dins 49 and 4I (?< and ?4) is the
frequency signal proportional the energy /onsumption. This pulsating
frequency is calibrated! i.e.! <=>> pulses per unit of the electric energy
consumption.
% facility is provided in this '/ to indicate fault conditions! two logic
outputs are provided as 7?%E;T$ and 78E.D$ (8everse Dolarity)! which can be
used as fault condition and reverse polarity indications. These two signals are
made used in this project work and two ;E0$S are connected to indicate the
above fault conditions.
DIGITAL PULSE GENERATOR
The main function of the pulse generator block is to convert the analog
signal from the energy meter into digital pulse. The pulse produced by the
energy meter is nothing but a peak pulse and this peak pulse is converted into
square pulse. 'n this block! a lamp of <4. is arranged parallel to the ;08 (;ight
dependent resistor) which glows brightly! whenever there is a pulse from the
Energy Meter. This light energy is converted in to discrete electrical pulses with
the help of ;08 and '/ 333 timer configured in ,i+stable Multi+vibrator mode.
These pulses are treated as a clock pulses for sub+sequent stage for
counting #0isplay purpose and monitoring the energy consumption with the help
of Microcontroller.
To energi-e the lamp source through switching transistor driver stages!
the frequency output of the energy metering '/! which is a differential signal is
converted in to proportional 0/ signal with the help of a bridge rectifier. This
pulsating 0/ signal is fed to the cascaded driving stage transistors and in turn
to lamp. The .// for the lamp is designed from %/ input through step+down
transformer and full wave centre+tapped rectifier.
This lamp source is fed near the ;08. The resistance of ;08 varies
according to the light source falling on it. This makes the voltage drop across it
to vary. This change of voltage is detected with the help of built in comparators
provided in '/ 333 timer. This '/ is configured as bistable stage (Schmitt
trigger) so that the output will be either in high state or low state as per light #
*o light on ;08 or thresh+hold levels crossing of upper level comparator (4#9
.// comparator) and low level comparator (<#9 .// comparator). The output
of this timer is treated as a clock pulses to the microcontroller and the controller
drives the display so that the pulses produced by the energy meter can be
displayed.
MICRO"CONTROLLER
The complete process of the system is derived with the microcontroller
unit! and this unit is playing a major role in this project work! there by the
following description mainly focuses about Micro controller and its architecture!
because it is treated as heart of the project work. Today! there is no such
instrument that can function without Micro controller. Micro controllers have
become an integral part of all instruments. Many tedious from simple to
dedicated tasks are left over to the controller for solutions.
The Micro controller used in this project work is %TME; 12/3< or 12/34!
these two '/$s are belongs to 1>3< family. The internal architecture of both the
chips is similar ecept the memory power! 12/3< is having I 5b memory power
and 12/34 is having 1 5b memory power. 'n<21<! 'ntel /orporation introduced
an 1+ bit Micro controller! which is named as 1>3<. This controller is having <41
bytes of 8%M! I5 bytes of 8:M! two timers! one serial port! and four ports.
This '/ is called as 1+ bit Drocessor! means that the /DE can work on only 1+
bits of data at a time. The 1>3< is having four ports and each port contain 1
input # output lines. This '/ became very popular after 'ntel allowed other
manufacturers to make and market any flavors of the 1>3< they please with the
condition that they remain code compatible with the 1>3<. This has led to many
versions of the 1>3< with different speeds and amounts of on+chip 8:M
marketed by many manufacturers.
%TME; is one of the major manufacturers of these devices and are
compatible with the original 1>3< as far as the instructions are concerned. The
original 1>3< of 'ntel are having a maimum of =I5 bytes of on+chip 8:M!
where as the %TME; 12/3< is having only I5 bytes on the chip. %TME;
12/34 is designed with 15 memory! like wise up to 4>5 bites on the chips are
available from %TME; /ompany. The %tmel /orporation has a wide selection
of 1>3< chips and out of! the %T 12/3< is a popular and inepensive chip used
for many applications. 't has I5 bytes of flash 8:M& 7/$ stands for 7/M:S$!
which has low power consumption.
The %TME; %T12/3< is a low power! higher performance /M:S 1+bit
microcomputer with I5 bytes of flash programmable and erasable read only
memory (DE8:M). 'ts high+density non+volatile memory compatible with
standard M/S+3< instruction set makes it a powerful controller that provides
highly fleible and cost effective solution to control applications.
Micro+controller works according to the program written in it. Most
microcontrollers today are based on the 6arvard architecture! which clearly
defined the four basic components required for an embedded system. These
include a /DE core! memory for the program (8:M or ?lash memory)! memory
for data (8%M)! one or more timers (customi-able ones and watchdog timers)!
as well as '#: lines to communicate with eternal peripherals and
complementary resources M all this in a single integrated circuit. %
microcontroller differs from a general+purpose /DE chip in that the former
generally is quite easy to make into a working computer! with a minimum of
eternal support chips. The idea is that the microcontroller will be placed in the
device to control! hooked up to power and any information it needs! and thatGs
that.
% traditional microprocessor wonGt allow you to do this. 't requires all of
these tasks to be handled by other chips. ?or eample! some number of 8%M
memory chips must be added. The amount of memory provided is more fleible
in the traditional approach! but at least a few eternal memory chips must be
provided! and additionally requires that many connections must be made to
pass the data back and forth to them.
?or instance! a typical microcontroller will have a built in clock generator
and a small amount of 8%M and 8:M (or ED8:M or EED8:M)! meaning that
to make it work! all that is needed is some control software and a timing crystal
(though some even have internal 8/ clocks). Microcontrollers will also usually
have a variety of input#output devices! such as analog+to+digital converters!
timers! E%8Ts or speciali-ed serial communications interfaces like 'O/! Serial
Deripheral 'nterface and /ontroller %rea *etwork. :ften these integrated
devices can be controlled by speciali-ed processor instructions. :riginally!
microcontrollers were only programmed in assembly language! or later in /
code. 8ecent microcontrollers integrated with on+chip debug circuit accessed
by 'n+circuit emulator via PT%G (Point Tet %ction Group) enables a
programmer to debug the software of an embedded system with a debugger.
More recently! however! some microcontrollers have begun to include a
built+in high+level programming language interpreter for greater ease of use.
,%S'/ is a common choice! and is used in the popular ,%S'/ Stamp M/Es
(Master /ontrol Enit). Microcontrollers trade away speed and fleibility to gain
ease of equipment design and low cost. ThereGs only so much room on the chip
to include functionality! so for every '#: device or memory increase the
microcontroller includes! some other circuitry has to be removed. ?inally! it must
be mentioned that some microcontroller architectures are available from many
different vendors in so many varieties that they could rightly belong to a
category of their own. /hief among these are the 1>3< family.
LATCH
%s per the program prepared for microcontroller! the consumed energy
information is to be displayed through F+segment displays! to hold this data latches
are used. The display system is interfaced with micro controller through FI;S3F9& one
complete port of micro controller is used to drive the display system. 6ere four F+
segment displays are used for displaying the consumed energy. The signal %;E from
the processor goes high before a new address is placed on the bus and goes low
before it is removed. The action of %;E going low is used to latch the address into a
FI;S3F9 1+bit transparent latch. The FI;S3F9 then provides its latched address
output to the memories while the /DE ,us /arries the data.
The technology selected for this latch is critical to the memory selection.
The FI;S3F9 has a worst+case propagation delay from input to output of 2> ns
while the FI?9F9Gs is 1 ns. This results in significantly different memory address
access timing requirements depending on the family used. Since it is a
prototype module! more ever the function is only to display the consumed
energy! too fast acting latches are not required! therefore FI;S3F9 latches
selected because of its cost effective. "hile ED8:M devices with access times
of 4= ns or less may be available! they are likely to be epensive. % simple and
more cost effective approach to solve this timing constraint is to use a faster
latch technology! a FI?9F9 for instance.
DIGITAL DISPLAY
Seven segment displays commonly contain ;E0 segments arranged as
an eight (1)! each display contains seven ;E0$s and these are denoted as a! b!
c! d! e! f! and g. /ommon anode means all the seven ;E0$s anodes are shorted
together internally! and one common terminal is brought out from the device.
This common terminal is supposed to be connected to the Q.cc of the supply
through a current limiting resistor! where as all the seven cathodes are
controlled independently through control circuit! there by all the numeric
numbers from > to 2 will be displayed. This is the general phenomenon of
controlling the display independently. %ccording to the requirement! wide
varieties of display drive circuits are in use. 6ere all the four displays are
connected in parallel and these are driven by the controller through switching
transistors and latches. The detailed description of the parallel display driver is
provided in circuit analysis chapter.
The output port of the first micro+controller unit is used to drive the digital
display! for this purpose four F+segment common anode displays are used for
displaying the consumed energy information in the form of units! as the energy
is consumed the display shows in decrement mode. 'n addition to the digital
display! the output of the Microcontroller is also used to drive the relay so that
according to the instructions generated by the EED8:M! the Microcontroller
energi-es this electro magnetic relay and this relay contact is used to break the
supply to the load automatically.
RS 232 CON#ERTER ;MA< 232N=
The 8S+494 generally used in computers for serial communication is
quite popular device. 6ere this chip is used to communicate with the GSM
modem! this device is connected between the microcontroller and GSM
modem! the main function of this device is to convert the /M:S logic in to TT;
logic! because the GSM modem accepts only TT; logic.
GSM 5)*35 ;!$$>1$$ MH?=
Semen$s GSM#GD8S Smart Modem is a multi+functional! ready to use! rugged
unit that can be embedded or plugged into any application. The Smart Modem can be
controlled and customi-ed to various levels by using the standard %T commands. The
modem is fully type+approved! it can speed up the operational time with full range of
.oice! 0ata! ?a and Short Messages (Doint to Doint and /ell ,roadcast)! the modem
also supports for data transfer. GSM is one of the latest mobile technologies using
smart M:0EM! which can easily interfaced to embedded Microcontrollers. *ow
everything is going to be automated using this technology! using this technology we
can monitor the particular machine parameters. Esing GSM and GDS now we can
identify the people! vehicles etc in any where of the world.
CHAPTER " 6
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The detailed circuit description of the project work is eplained in section
wise. ?or better understanding the total circuit diagram is divided into various
sections and each section eplanation along with circuit diagram is provided in
this chapter.
ELECTRONIC ENERGY METER
The energy meter used in this project work is ready made one! made by
;arsen B Toubro! ;BT 6ouse! ,allard Estate! and Mumbai. The energy meter
procured from ;BT 6ouse! is a domestic meter. This meter is designed to
deliver 4>amps current maimum! because the /T (/urrent Transformer) used
in this meter! allows 4>amps maimum through its primary. 'n this meter two
/T$s are used! one is connected in series with the phase and the other one is
connected in series with the neutral. The output of the /T$s are monitored by
the energy metering '/ and energi-es the fault indicator connected at the
output of the chip! if the difference is more than <4.3@ at the output of both the
/T$s. The detailed description is as followsH
The energy consumption measurement is carried out with the help of
energy metering '/ %0 FF3<! with on chip fault detection. Multipleing the
voltage and current and averaging out for a time7t$ with the help of this '/ carry
out the measurement. 'n addition! this '/ provides the high accuracy meeting
'nternational specifications! error less than >.<@. 't also incorporates the fault
detection scheme that warns the fault conditions and allows the device to
continue accurate billing during a fault event. This does by continuously
monitoring both the phase and neutral (return) currents. % fault is indicated
when these currents differ by more than <4.3@. The billing is continued using
the larger of the two currents.
The output on the ?< and ?4 is the frequency signal proportional to the
energy consumption. This is calibrated as <=>> pulses per unit of electric
energy consumption. "hen the meter is loaded at the rate of <>>>" for <hour!
then this meter produces <=>> pulses which are equalent to <unit of power
consumption. ?or measuring the consumed energy in unit wise! these <=>>
pulses are converted into <>> pulses for the easy calibration.
To indicate the fault conditions! two logic outputs are also provided as
7?%E;T$ and 78E.D$ which can be used to indicate a potential mis+wiring or
fault condition. 'n this meter four ;E0$S are provided for indication purpose.
:ne indicator represents that the main power is present! when the fault occurs
the second indicator glows automatically! the third indicator glows when the
input wires are reversed and finally the last indicator is nothing but a pulse
indicator which glows brightly whenever there is a pulse from the energy meter.
The built+in two %0/S digiti-e the voltage signals from the current and
voltage transducers. ?or current signal! the current transformers (/TS) are
used! two /TS are used for this purpose one is connected in series with the
phase and the other one is connected in series with the neutral. ?or voltage
signal! the phase voltage is attenuated with the help of potential divider. ?or
this! four numbers of <>>5 resistors are connected in series. The built in %0/S
are <= bit and are operated with an eternal clock fed by the crystal. The power
output is derived from the instantaneous power signal! which is the
multiplication of the current and voltage signals. To obtain the eact real power
component! the instantaneous power signal is low pass filtered. %ccumulating
the real power information generates the frequency output of the device. This
is a low frequency signal! which means a long accumulation time between
output pulses. The output frequency is therefore proportional to the average
real power. This average real power information can in turn be accumulated to
generate real energy consumption. The frequency output in this '/ is generated
as shown in the data sheet collected from 'nternet i.e. /hapter + <4.
The voltage signal and current signal are fed to this energy metering '/
along with the sampling clock are shown belowH
'n the above circuit diagram! the ?< and ?4 outputs provide two
alternating low going pulses. The device calculates the product of two voltage
signals on .' 7%$ and .' 7,$ and then low pass filters this product to etract real
power information. This real power information is then converted in to
frequency. The frequency information on ?< and ?4 in the form of active low
pulses. The result is an output frequency! which is proportional to the average
real power. The average of the real power signal is implicit to the digital to
frequency conversion. The output frequency or pulse rate is related to the input
voltage as
3.FI .'% .', Gain ?
.8E?
4
This frequency output is fed to pulse shaping circuit for generating the
clock pulses for counting and subsequently for displaying the energy
consumption in form of seven+segment digital display.
DIGITAL PULSE GENERATOR.
The output of the energy metering circuit! which is calibrated as <=>>
pulses per unit of electric energy consumption (thus the display of <=>> pulses
is equivalent to one unit of energy consumption) is fed to this pulse shaping
circuit. The main function of this circuit is to convert the analog pulse in to digital
pulse. The pulse shaping circuit consists of a) /onversion of pulses into light
pulses b) ;ight to light dependent resistor conversion and converting into clock
pulses. The details are as followsH
The output of energy Metering /ircuit (?< and ?4) are fed to full wave
bridge rectifier to convert into proportional dc voltage according to the
frequency input. This dc voltage is fed to the lamp source through the transistor
driver stage. The glowing of lamp depends upon the input signal fed by the
Metering circuit. To feed dc voltage to the lamp source! a separate step down
transformer is designed! whose output voltage is an ac voltage! rectified into dc
with the help of center+tapped full wave rectifier. This dc voltage is a source of
lamp supply and the :* and :?? of the lamp depends upon the ac signal
produced by the %0FF3< based metering circuit. The circuit design of
energi-ation of lamp source is shown belowH
To drive the lamp source! cascaded transistors are used to increase the
power handling capacity. The lamp source energi-ation # de+energi-ation is
converted into clock pulses with the help of '/ 333 timer. This timer is
configured as Mono+stable Schmitt+trigger. 'n this '/ pin *o.4 (Trigger Din) and
Din *o.= (Thresh hold Din) are adjusted for <#9 .// and 4#9 .//. Thus! the
state transitions takes place whenever the voltage at Dins 4 # = is less than <#9
.// or more than 4#9 .//.
This voltage variation takes place due to the resistance variations of the
light dependent resistor. This ;08 variation takes place because of the light
falling on it. Thereby the output of the timer produces a clock pulses according
to the variation of the light#resistance changes. This in turns proportional to the
energy consumption. Thus the pulse+shaping block produces the clock pulses
required for display according to the energy consumption. The circuit diagram
of this clock pulse generation is shown in the net page.
MICRO"CONTROLLER
/ircumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of
microcontrollers had their beginnings in the development of technology of
integrated circuits. This development has made it possible to store hundreds of
thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a prerequisite for production of
microprocessors! and the first computers were made by adding eternal
peripherals such as memory! input+output lines! timers and other. ?urther
increasing of the volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated
circuits. These integrated circuits contained both processor and peripherals.
That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer! or what would later be
known as a microcontroller came about.
M35)(0 +&-'
Memory is part of the microcontroller whose function is to store data.
The easiest way to eplain it is to describe it as one big closet with lots of
drawers. 'f we suppose that we marked the drawers in such a way that they can
not be confused! any of their contents will then be easily accessible. 't is
enough to know the designation of the drawer and so its contents will be known
to us for sure.
Memory components are eactly like that. ?or a certain input we get the
contents of a certain addressed memory location and that$s all. Two new
concepts are brought to usH addressing and memory location. Memory consists
of all memory locations! and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them.
This means that we need to select the desired memory location on one hand!
and on the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. ,eside
reading from a memory location! memory must also provide for writing onto it.
This is done by supplying an additional line called control line. "e will
designate this line as 8#" (read#write). /ontrol line is used in the following wayH
if r#wA<! reading is done! and if opposite is true then writing is done on the
memory location. Memory is the first element! and we need a few operation of
our microcontroller .
C3&'(24 P(),3//-&@ U&-'
;et add 9 more memory locations to a specific block that will have a built
in capability to multiply! divide! subtract! and move its contents from one
memory location onto another. The part we just added in is called Rcentral
processing unitS (/DE). 'ts memory locations are called registers.
8egisters are therefore memory locations whose role is to help with
performing various mathematical operations or any other operations with data
wherever data can be found. ;ook at the current situation. "e have two
independent entities (memory and /DE) which are interconnected! and thus
any echange of data is hindered! as well as its functionality. 'f! for eample! we
wish to add the contents of two memory locations and return the result again
back to memory! we would need a connection between memory and /DE.
Simply stated! we must have some RwayS through data goes from one block to
another.
B+/
That RwayS is called RbusS. Dhysically! it represents a group of 1! <=! or
more wires. There are two types of busesH address and data bus. The first one
consists of as many lines as the amount of memory we wish to address! and
the other one is as wide as data! in our case 1 bits or the connection line. ?irst
one serves to transmit address from /DE memory! and the second to connect
all blocks inside the microcontroller.
I&:+' " )+':+' +&-'
Those locations we$ve just added are called RportsS. There are several
types of portsH input! output or bi+directional ports. "hen working with ports! first
of all it is necessary to choose which port we need to work with! and then to
send data to! or take it from the port.
"hen working with it the port acts like a memory location. Something is
simply being written into or read from it! and it could be noticed on the pins of
the micro+controller. The following is the /ircuit diagram of primary Micro+
controller unit.
DIGITAL DISPLAY
The micro+controller is programmed to display the consumed energy
information that is acquired from the energy meter. The controller generates
,/0 output which can be used to switch on the elements of a four digit seven+
element display. 6owever! because the controller is getting frequent information
from energy meter! it is necessary to use a storage register which can hold data
long enough for the display to be read. To hold the data! FI3F9 '/ is used! this
is a octal transparent 0+type latches. ?acility is made available that the old data
can be retained or new data can be entered while the outputs are in the high+
impedance state.
The display section is designed with four common anode F+Segment
displays for displaying the time. The output of the Micro+controller is fed to
digital display through the latches. To drive the displays independently 3IF
transistors are used. % seven segment ;E0 is a device for display of numbers
and letters. 't contains seven ;E0 bars! which can be turned on by placing the
appropriate signals on the appropriate pins.
'n order to produce a specific number! we must light the correct
segments of the ;E0. ?or eample! to display the number 9! we must light
segments a! b! c! d and g. ,y which we understand that the pattern of lit and
unlit segments can be formed into a binary number.
6ere all the four displays are connected in parallel! in parallel operation
each display is driven through a switching transistor! for this purpose a low
power *D* transistor of ,/ 3IF is used. The complete output port is used to
drive the seven segments through latch! and to control the four displays
independently through transistors! four lines from port 7o$ are used. "hen more
than one display is to be used! then they can be time multipleedH the human
eye can not detect the blinking if each display is relit every <> milliseconds or
so. The ten milliseconds are divided by the number of displays used to find the
interval between updating each display.
Transistors must be used to handle the currents required by the ;E0$s!
typically each ;E0 consumes <> milliamps! therefore each display consumes
F> ma. The current is restricted through a current limiting resistor. The following
is the /ircuit diagram of 0igital 0isplay 0riven by the micro+controller
POWER SUPPLY.
The power Supply is a Drimary requirement for the project work. The
required 0/ power supply for the base unit as well as for the recharging unit is
derived from the mains line. ?or this purpose center tapped secondary of <4.+
>+<4. transformers are used. Total two transformers are used to design two
different power supply units for the two different units. ?rom each power supply
unit two different 0/ voltages of Q<4. and Q3. are derived using rectifiers and
fitters. 'n this Q3. output is a regulated output and it is designed using F1>3
positive voltage regulator. This is a 9Din voltage regulator! can deliver current
up to 1>> milliamps.
8ectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage
into an unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called
78ectifier$. % rectifier permits current to flow only during the positive half cycles
of the applied %/ voltage by eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations
of the applied %/ voltage. Thus pulsating 0/ is obtained. To obtain smooth
0/ power! additional filter circuits are required.
% diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes. ,ut!
semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. % semiconductor
diode is a solid state device consisting of two elements are being an electron
emitter or cathode! the other an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in
a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction only+form emitter to collector+
the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for rectification.

The rectified :utput is filtered for smoothening the 0/! for this purpose
<>>> Micro+farad capacitor is used in the filter circuit. The filter capacitors are
usually connected in parallel with the rectifier output and the load. The %/ can
pass through a capacitor but 0/ cannot! the ripples are thus limited and the
output becomes smoothed. "hen the voltage across the capacitor plates tends
to rise! it stores up energy back into voltage and current. Thus the fluctuations
in the output voltage are reduced considerable. The following is the circuit
diagram of Dower supply.
CHAPTER % 7
ELECTRICAL METERING INSTRUMENT TECHNOLOGY
The Electrical metering instrument technology has come a long way from
what it was more than <>> years ago. ?rom the original bulky meters with
heavy magnets and coils! there have been many innovations that have resulted
in si-e B weight reduction in addition to improvements in features and
specifications. 8esolution and accuracy of the meter have seen substantial
improvements over the years. 'ntroduction of the digital meter in the later part of
last century has completely changed the way Electrical parameters are
measured. Starting with .oltmeters B %mmeters! the digital meter has
conquered the entire spectrum of measuring instruments due to their
advantages like ease of reading! better resolution and rugged construction. :f
particular significance is the introduction of the Electronic Energy Meter in the
mid eighties.
Today the metering instrument technology grown up significantly! such
that the consumed energy can be calculated mathematically! displayed! data
can be stored! data can be transmitted! etc. Dresently the microcontrollers are
playing major role in metering instrument technology. The present project work
is designed to collect the consumed energy data of a particular energy
consumer through wireless communication system (without going to consumer
house)! the system can be called as automatic meter reading (%M8) system.
The %utomatic Meter reading system is intended to remotely collect the meter
readings of a locality using a communication system! without persons physically
going and reading the meters visually.
P+(:)/3
Typically! the purpose of %M8 is to eliminate the direct cost of manual meter
reading and in addition provide value addition by data analysis. The %M8
system provides the utility with which much more functionality than simply
reducing meter reading cost. /urrently! electricity utility deregulation is taking
place all over the world and many countries would require for a significant
purpose of increasing revenue.
8evenues are increased byH
<. 'dentifying Theft of Dower + bypassing meters or physical tampering.
4. 'mproving billing and revenue collection methods.
9. Tuantifying TB0 ;osses.
I. 0emands and 0istribution Management.
3. :utage Management.
The %utomatic Meter 8eading System is a host driven! multi+level network
system with built+in fleibility and epandability consisting of a 6ost /omputer
Station (6/S)! 0ata /oncentrator Enits (0/E) and Meter 'nterfacing Enits
(M'E).
't is generally located in /entral :ffice where meter+reading data is required
to be collected. 6/S is a D/ running a 0atabase with a front end to collect
meter reading data and perform elementary analysis. The 6/S calls each of
the 0ata /oncentrator located on each of the distribution transformers.
Each 6/S! while working dependently! can also be integrated with an
eisting corporate information management system through software interface.
"ith additional hardware and software support! the 6/S can work as a
workstation in an eisting ;ocal %rea *etwork (;%*) and becomes a member of
the entire system or several 6/S can be connected together to form a network
of their own.
The host /entral Station (6/S) is the control center of the system! where all
the function requests onto the 0ata /oncentrator Enits (0/E) by calling their
addresses (or the telephone numbers in case of a public switched network)!
and the 0/E will respond accordingly. The address codes (Telephone number)
of the 0/E$S are stored in 6/S. "ith sufficient mass storage! theoretically all
0/EGS can be covered with the corporationGs eisting Meter 8eading
Management System.
'n this project work 8adio communication is used between energy
consumer and centrali-ed electric sub+station! where the energy consumed by
the /onsumer is remotely recorded in the Dersonal /omputer. Since it is a
demonstration module! only one energy meter is used at the consumer side!
and the received information is directly displayed! for this purpose four+digit
display is used. /omputer is also used for identifying the power theft
information and for storing the consumed energy data. The advantage of using
computer is! multiple meters data can be stored separately in different
locations. ?or the demonstration purpose only one consumer energy meter is
considered! but in practical many consumers energy consumption data can be
collected effectively.
*ow a days! the energy consumption and energy distribution has
became a big subject for discussion because of huge energy losses. 6ence!
the need has come to think on this line and a solution has to be emerged out.
Thus this project work has been taken up which serves the purpose of energy
monitoring and recording.
The eisting method of power consumption data collection is as followsH
%n energy meter installed in every house records the consumption of
electrical energy by an individual. The electricity board employees Dower
/onsumption data collectors! who records or note down the consumption data
of each household and send the data to 6eadquarters. Generally! this
collection of data is carried out at a frequency of one month. The electrical
charges payable by an individual is then calculated based on the consumption
data and the electrical charges (which are usually fied as slabs) per unit of
Electricity. The charge per unit of consumption varies from slab to slab. The
charges go+up with increase in slabs. Thus this method of data collection has
its own advantages and disadvantages. 'f the data collection is not carried out
at a fied interval! there is always a chance that the charges payable by the
consumer is erroneous.
?or EH Say if the slabs are fied at <+3> units! 3<+<>> units! <><+4>>
units! 4><+9>> units! like wise! and the collection of data is recorded every 9>
days (monthly). %ssume a case where data is taken after 93 days. 'n this case
the consumer is at loss in that he may fall into net higher category of slabs. 'n
case data is taken early! say 43 days! the board will be at a loss as the
consumption data may come into a lower category of slabs. Thus this method
of recording energy consumption data is not fool+proof.
CHAPTER %
DETAILS ABOUT ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS
T73 1)44)8-&@ 2(3 '73 2*A2&'2@3/ )1 343,'()&-, 3&3(@0 53'3(/
1. A,,+(2,0. "hile electromechanical meters are normally available with /lass
4 accuracy! electronic meters of /lass < accuracy are very common.
2. L)8 C+((3&' P3(1)(52&,3. Most of the electromechanical meters tend to
run slow after a few years and stop recording at low loads typically below I>@
of their basic current. This is due to increased friction at their bearings. This
results in large losses in revenue since most of the residential consumers will
be running at very low loads for almost 4> hours in a day. Electronic meters
record consistently and accurately even at 3@ of their basic current. %lso they
are guaranteed to start recording energy at >.I@ of their basic current. Their
performance does not deteriorate with time since power is measured using
electronic techniques.
3. L)8 #)4'2@3 P3(1)(52&,3. Most of the mechanical meters become
inaccurate at voltages below F3@ of rated voltage whereas electronic meters
record accurately even at 3>@ of rated voltage. This is a major advantage
where low voltage problem is very common.
4. I&/'2442'-)&. The mechanical meter is very sensitive to the position in which
it is installed. 'f it is not mounted vertically! it will run slow! resulting in revenue
loss. Electronic meters are not sensitive to their mounting position.
5. T25:3(. The mechanical meters can be tampered very easily even without
disturbing the wiring! either by using an eternal magnet or by inserting a thin
film into the meter to touch the rotating disc. 'n addition to these methods! in the
case of a single+phase meter! there are more than 4> conditions of eternal
wiring that can make the meter record less. 'n the case of 9 Dhase meter!
eternal wiring can be manipulated in I ways to make it slow. Esing any of
these methods cannot tamper electronic meters. Moreover they indicate the
presence of tamper by means of ;E0$s.
6. N38 F32'+(3/. Electronic meters provide many new features like prepaid
metering and remote metering that can improve the efficiency of the utility.
R35)'3 M3'3(-&@ )1 E&3(@0 M3'3(/
The introduction of electronic energy meters for electrical energy metering
has resulted in various improvements in the operations of utilities apart from the
increase in revenue due to better recording of energy consumption. :ne such
additional benefit is the possibility of reading the meters automatically using
meter+reading instruments even without going near the meter. Meter reading
instruments (M8') are intelligent devices with built in memory and keyboard.
The meter reader can download the energy consumption and related
information from the electronic meter into the meter reading instrument either
by connecting the M8' physically to the meter using their communication ports
or by communicating with the meter from a distance using 8adio ?requency
(8?) communication media.
8? communication method is similar to a cordless telephone! which is quite
common these days. The meter and the M8' are provided with an antenna.
"hen the meter reader presses a button on the M8'! it communicates with the
meter through 8? and asks for all the data that are preset. The meter responds
with all relevant data like meter identification number! cumulative energy
consumed till that time etc. %fter reading many meters like that in one M8'! the
meter reader can go to the office and transfer all these data into a computer!
which will have all these data for the previous billing period. Esing these two
data! the computer calculates the consumption for the current billing period and
prepares the bill for each consumer.
The use of 8? communication enables the utility to install the meters on top
of the electric pole out of reach of the consumers thereby eliminating chances
of tamper of the meter. ?requencies in the range of I>> M6- to 2>> M6- are
commonly used for this purpose. 6owever other frequencies can also be used.
'f the distance between meter and M8' is of the order of <> or <3 mtrs! this
communication can be achieved using low power transmitters at reasonable
costs.
Dower line carrier communication is another method of remote metering.
'n this method! the meter data is transferred to an M8' or computer by using the
power line itself as the medium of transmission. This solution is generally
cheaper than 8? but needs good quality power lines to avoid loss of data. This
method is more attractive for limited distance communication.
Third medium of communication possible is telephone line. This is viable
only for industrial meters like the Trivector meter because of the cost of
M:0EM$s required and the need for a telephone line! which may not be
available in every house. This medium has the advantage of unlimited distance
range.
P(3:2-* M3'3(/. Uet another advantage of the electronic meter is the
possibility of introducing prepaid metering system. Drepaid metering system is
the one in which the consumer pays money in advance to the utility and then
feeds this information into his meter. The meter then updates the credit
available to the consumer and starts deducting his consumption from available
credit. :nce the credit reaches a minimum specified value! meter raises an
alarm. 'f the credit is completely ehausted! the meter switches off the loads of
the consumer.
Main advantage of this system is that the utility can eliminate meter
readers. %nother benefit is that they get paid in advance. The consumer
benefits due to elimination of penalty for late payment. %lso it enables him to
plan his electricity bill epenses in a better manner.
0ue to the intelligence built in into the electronic meters! introduction
of prepaid metering becomes much easier than in the case of electro+
mechanical meters.
CHAPTER % !
SMART ENERGY METERS " AN O#ER#IEW
I&'()*+,'-)&
The potential for smart meters to offer consumers better information
about! and control over! their energy use! leading to financial savings! has been
discussed for a number of years. The other advantage of using smart meter is
that the consumer can avoid penalties for late payments. %dvances have been
made in developing the design and technology for smart meter systems
although! to date! there have been no major pilot schemes to establish the
costs and benefits to supply companies! consumers (including the fuel poor)! or
to quantify any wider benefits in terms of meeting environmental#security of
supply objectives.
W72' -/ 2 S52(' M3'3(B
The simplest form of smart metering is a display meter! which allows
consumers to monitor consumption in money terms rather than k"h. 't can be
combined with a keypad or smart card reader! which could link to prepayment
systems thereby potentially reducing costs and the higher tariffs currently
offered to prepayment meter customers.
%utomated meter reading is an option for some systems! thereby
eliminating both manual reading and the need to handle account queries which
commonly follow estimated meter readings J the most common cause of
complaint to suppliers and energy watch. 'nternet linked systems offer other
services! including welfare benefits payments from the 0epartment of "ork and
Densions and! as and when Micro /6D and solar roofs are installed! they can
serve as 7net$ meters! tracking the import and eport of electricity to and from
the distribution network.
F33*62,9 ') C+/')53(/
There is some evidence from the ES% and *orway that when households
receive feedback on their energy consumption! savings of <>@+<3@ can be
achieved. 't may therefore mean a possible contribution to reducing fuel poverty
although! clearly! there is limited scope for this in homes where under heating is
the major problem. Savings in the E5 may also be lower than in electrically
heated homes in colder climates! but even a modest 3@ reduction translates to
around V4I off the average domestic energy bill. This figure is suggested in a
0T' working group on smart meters. %lthough technically information on
consumption patterns and potential savings could be provided to customers!
the format and eact content of the information would depend on the supply
company.
B2((-3(/ ') M2(93' E&'(0
,arriers to the introduction of smart meters have beenH the lack of
standardi-ed meter types (customers would need to change meters if they
changed supplier)& current meter lifespan (although it is estimated that <.3
million meters are replaced each year! these are often refurbished eisting
7dumb$ meters)& and the cost differential + who would pay the additional costs
associated with this technologyW These issues have prevented any major trials&
although the introduction of new technologies for domestic generation of
electricity! Micro /6D and photovoltaic! will mean that more sophisticated
metering will be needed.
C2(* T3,7&)4)@0 P2@3 M35)(0 ,2(*/
Memory cards are the simple$s type of smart card. Memory cards only
have some amount of memory inside the card and this memory can be normally
read and written. There is normally nothing rely intelligent inside those cards.
Typically the memory inside this kind of cards is ED8:M! EED8:M or ?;%S6
memory. This card type is very widely used as telephone cards (tele cards).
Many countries use a tele+card system! which is very close to the first smart
card telephone system in use in ?rance
S52(' ,2(*/
6ere you can find information on real smart cards! which have a real
microprocessor inside the card. There have been many different small
microprocessors used inside smart cards including 1>9<#3< variants! D'/
micro+controllers and some special microprocessors just designed for smart
card applications. .ery many smart cards communicate using the protocols
standardi-ed in 'S: F1<= standard. The 'S:F1<= Standard define many
physical features! including card si-e! mechanical strength and electrical
properties. 'S:F1<=+4 Standard defines card contact type! placement in card
and the pin out. The standard pin out isH
/< H .cc A 3. /3 H Gnd
/4 H 8eset /= H .pp (programming voltage)
/9 H /lock /F H '#: (data in#out)
/I H 8?E /1 H 8?E
Dins marked with 8?E are application specific pins defined in application
standards. The standard supports two transmission modesH
o %synchronous transmissionH 'n this type of transmission! characters are
transmitted on the '#: line in an asynchronous half duple mode. Each
character includes an 1bit byte.
o Synchronous transmissionH 'n this type of transmission! a series of bits is
transmitted on the '#: line in half duple mode in synchroni-ation with the
clock signal on /;5.
There is a selection of different protocols available for communicating
with the card. There is a method for selecting which communication protocol to
use (one card can support one or more protocols). The most commonly used
protocol seems to be asynchronous half duple character transmission
protocol. 'n contact systems! such as reading the data from a serial EED8:M
over a two+wire ('4 /) or three+wire SD' or Micro wire bus! the power! clock! and
data lines are connected separately. Some wired smart cards use 8S+494 type
asynchronous communications! and in this case supply power and
communication through different wires.
C)&'2,' 43// /52(' ,2(*/ 2&* RFID ;R2*-) F(3C+3&,0 I*3&'-1-,2'-)&=
'n contact systems! such as reading the data from a serial EED8:M over
a two+wire ('4 /) or three+wire SD' or Micro wire bus! the power! clock! and data
lines are connected separately. Some wired smart cards use 8S+494 type
asynchronous communications! and in this case supply power and
communication through different wires. 'n contact less smart cards all this
communication and usually also the power for the smart card needs to be
transferred wirelessly using 8? signals and#or inductive coupling methods.
8adio ?requency 'dentification (8?'0) systems use radio frequency to identify!
locate and track people! assets! and animals. /harles "alton pioneered the
8?'0 technology in the <2F>s and <21>s. Dassive 8?'0 systems are
composed of three componentsH an interrogator (reader)! a passive tag! and a
host computer. The tag is composed of an antenna coil and a silicon chip that
includes basic modulation circuitry and non+volatile memory. The tag is
energi-ed by a time+varying electromagnetic radio frequency (8?) wave that is
transmitted by the reader. This 8? signal is called a carrier signal. "hen the 8?
field passes through an antenna coil! there is an %/ voltage generated across
the coil. This voltage is rectified to supply power to the tag. The information
stored in the tag is transmitted back to the reader. This is often called
backscattering. ,y detecting the backscattering signal! the information stored in
the tag can be fully identified. Dassive 8?'0 devices also use a serial bus! but
the power! clock! and data are all in the same signal. 'nstead of wires! this
signal is carried through wireless means. Typical 8?'0 system use inductive
coupling between the card and the reader. ,oth of them have coils! which
interact with each other (magnetic coupling). This interaction makes it possible
to transfer power to the card (through alternating magnetic field or pulses) and
transfer information (modulating the magnetic field). Typical these kind of
inductively coupled systems operate at <43+k6- to <9.3=+M6- frequency range.
'S: frequencies of <43 k6- and <9.3= M6- are generally used. <43 k6- and
<9.3= M6-! utili-e transformer+type electromagnetic coupling. The typical
operating distance is usually few centimeter or tens of centimeters. Sometimes
higher frequencies are used for 8?'0 tagging! but the communication methods
are somewhat different. 4.I3 G6-! for eample! uses a true 8? link. There are
also systems that operate at E6? frequencies (2>4+241 M6- in ES% and 1==+
1=1 M6- in Europe). The radio systems can operate typically from few meters
to <> meters. Systems incorporating passive 8?'0 tags operate in ways that
may seem unusual to anyone who already understands 8? or microwave
systems. There is only one transmitterH the passive tag is not a transmitter or
transponder in the purest definition of the term! yet bi+directional communication
is taking place. The 8? field generated by a tag reader (the energy transmitter)
has three purposesH
o 'nduce enough power into the tag coil to energi-e the tag. Dassive 8?'0
tags utili-e an induced antenna coil voltage for operation. This induced %/
voltage is rectified to provide a voltage source for the device. %s the 0/
voltage reaches a certain level! the device starts operating.
o Drovide a synchroni-ed clock source to the tag. Many 8?'0 tags divide the
carrier frequency down to generate an on+board clock for state machines!
counters! etc.! and to derive the data transmission bit rate for data returned
to the reader.
o %ct as a carrier for return data from the tag. ,ackscatter modulation requires
the reader to peak+detect the tagGs modulation of the readerGs own carrier.
,ackscatter modulation works by repeatedly shunting the tag coil through
a transistor& the tag can cause slight fluctuations in the readerGs 8? carrier
amplitude.
o The 8? link behaves essentially as a transformer& as the secondary winding
(tag coil) is momentarily shunted! the primary winding (reader coil)
eperiences a momentary voltage drop. This amplitude modulation loading
of the reader. Transmitted field provides a communication path back to the
reader. 't is important that the device must be equipped with a proper
antenna circuit for successful 8?'0 applications. The compleity of 8?'0
tags can vary! typically the '/s are quite simple small memory storage
holding for eample <41 bits of memory that can be read! but there are
also more complicated devices with similar functionality as normal smart
cards.
CHAPTER % 1$
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF !C SERIES CONTROLLERS
% digital computer typically consists of three major componentsH the
/entral Drocessing Enit (/DE)! program and data memory! and an 'nput#:utput
('#:) system. The /DE controls the flow of information among the components
of the computer. 't also processes the data by performing digital operations.
Most of the processing is done in the %rithmetic+;ogic Enit (%;E) within the
/DE. "hen the /DE of a computer is built on a single printed circuit board! the
computer is called a minicomputer. % microprocessor is a /DE that is
compacted into a single+chip semiconductor device. Microprocessors are
general+purpose devices! suitable for many applications. % computer built
around a microprocessor is called a microcomputer. The choice of '#: and
memory devices of a microcomputer depends on the specific application. ?or
eample! most personal computers contain a keyboard and monitor as
standard input and output devices.
% microcontroller is an entire computer manufactured on a single chip.
Microcontrollers are usually dedicated devices embedded within an application.
?or eample! microcontrollers are used as engine controllers in automobiles
and as eposure and focus controllers in cameras. 'n order to serve these
applications! they have a high concentration of on+chip facilities such as serial
ports! parallel input output ports! timers! counters& interrupt control! analog+to+
digital converters! random access memory! read only memory! etc. The '#:!
memory! and on+chip peripherals of a microcontroller are selected depending
on the specifics of the target application. Since microcontrollers are powerful
digital processors! the degree of control and programmability they provide
significantly enhances the effectiveness of the application.
Embedded control applications also distinguish the microcontroller from
its relative! the general+purpose microprocessor. Embedded systems often
require real+time operation and multitasking capabilities. 8eal+time operation
refers to the fact that the embedded controller must be able to receive and
process the signals from its environment as they are received. That is! the
environment must not wait for the controller to become available. Similarly! the
controller must perform fast enough to output control signals to its environment
when they are needed. %gain! the environment must not wait for the controller.
'n other words! the embedded controller should not be a bottleneck in the
operation of the system. Multitasking is the capability to perform many functions
in a simultaneous or quasi+simultaneous manner.
The embedded controller is often responsible of monitoring several
aspects of a system and responding accordingly when the need arises. The
1>3< is the first microcontroller of the M/S+3< family introduced by 'ntel
/orporation at the end of the <2F>s. The 1>3< family with its many enhanced
members enjoys the largest market share! estimated to be about I>@! among
the various microcontroller architectures. The architecture of the 1>3< family of
the microcontrollers is presented in this chapter. ?irst! the original 1>3<
microcontroller is discussed! followed by the enhanced features of the 1>94!
and the 1>/3<3.
T73 $51 M-,(),)&'()443( F25-40 A(,7-'3,'+(3
The architecture of the 1>3< family of microcontrollers is referred to as
the M/S+3< architecture! or sometimes simply as M/S+3<. The
microcontrollers have an 1+bit data bus. They are capable of addressing =I5 of
program memory and a separate =I5 of data memory. The 1>3< has I5 of
code memory implemented as on+chip Read Only Memory (8:M). The 1>3<
has <41 bytes of internal Random Access Memory (8%M). The 1>3< has two
timer#counters! a serial port! I general purpose parallel input#output ports! and
interrupt control logic with five sources of interrupts. ,esides internal 8%M! the
1>3< has various Special Fnc!ion Re"is!ers (S?8)! which are the control
and data registers for on+chip facilities. The S?8s also include the accumulator!
the , register! and the #ro"ram S!a!s $ord (DS")! which contains the /DE
flags. Drogramming the various internal hardware facilities of the 1>3< is
achieved by placing the appropriate control words into the corresponding
S?8$s. The 1>9< is similar to the 1>3<! ecept it lacks the on+chip 8:M.
%s stated! the 1>3< can address =I5 of eternal data memory and =I5
of eternal program memory. These may be separate blocks of memory! so that
up to <415 of memory can be attached to the microcontroller. Separate blocks
of code and data memory are referred to as the 6arvard architecture. The 1>3<
has two separate read signals! 80X and DSE*X. The first is activated when a
byte is to be read from eternal data memory! the other! from eternal program
memory. ,oth of these signals are so+called active low signals. That is! they are
cleared to logic level > when activated. %ll eternal code is fetched from
eternal program memory. 'n addition! bytes from eternal program memory
may be read by special read instructions such as the M:./ instruction. There
are separate instructions to read from eternal data memory! such as the
M:.C instruction. That is! the instructions determine which block of memory is
addressed! and the corresponding control signal! either 80X or DSE*X is
activated during the memory read cycle. % single block of memory may be
mapped to act as both data and program memory. This is referred to as the
.on *eumann< architecture. 'n order to read from the same block using either
the 80X signal or the DSE*X signal! the two signals are combined with a logic
%*0 operation. This way! the output of the %*0 gate is low when either input is
low. The advantage of the 6arvard architecture is not simply doubling the
memory capacity of the microcontroller. Separating program and data increases
the reliability of the microcontroller! since there are no instructions to write to
the program memory. % 8:M device is ideally suited to serve as program
memory. The 6arvard architecture is somewhat awkward in evaluation
systems! where code needs to be loaded into program memory. ,y adopting
the .on *eumann architecture! code may be written to memory as data bytes!
and then eecuted as program instructions.
The 1>34 has 43= bytes of internal 8%M and 15 of internal code 8:M.
The 1>3< and 1>34 internal 8:M cannot be programmed by the user. The user
must supply the program to the manufacturer! and the manufacturer programs
the microcontrollers during production. 0ue to the setup costs! the factory
masked 8:M option is not economical for small quantity productions. The 1F3<
and 1F34 are the Erasa%le #ro"ramma%le Read Only Memory (ED8:M)
versions of the 1>3< and 1>34. Many manufacturers offer the ED8:M versions
in windowed ceramic and non+windowed plastic packages. These are user
programmable. 6owever! the non+windowed versions cannot be erased. These
are usually referred to as :ne+Time+ Drogrammable (:TD) microcontrollers!
which are more suitable for eperimental work or for small production runs. The
123< and 1234 contain ?;%S6 EED8:M$s (Electrically Erasable
Drogrammable 8ead :nly Memory). These chips can be programmed as the
ED8:M versions! using a chip programmer. Moreover! the memory may be
erased. Similar to ED8:Ms! Erasing ?;%S6 memory sets all data bits (data
bytes become ??h). % bit may be cleared (made >) by programming. 6owever!
a -ero bit may not be programmed to a one. This requires erasing the chip.
Some larger ?;%S6 memories are organi-ed in banks or sectors. 8ather than
erasing the entire chip! you may erase a given sector and keep the remaining
sectors unchanged.
0uring the past decade! many manufacturers introduced enhanced
members of the 1>3< microcontroller. The enhancements include more
memory! more ports! analog J to + digital converters! more timers with compare!
reload and capture facilities! more interrupt sources! higher precision multiply
and divide units! idle and power down mode support! watchdog timers! and
network communication subsystems. %ll microcontroller of the family use the
same set of machine instructions! the M/S+3<. The enhanced features are
programmed and controlled by additional S?8s. 'n the remainder of this
chapter! the hardware architecture of the 1>3< is presented. The
enhancements brought by the 1>34 and 1>/3<3 follow.
The roll of microcontroller is very important in this project work! 12/3< is
used here! this is quit popular '/ generally used for all applications. The prime
use of a microcontroller is to function like a minicomputer using a fied program
that is stored in 8:M and that does not changeover the lifetime of the system.
The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of instructions that are
used to move code and data from internal memory to the %;E. Many
instructions are coupled with pins on the '/ package. The pins are
programmable independently! that is capable of having several different
functions depending on the program. The microcontroller is concerned with
getting data from and to its own pins& the architecture and instruction set are
optimi-ed to handle data in bit! byte! and word si-e.
Every application demands a microcontroller! today there is no such
electronic instrument or robot that functions with out microcontroller. Generally
for any application! often designers chose the 1 J bit controller! because they
are most popular microcontrollers in use today! another important aspect is cost
effective.
The heart of the chip is the circuitry that generates the clock pulses by
which all internal operations are synchroni-ed. Typically a quart- crystal and
capacitors are connected to the oscillator pins of microcontroller. The crystal
frequency is the final internal clock frequency of the microcontroller. The
manufacturers of the 1>3< devices specifies the frequency range! less
frequency other then specified may erase the data that is stored in 8:M! there
by the frequency must be always be more then the above normal. The oscillator
formed by the crystal and capacitors generates a pulse train at the frequency of
the crystal. % <4 M6- crystal yields the convenient time of one microsecond per
cycle.
!C51 MICROCONTROLLER % DESCRIPTION
Intel Corporation introduces 89c51; it is an 8-bit microcontroller. This microcontroller
has 128 bytes of RAM, 4K of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four ports of
8-bits each all on a single chip. 89c51 is basically Flash ROM version of 8051 families.
89c51 is basically a 40 pin Dual-in-package. Block diagram of 89c51 is as shown in
chapter-10, i.e., hardware details. The main features of 89c51 Hardware can be labeled
as below:
<. 't has 1+bit /DE with registers % (the accumulator) and ,.
4. Siteen+bit program counter (D/) and data pointer (0DT8).
9. Eight+bit program status word (DS").
I. Eight+bit stack pointer (SD).
3. 'nternal 8:M of > to I5.
=. 'nternal 8%M of <41 bytes.
F. 94 '#> pins arranged as four 1+bit portsH D>+D9
1. Two <=+bit Timer#/ountersH T> and T<
2. ?ull duple serial data receiver#transmitterH S,E?
<>. /ontrol registersH T/:*! TM:0! S/:*! D/:*! 'D! and 'E.
<<. Two eternal and three internal interrupt sources.
<4. :scillator and /lock circuits.
Pin descriptions:
1. VSS (pin-20)
Ground= 0 V reference
2. VCC (pin-40)
This is the power supply voltage for normal, idle and power-down modes.
3. P.0-P0.7 (pin-39 to pin 32 i.e., port 0)
Port 0 is an open-drain, bi-directional I/O port. Pins of Port 0 on which there is a high
logic will float and can be used as a high impedance inputs. Port 0 is also the
multiplexed low-order address and data bus during accesses to external program and
data memory; in this application it uses strong internal pull-ups for emitting 1s.
4. P1.0 P1.7 (Pin-1 to Pin 8 i.e., Port 1)
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 1 pins that have
1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As
inputs, port 1 pins that are externally pulled low will source current because of the
internal pull-ups.
5. P2.0 P2.7 (Pin-21 to Pin 28 i.e., Port 2)
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 2 pins that have
1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As
inputs, port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit
addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8 bit addresses (MOV
@Ri), port 2 emits the contents of the P2 special function register.
6. P3.0 P3.7 (Pin-10 to Pin 17 i.e., Port )
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 3 pins that have
1s written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As
inputs, port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the
pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the special features of the 89C51, as listed below:
RxD (P3.0): Serial input port.
TxD (P3.1): Serial output port.
INT0 (P3.2): External interrupt.
INT1 (P3.3): External interrupt.
T0 (P3.4): Timer 0 external input.
T1 (P3.5): Timer 1 external input.
WR (P3.6): External data memory write strobe.
RD (P3.7): External data memory read strobe.
7. RESET (Pin-9)
A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running, resets
the device. An internal diffused resistor to VSS permits a power-on reset using only an
external capacitor to VCC.
8. ALE (Pin-30)
Output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during an Access to external
memory. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, and can be used for external timing or clocking. Note that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory. Setting SFR auxiliary,0 can
disable ALE. With this bit set, ALE will be active only during a MOVX instruction.
9. PSEN (Pin-29)
The read strobe to external program memory. When executing code from the
external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two
PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. PSEN is
not activated during fetches from internal program Memory.
10. EA/VPP (Pin-31)
EA must be externally held low to enable the device to fetch code from external
program memory locations 0000H to the maximum internal memory boundary. If EA is
held high, the device executes from internal program memory unless the program
counter contains an address greater than 0FFFH for 4 k devices, 1FFFH for 8 k devices,
3FFFH for 16 k devices, and 7FFFH for 32 k devices. The value on the EA pin is latched
when RST is released and any subsequent changes have no effect. This pin also
receives the 5V/12V programming supply voltage (VPP) during FLASH programming.
11. XTAL1 and XTAL2 (Pin-18 and Pin-19)
Crystal1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
generator circuits.
Chapter2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier
OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an Inverting
amplifier. The pins can be configured for use a an On-chip oscillator. To drive the device
from an external clock source, XTAL1 should be driven while XTAL2 is left
unconnected. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal,
because the input to the internal clock circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop.
However, minimum and maximum high and low times specified in the data sheet must
be observed.
RESET:
A reset is accomplished by holding the RST pin high for at least two machine
cycles (24 oscillator periods), while the oscillator is running. To insure a good power-on
reset, the RST pin must be high long enough to allow the oscillator time to start up
(normally a few milliseconds) plus two machine cycles. At power-on, the voltage on
VCC and RST must come up at the same time for a proper start-up. Ports 1, 2, and 3
will asynchronously be driven to their reset condition when a voltage above VIH1 (min.)
is applied to RST. The value on the EA pin is latched when RST is disserted and has no
further effect.
Accumulator:
The A (Accumulator) is the versatile of the two CPU registers and is used for
many operations, including addition, subtraction, division, integer multiplication and
Boolean bit manipulations. The A register is also used for data transfers between the
8091 and any external memory.
B R3@-/'3(.
The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other
instructions it can be treated as another scratch pad register.
P()@(25 S'2'+/ W)(*
The PSW register contains program status information as detailed in Table below:
The PSW consists of math flags, user program flag F0, and the register bank select bits
that identify which of the four general register banks is currently in use by the program.
S'2,9 P)-&'3(
The Stack Pointer register is 8 bits wide. It is incremented before data is stored
during PUSH and CALL executions. While the stack may reside anywhere in on-chip
RAM, the Stack Pointer is initialized to 07H after a reset. This causes the stack to begin
at locations 08H.
D2'2 P)-&'3(
The Data Pointer (DPTR) consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte
(DPL). Its intended function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-
bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers.
S3(-24 D2'2 B+113(
The Serial Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a
receive buffer. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer and is held
for serial transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF is what initiates the transmission.) When
data is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.
T-53( R3@-/'3(/
Register pairs (TH0, TL0), and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counting registers for
Timer/Counters 0 and 1, respectively.
C)&'()4 R3@-/'3(
Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain
control and status bits for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.
They are described in later sections.
Timers And Counters
Timer 0 and Timer 1
The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the Special Function
Register TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four operating modes, which are
selected by bit-pairs (M1, M0). In TMOD. Modes 0, 1, and 2 are the same for both
Timers/Counters. Mode 3 is different. The four operating modes are described in the
following text:
M)*3 $.
Timer, which is an 8-bit Counter with a divide-by-32 pre scalar. The Mode 0
operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the Timer register is configured as a 13-
bit register. As the count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag
TF1. The counted input is enabled to the Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or
INT1 = 1. (Setting GATE = 1 allows the Timer to be controlled by Putting either Timer
into Mode 0 makes it look like an 8048 external input INT1, to facilitate pulse width
measurements). TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function Register TCON (Figure 3).
GATE is in TMOD: The 13-bit register consists of all 8 bits of TH1 and the lower 5 bits of
TL1. The upper 3 bits of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run
flag (TR1) does not clear the registers. Mode 0 operation is the same for the Timer 0 as
for Timer 1. Substitute TR0, TF0, and INT0 for the corresponding Timer 1 signals in
Figure 2. There are two different GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for
Timer 0 (TMOD.3).
M)*3 1.
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is being run with all
16 bits.
M)*3 2.
Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TL1) with automatic
reload, as shown in Figure 4. Overflow from TL1 not only sets TF1, but also reloads TL1
with the contents of TH1, which is preset by software. The reload leaves TH1
unchanged. Mode 2 operations are the same for Timer/Counter 0.
M)*3 3.
Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as setting TR1
= 0. Timer 0 in Mode 3 establishes TL0 and TH0 as two separate counters. The logic for
Mode 3 on Timer 0 is shown in Figure 5. TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE,
TR0, and TF0, as well as the INT0 pin. TH0 is locked into a timer function (counting
machine cycles) and takes over the use of TR1 and TF1 from Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now
controls the Timer 1 interrupt. Mode 3 is provided for applications requiring an extra 8-
bit timer on the counter. With Timer 0 in Mode 3, an 80C51 can look like it has three
Timer/Counters. When Timer 0 is in Mode 3, Timer 1 can be turned on and off by
switching it out of and into its own Mode 3, or can still be used by the serial port as a
baud rate generator, or in fact, in any application not requiring an interrupt.
TCON and TMOD are the two registers used for setting the above modes. The
format of these registers is as shown in figure TMOD is dedicated solely to the timers
and can be considered to be two duplicate 4-bit registers, each of which controls the
action of one of the timers. TCON has control bits and flags for the timers in the upper
nibble, and control bits and flags for the external interrupts in the lower nibble.
2.4 Criteria for choosing 89c51Microcontroller
1. The first and foremost criterion in choosing a microcontroller is that it must meet the task
at hand efficiently and cost effectively. In our project we have chosen an 8-bit
microcontroller, which can handle the computing needs of the task most effectively.
2. The highest speed this microcontroller can support is 12MHZ
3. To fulfill our requirements in terms of space, assembling, we have
chosen the 40-pin DIP.
4. To support the memory requirement we have chosen it as it includes 4K ROM and
128byte RAM.
5. As there are 32 I/O pins and 2 timers, it supports our input-output requirement greatly.
6. We have used the battery power product like an RTC the power consumption is critical
for it.
7. In choosing this controller we have considered the availability of an assembler,
debugger, simulator etc.
8. The ready availability in needed quantities both now and in the future. Currently, of the
leading 8-bit microcontrollers, the 8051 family has the largest number of diversified
suppliers.
CHAPTER % 11
DETAILED DESCRIPTION ABOUT RS 232
This article is intended to help the designer$s sort through the various
features available in 8S+494 interface products. The main features described
are the regulated charge pump! %uto shutdown! 8S+494 compatible versus
compliant operation! ES0 protection! and data rates including Megabaud
operation.
W72' -/ RS"232 C)55+&-,2'-)&B
8S stands for Rrecommended standardS! and 494 is a number assigned
to this standard by the Electronics 'ndustry %ssociation (E'%). 'n fact! the
updated name is E'% 4940! but most people still call it 8S+494.
The standard defines such things as the type of signal used! timing! the
number of bits in a character! which bit goes first! how to separate one
character from another! and codes to mark the beginning and the end of the
message. ,ecause of these standards! serial communication such as 8S+494
can be used over ordinary telephone lines.
RS"232 B2,9@()+&*
0espite the development of newer digital interface standards! the humble
8S+494 serial port remains the most widely used means for transferring data.
8obust and easy to use! the 8S+494 port is an attractive alternative to more
digitally demanding and temperamental interfaces.
Two 8S+494 devices still in use today! the <I11 and <I12! eemplify the
early origins of this standard. 0evices from that era are powered by bipolar
power supplies because the 8S+494 standard requires each transmitter to
provide a Q3. (minimum) signal for a low and a +3. (minimum) signal for a
high. These higher voltages ensure greater noise immunity after they travel
through lossy cables to 8S+494 receivers. ,ut they require a dual power supply
and many D/ boards included a negative power supply solely to power devices
such as the <I11 and <I12.
T73 S-&@43"S+::40 RS"232 T(2&/,3-A3(
'n <21F! Maim introduced the M%C494! the first single+supply 8S+494
device. The M%C494 (and many other devices powered by Q3. supplies)
includes two charge pumps. :ne doubles Q3. to approimately Q<>. and the
other inverts the Q<>. charge+pump output to +<>.. ,ecause these charge
pumps are unregulated! the positive and negative output voltages of the
transmitters they power often drop well below Q<>. and +<>.. 6ow far they
drop is a function both of the capacitance of the cable driven by the transmitters
and the data rate.
The M%C494 quickly became an industry standard. Many board
designers still use it! despite the fact that single+supply devices have undergone
etensive improvements over the years. Enderstanding the features of new
devices will help the design engineer choose the best parts for the application.
RS"232 T(2&/,3-A3(/ P)83(3* 60 L)8"#)4'2@3 S-&@43 S+::4-3/
%s power+supply voltages dropped from Q3. to Q9.9. and lower! single+
supply 8S+494 transceivers kept pace. Those transceivers that are powered
from voltages ranging from 9.>. to 3.3. use two regulated charge pumps
instead of the unregulated types used in the parts powered by Q3. only. 8ather
than double the input voltage! one regulated charge pump boosts the input
voltage to about Q3.I.& a regulated inverting charge pump supplies an output of
about +3.I.. % big power+savings advantage results! as Y3.I. driving the
capacitive load presented by the cable consumes quite a bit less power than!
say! Y2..
Tuestions about noise immunity often arise when design engineers first
discover these devices. Their noise immunity! however! is ecellent! as the
regulated charge pumps work harder to maintain a Y3.I. output as cables get
longer and the capacitive load increases. 'n fact! a Y3.I. output is maintained
with longer cables and higher data rates when using these devices than when
using devices with unregulated outputs that are initially of higher output voltage.
Maim also offers a series of 8S+494 transceivers that operate from
voltages as low as 4.93.. Moreover! one 8S+494 transceiver! the M%C94<1!
uses an inductor along with capacitors to allow operation with supplies as low
as Q<.1..
S2A-&@ S+::40 C+((3&' '7()+@7 A+') /7+'*)8& T3,7&-C+3/
Many 8S+494 transceivers provide a simple shutdown feature thatGs
activated by applying a logic level to the shutdown pin. :ften this feature saves
enough current to allow the battery of a portable piece of equipment to last for a
sufficient amount of time. %nother means for shutting down the power of an 8S+
494 device is available! however& it places the 8S+494 device into shutdown
mode whenever it detects that the 8S+494 interface isnGt in use. This feature!
called %uto shutdown! is useful! because in many applications 8S+494 devices
are used for only short periods of time.
The %uto shutdown feature monitors whether the 8S+494 interface isnGt in
use by detecting whether a cable is present. 'f a cable isnGt connected to an 8S+
494 transceiver! thereGs no reason to power the device. % transceiver equipped
with the %uto shutdown feature monitors the 8S+494 signals at its receivers to
determine whether a cable is connected. "hen a cable isnGt present! the
signals at the 8S+494 receiver inputs hover near >.& the transceiver shuts
down when all its receiver inputs are at or near >.. The part automatically takes
itself out of shutdown if any one of the receiver inputs eceeds Q4.F. or goes
below +4.F. (i.e.! whenever the cable is reconnected). %lso! this feature can be
overridden with signals that force the device on or off.
%uto shutdown Dlus is similar to %uto shutdown in that it is designed to
save power by shutting down the 8S+494 device whenever itGs not in use. The
difference! however! is that %uto shutdown Dlus shuts down the transceiver not
only when the cable is disconnected! but also when the cable is connected and
data edges havenGt appeared for 9> seconds or more. That way you can get the
benefit of an automated shutdown regardless of whether the cable is
connected. %uto shutdown+Dlus devices monitor both the 8S+494 receiver
inputs and the digital transmitter inputs for signal activity& shutdown ensues if no
activity is present on any of these lines. %s with %uto shutdown! you can force
on or off the device using pins that override the %uto shutdown plus feature.
The %uto shutdown Dlus logic incorporated in an 8S+494 transceiver
such as the M%C9491 allows the transceiver to stay powered as long it detects
signal transactions at its transmitter or receiver inputs within 9> seconds.
:therwise the transceiver is automatically powered down because no signal
transactions are present. ;ogic levels applied to the ?:8/E:* and
?:8/E:??+bar pins turn device power on and off independently of whether
signal activity is detected.
C)5:2'-643 #3(/+/ C)5:4-2&'
To be compliant with the 8S+494 specification! transmitters are required to
provide a Y3. output. ?or 8S+494 receivers to be compliant! their thresholds
must be Y9. maimum. Thus! these devices operate with a healthy Y4. noise
margin (and often more! because receiver thresholds are usually lower than
Y9.). 'tGs possible to erode some of that margin and still maintain accurate data
transmissions. Margins get reduced when transmitter output voltages span a
narrower range. "hen transmitter outputs are a minimum of Y9.F.! they are
considered to be compatible! instead of compliant! 8S+494 outputs. ?or
eample! when you power an 8S+494 device that doesnGt contain charge
pumps (and hence is cheaper and smaller) with Y3. supplies! its output
voltages cannot possibly reach Y3.. % device operated under those conditions
with transmitter outputs of Y9.F. at minimum is said to be 8S+494 compatible
instead of compliant.
E&72&,3* ESD P()'3,'-)&
%ll 8S+494 devices include ES0+protected structures on their pins to
protect against electrostatic discharges encountered during handling and
assembly. Some manufacturers offer devices both with standard and enhanced
protection. ,ecause both the standard and the enhanced+protection parts
almost always come with the same pin out! adding devices with enhanced ES0
protection usually requires no modification to an eisting D/ board.
Some applications require Y<3k. ES0 protection on both the 8S+494
and the /M:S digital pins. ?or eample! in order to reduce cost and si-e! cell
phones do not include the 8S+494 transceiver in the phone itself. 'nstead! they
route /M:S+level signals out through the connector at the bottom of the phone.
'f the cell+phone owner wants to connect to the 8S+494 port of a laptop! he or
she purchases a Zdata+lumpZ cable! which includes an 8S+494 transceiver. 'n
this situation! both sides of the 8S+494 transmitters and receivers are brought
out to connectors! eposing them to increased ES0 risk. 'n such cases! it may
be desirable to have etended ES0 protection on both the 8S+494 and /M:S
sides of the transmitters and receivers. The M%C991>E and M%C991<E are
two eamples of transceivers that are suited to this task.
D2'2 R2'3/
The latest 8S+494 specification calls for data rates of 4>kbps or below.
0espite this restriction! the data rates of most 8S+494 transceivers far surpass
that speed. 'n fact! todayGs 8S+494 transceivers reach speeds of < Mbps. To
reach that speed! those devices violate another 8S+494 specification! the
maimum allowed transmitter+output slew rate of 9>.#is.
CHAPTER % 12
HARDWARE DETAILS
The '/$s and other important components used in this project work! procured
from the 6yderabad Electronics Market. The details or data sheets of the '/$s
are down loaded from the 'nternet. The following are the web sites that can be
browsed for collecting the data sheets.
<. www. Teas 'nstruments.com
4. www. *ational semiconductors.com
9. www. ?airchild semiconductors.com
The following are the '/$s and other important components used in this
project work
(<) %0FF3< J Energy metering '/
(4) M%C 494
(9) 12/3<#34 Microcontroller /hip
(I) FI;S3F9 + ;atch
(3) .oltage 8egulator
(=) 333 Timer '/
(F) 8elay
The required D/,$S (Drinted /ircuit boards) for the project work
fabricated by SE* 8'SE /'8/E'TS! 5ushaiguda 'ndustrial Estate! 6yderabad.
5ushaiguda 'ndustrial Estate is very famous for fabricating the 'ndustrial grade
D/,$s.
CHAPTER % 14
CONCLUSIONS.
The project work RGetting Energy Meter 0ata through GSM MobileS is
completed successfully! for the demonstration purpose a prototype module is
constructed! which is very near to the real working system! and results are
found to be satisfactory. The concept of GSM energy meter is the new trend in
technology! wide variety of systems with various features are developed! but
here the system offers unique features. The technology implemented here is
quite innovative& the benefits of this system are plenty when compared with the
eisting system.
Since the system utili-es GSM technology! many more features like
identifying the tampered energy meter! monitoring the line voltage and load
current! etc. can be monitored remotely through the same mobile phone. 'f
required the customer can disconnect the supply to the house through his
mobile when he is away from the house. ,y implementing this type of system
everywhere at domestic and industrial side! using GSM technology! centrali-ed
monitoring station can be designed from where all the energy meters are
monitored continuously! in this regard a perfect energy auditing system can be
designed and accordingly energy pilferage can be minimi-ed. %nother
important concept that can be designed based on this GSM technology is! line
loss identifier! in this either transmission losses or tapping energy directly from
the lines can be detected by sending information to the mobile! to prove this
concept! two GSM modems are to be used at both ends of energy transmission
lines! and both ends power flow data can be sent to single mobile. ;ike wise the
advantages and applications of the GSM technology are plenty.
REFERENCES.
"hile designing and fabrication of this project work! we studied lot of
material gathered from websites! totally we have depended on websites only!
because suitable books related to the GSM technology are not available in the
market. The information gathered from yahoo.com search Engine. 8egarding
micro controllers! plenty of books are available! the following are the references
made during design! development and fabrication of the project work.
(<) 0igital and 0ata /ommunications ,yH Michael %. Miller
(4) ,asic electronics ,yH G8:,
(9) Mobile and Dersonal /ommunication System and Services
,yH 8%PD%*0U%
(I) The 1>3< Micro+controller %rchitecture! programming B %pplications
,yH 5enneth P. %yala
(3) Dractical transistor circuit design and analysis
,yH GE8%;0 E. "';;'%MS
(=) Drogramming and /ustomi-ing the 1>3< Micro+controller ,yH Myke Dredko
(F) The concepts and ?eatures of Micro+controllers + ,yH 8aj 5amal
(1) The '/ 333 Timer %pplications Source book
,yH 6:"%80 M. ,E8;'*
(2) 0igital Electronics. ,y P:SED6 P./%88
(<>) Electronics for you Monthly Maga-ine
(<<) Dractical Electronics R R
(<4) Elector 'ndia