AM Trans-Receiver

A
MINI PROJ ECT REPORT

ON

AM TRANSRECEIVER

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of
Bachelor of Technology Degree
Of
Assam Don Bosco University, Guwahati

2010-2011

Guided By: Submitted By:
Mr. Bikash Agarwal Sivaranjan Goswami (AZ010000121)
Prof./Asst. prof./Lecturer B.Tech. (ECE)
ECE Department Semester 5
th

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DON BOSCO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRPORT ROAD , AZARA, GUWAHATI-781017, ASSAM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DON BOSCO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
GUWAHATI 781017

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Mini project entitled AM Transreceiver is
submitted by SIVARANJAN GOSWAMI (DC2009BTE4066) a
student of Semester V in partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering of Assam
Don Bosco University, Guwahati during the academic year 2011-2012.
The work has been found satisfactory and is approved for submission

Ms. Jhimli Das
(Deptt. Incharge, ECE)

(Mr. Bikash Agarwal) Prof. Manoranjan Kalita
(Guide) (Principal, DBCET)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We feel profound happiness in forwarding this mini project report as an
image of sincere efforts. It is almost inevitable to ensure indebtedness to all
who generously helped by sharing their valuable experience and devoting
their precious time with us, without which this seminar report would have
never been accomplished.
First and foremost we extend our thanks and gratitude to our guide Mr.
Bikash Agarwal, Asst. prof. (ECE Deptt.), under whose guidance this
seminar could be accomplished and who provided us the timely valuable
inputs which enhanced our performance.
We are highly indebted to Prof. Manoranjan Kalita, Ms. J himli Kumari
Das, Mr. Koustabh Bhattacharya and Ms. Himashree and others at the Don
Bosco College of Engineering and Technology for their valuable support
and guidance.

SIVARANJ AN GOSWAMI
B.Tech. Third Year, V Sem
ECE

CONTENTS
1. Front Page (a)
2. Certificate (b)
3. Acknowledgement (c)
4. Contents (d)
5. Figure Index (e)
6. Abstract 1
7. Introduction 2
8. Amplitude modulation theory 3
9. Circuit and working 5
I. AM Transmitter 5
a. RF Oscillator 5
b. Amplitude Modulator 6
c. RF Power Amplifier 7
II. AM Receiver 8
a. Tuned LC Circuit 9
b. Envelope Detector 9
c. AF Power Amplifier 10
III. Antenna Sharing Circuitry 10
a. Half Duplex or PTT Transreceiver 10
b. Full Duplex Transreceiver 11
10. Description of Key Components Used 12
I. LM741 Operational Amplifier 11
II. Bipolar J unction Transistor and BC547 14
III. 1N4148 High Speed Diode 15
11. Discussion 16
12. Conclusion 17
13. Bibliography 18
14. Appendix 19
I. Data Sheet of LM741 Op-Amp 19
II. Data Sheet of B547 Bipolar J unction Transistor 26
III. Data Sheet of 1N4148 High Speed Diode 30

FIGURE INDEX
FIGURE PAGE NO
1. Waveforms of Amplitude Modulation 4
2. Block Diagram of AM Transreceiver 5
3. Colpitts Oscillator Circuit 6
4. Amplitude Modulator Circuit 7
5. Non-Inverting Amplifier using Op-Amp 8
6. AM Receiver Circuit 8
7. Block-Diagram of Duplexer Network 11
8. Pin diagram of LM741 Op-Amp 12
9. Inverting Amplifier using Op-Amp 14

AM Transreceiver
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Page 1

ABSTRACT
The Amplitude Modulated (AM) Tarns-Receiver is the combination of an
AM Transmitter and an AM Receiver. The aim of our project to design and
construct two sets of AM Transreceivers. The transmitting frequency of the
first one will be equal to the receiving frequency of the second one and the
transmitting frequency of the second one will be equal to the receiving
frequency of the first one. In this way it will be possible to talk through a
certain distance with the help of this device.
A single antenna will be used for both transmission and reception. A
duplexer circuit will be used in order to isolate the transmitter and the
receiver although using the same antenna.
The wireless transreceiver can be used to communicate between two
persons like a walkie-talkie set. It will be made portable so that it can be used
in busy places like big building construction sites where it is very important
for supervisors to communicate with each other from different parts of the
building

AM Transreceiver

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
An Amplitude Modulated (AM) Transreceiver is a device which can be used to talk
through a distance. As the name suggests, it is the combination of three words: Amplitude
Modulation, Transmitter and Receiver. The term Amplitude Modulation suggests that the
modulation scheme used in the device is Amplitude Modulation. It is a device that consists
of two parts, namely, an AM Transmitter and an AM Receiver.
The aim of our project to design and construct two sets of AM Transreceivers. The
transmitting frequency of the first one will be equal to the receiving frequency of the second
one and the transmitting frequency of the second one will be equal to the receiving
frequency of the first one. In this way it will be possible to talk through a certain distance
with the help of this device.
The transmitter circuit is the combination of one Colpitts Oscillator, one RF Voltage
Amplifier, one Amplitude Modulator circuit (using PN J unction Diode), one AF Voltage
Amplifier and one RF Power Amplifier. The input audio signal is received through a
microphone.
The receiver circuit consists of a Band Pass filter (using LC tuned circuit), an RF
Voltage Amplifier, an Envelope Detector circuit and an AF Power Amplifier. The output of
the power amplifier will be given to a speaker.

AM Transreceiver

CHAPTER 2:AMPLITUDE MODULATION THEORY
Modulation is the process of impressing a low-frequency intelligence signal onto a
high-frequency carrier signal. Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a process that a high-
frequency carrier signal is modulated by a low frequency modulating signal (usually an
audio).
In amplitude modulation the carrier amplitude varies with the modulating amplitude.
There are various types of Amplitude Modulation schemes. The simplest scheme is called
Double Sideband with Suppressed Carrier Amplitude Modulation (DSBSC-AM). It is given
by:

The disadvantage of this scheme is that it requires coherent demodulation, i.e., the
carrier signal with same frequency and phase has to be multiplied with the message signal
in order to retrieve the message from the modulated signal. It makes the construction of the
receiver very complex. To overcome this shortcoming, another modulation scheme was
introduced where the modulation envelope can be directly detected from the modulated
signal with the help of a circuit called envelope detector. The general amplitude modulated
signal is given by the relation:

Here,
S
AM
(t) =AM Signal
A
c
=Amplitude of the carrier signal
m =Modulating Index
m
=Angular frequency of the message signal
c
=Angular frequency of the message signal
t f t f m A t S
t t m A t S
c m C AM
c m C AM

2 cos ) 2 cos 1 ( ) (
cos ) cos 1 ( ) (

) ( ) ( ) ( t c t m t SDSBSC
AM Transreceiver
f
m
=Frequency of the message signal
f
c
=Frequency of the carrier signal
t =Time (Independent variable)
The amplitude modulated wave for a sinusoidal message signal (AF) and sinusoidal
carrier signal are as shown in figure1 (Fig-1). Modulation Index (m) is given by:

Fig-1: Modulating signal, carrier signal and modulated signal in case of Amplitude
Modulation scheme
In our project we are using general amplitude modulation scheme. It is easy to
obtain general amplitude modulated signal using a high speed diode and a band pass filter.

) E + (E
) E (E
= m
min max
min - max
AM Transreceiver
CHAPTER 3: CIRCUIT AND WORKING

Fig 2: Block Diagram of AM Transreceiver
1. AM Transmitter
The AM Transmitter is the combination of a RF Oscillator (for generation of
carrier), an amplitude modulator and a RF power amplifier. The input to this
block is given from a microphone; that converts speech to audio signal, after
amplifying it with a simple voltage amplifier. The various blocks and the circuits
are described below:
a. RF Oscillator:
The RF Oscillator is a circuit that produces a Radio Frequency sinusoidal
signal. We are using a Colpitts Oscillator to serve this purpose. The
circuit of the Colpitts oscillator is as shown in Fig-3. The Colpitts
oscillator is constructed using a BLT (BC547). It consists of a BJ T
amplifier in Common Emitter (CE) Mode, connected in potential divider
bias configuration. An LC tank circuit is used as reactive feedback
network. The output frequency of the circuit is given by:

eq LC
f
2
1
2 1
2 1
,
C C
C C
C Where eq
AM Transreceiver

Fig-3: Colpitts Oscillator Circuit
b. Amplitude Modulator
An Amplitude Modulator is a circuit that is used to achieve Amplitude
Modulation. Amplitude Modulation is the modulation is the modulation
scheme in which the amplitude of the RF carrier (usually in the range 300
kHz to 3 MHz) is varied in accordance with the low frequency message
signal (20 Hz to 20 kHz, Audio signal). A commonly used amplitude
modulator circuit is nothing but a non linear device such as a PN junction
diode. The PN junction diode is a non-linear element which behaves like a
frequency multiplier. A Band Pass filter is connected in cascade with the
device. The centered frequency of the Band Pass Filter is kept equal to the
frequency of the RF Carrier signal. The Amplitude Modulator circuit is
shown in Fig-3. Here m(t) is the modulating audio signal and c(t) is the RF
Carrier generated by the Oscillator circuit. Here L and C are chosen so that:

carrier f
LC

2
1
AM Transreceiver

Fig-4: Amplitude Modulator circuit diagram

c. RF Power Amplifier:
It is used to amplify the power level of the modulated signal before
transmission. It is a simple amplifier circuit but the transistor used is a
power transistor. The circuit is connected in Common Emitter Mode in
Potential Divider configuration.

It is to be mentioned here that we are using the same circuit for the
amplification of both AF signal and RF signal. It is a non-inverting
amplifier using LM741 Op-Amp. Since the LM741 Op-Amp is a high
gain amplifier IC which works for a high range starting fromaudio signal
up to 3 MHz, it is suitable for both the case. The non-inverting amplifier
circuit using LM741 Op-Amp is shown in Fig-5.

AM Transreceiver

Fig-5: Non-Inverting Amplifier using Op-Amp
The gain of this amplifier is given by:

2. AM Receiver:
An AM Receiver is a circuit that is used to receive an amplitude modulated
signal transmitted by an AM Transmitter. A typical receiver circuit is as shown
below (Fig-5). It consists of a tuned LC Circuit with antenna, an RF amplifier,
an envelope detector and an AF Power Amplifier.

Fig-6: A Typical AM Receiver Circuit

1
1
R
R
V
V
A
F
in
out

AM Transreceiver

Various blocks and circuits of the AM Receiver are described
below:
a. Tuned LC Circuit:
The LC tuned circuit is used to select the particular frequency that is to be
received by the receiver. It is a parallel LC circuit. The circuit gives very
high impedance at its resonant frequency, given by:

At all other frequencies it gives very low impedance. Thus the signals of
frequency equal to f
c
are passed to the receiver and the remaining
frequencies are directly shorted to ground (since impedance is very small). In
a typical AM receiver the value of L is kept fixed and the value of C is
varied using a variable ganged capacitor to select different radio station.
However, in our case, the values of both L and C are kept fixed since the
receiver block is meant for receiving only a particular frequency.

b. Envelope Detector:
The envelope detector is a circuit that detects the modulation envelope in an
amplitude modulated signal. As can be seen in Fig-6 it comprises of a diode
followed by a RC parallel circuit. The diode acts as a Half Wave Rectifier
(HWR). An AM signal contains a replica of its message signal in both its
positive and negative half cycles. For demodulation purpose only one
envelope is required. Hence one envelope is eliminated using the HWR. The
RC parallel circuit is nothing but a Low Pass Filter (LPF). The signal after
being passed through the HWR contains two components, namely, one high
frequency carrier component and one low frequency message component.
The LPF filters out the high frequency carrier component and allows thus
extracts the message signal fromthe AM signal. For better performance, the
cut-off frequency of the LPF should be so selected that the cut-off frequency
is very much less than the frequency of the carrier (f
c
) signal and very much
greater than the message signal (f
m
). It can be written mathematically as:
LC
fc
2
1
AM Transreceiver

c. AF Power Amplifier:
It is a power amplifier that is used to raise the power level of the
demodulated audio signal, before giving the signal as input to the speaker. It
is nothing but a simple amplifier using Op-Amp. The output stage of an
LM741 Op-Amp contains a complimentary push-pull audio power amplifier.
Thus the Op-Amp will amplify the voltage of the signal and also increase its
power level.
3. Antenna Sharing Circuitry
A big challenge in designing a transreceiver circuit is the fact that a single circuit
cannot have two separate antennas for both transmission and reception. The
main reason is that when an antenna is connected to a circuit, it always radiates
some signal, indifferent of whether it is used for transmission or for reception.
Even a receiver antenna continuously emits some radiations. That is why, if the
circuit contains separate antennas for transmission and reception, then an
interference-pattern will be generated. To avoid this we must use a single
antenna that is to be shared between the transmitter and the receiver. It is to be
noted that we cannot directly connect the output of the transmitter and the input
of the receiver to the common antenna. Because, in that case, the high power
output of the transmitter block may damage the receiver circuit. Therefore we
must use appropriate mechanism for sharing a common antenna between
transmitter and receiver. There are two mechanisms for achieving this:

a. Half Duplex Transreceiver or PTT Transreceiver
PTT is the abbreviation of Push to Talk or Press to Transmit, both of
which carries the same meaning. In a PTT transreceivers, there is a push-
c m
c m
c off cut m
RC
f
RC
f
f f f

1 1
2
1

AM Transreceiver

button. When the button is not pressed, the receiver circuit is kept
connected to the antenna and thus the circuit behaves like an AM
Receiver. When we it is required to transmit some signal, then the push-
button needs to be pressed. As long as the push button is kept pressed,
the transmitter section is connected to the antenna and the receiver
section is detached. This type of transreceivers cannot act as both
transmitter and receiver simultaneously. It has to work either as a
transmitter or as a receiver, depending on whether the push-button
pushed or released

b. Full Duplex Transreceiver:
A full duplex transreceiver can act both as a transmitter and receiver
simultaneously. In such transreceivers, the transmitter and the receiver
sections are kept separated by a network of filters, known as duplexer.
The block-diagram of a duplexer is shown in Fig-7.

Fig-7: Block Diagram of Duplexer network

Here, f
1
is the carrier frequency of the transmitter and f
2
is the carrier
frequency of some other transmitter that the receiver is supposed to
receive. If the difference between f
1
and f
2
is very small, then the order of
the Band Pass Filter (DPF)-s and Band Reject Filter (BRF)-s should be
high.

AM Transreceiver

CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTION OF KEY CIRCUIT
ELEMENTS USED
1. LM741 Op-Amp
The LM741 is a general purpose Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) manufactured by
National Semiconductors. It comes in an 8 pin Dual-in-Line package (DIP)
encapsulated in plastic enclosure. The pin configuration of the IC is as shown below:

Fig-8: Pin configuration of LM741 Op-Amp
Pin 7 and 4 (Power Supply): The DC biasing voltage to run the Op-Amp is
provided through this pin. For a commercial LM741C, the power supply is in the
range 18 Volts. In case of LM741A and LM741 it is 22 Volts.
Pin 2 (Inverting Input): The input stage of any Op-Amp is a differential amplifier.
The LM741 is also not an exception. We know that a differential amplifier has a
non-inverting input and an inverting input. The Pin 3 of LM741 is used as the
inverting input terminal.
Pin 3(Inverting Input): As it has been already discussed, the input stage of an Op-
Amp is a differential amplifier. This pin is used as the non-inverting input terminal
of the Differential amplifier.
Pin 6 (Output): This pin is the output terminal of the operational amplifier.
AM Transreceiver

Pin 1 and Pin 5 (Offset Null): These two pins can be used to nullify the offset
voltage. To nullify the offset voltage, the two fixed arms of a potentiometer (POT) is
connected between the two pins (1 and 5) and the adjustable arm is connected to pin
4. The knob of the POT is rotated until the offset voltage becomes zero.
Pin 8: This pin is a no-connection (NC) pin.

Amplifier Circuits using Op-Amp
As the name suggests, the operational amplifiers can be used to perform various
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication etc. However, there are
basically two types of amplifiers that can be realized using an Op-Amp.
(i) Non-Inverting Amplifier:
In Non-Inverting amplifier, the output is the amplified replica of the output.
There is no phase-shift between the input and the output. The non-inverting
amplifier using op-amp is shown in Fig-5. Its gain is given by:

(ii) Inverting Amplifier:
In Inverting amplifier, the output is an amplified replica of the output, but
there is a 180 degree phase shift between the input and the output. The
inverting amplifier circuit is shown in Fig: 8. The gain of Inverting amplifier
is given by:

1
1
R
R
V
V
A
F
in
out

1 R
R
V
V
A
F
in
out

AM Transreceiver

Fig-9: Inverting Amplifier using LM741 Op-Amp

2. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and BC547
The Bipolar J unction Transistor is made up of a semiconductor, such as Ge or Si, in
which a p-type thin layer is sandwiched between two n-type layers. The transistor so
formed is called an n-p-n Transistor. Alternatively, a BJT can also have an n-type
thin layer between two p-type layers. The transistor then is called a p-n-p Transistor.
The middle portion of the BJ T is called base and the two side portions are called
emitter and collector respectively.
Transistors are widely used in various circuits. They can be used as amplifiers,
switches, current mirrors etc. However, the most widely used application of BJ T is
as amplifiers. Although BJ Ts are also used widely used as switches, but other
transistors such as MOSFET, CMOS etc. are more preferred as switch because of
their high switching speed.
A BJ T can be used in various modes such as Common Base (CB) mode, Common
Emitter (CE) mode and Common Collector (CC) mode. In CB mode, the base is
grounded; the input is given to the emitter and the output is taken from the collector.
In CE mode, the emitter is grounded; the input is given to the emitter and the output
is taken from the collector. In case of CC mode the collector is grounded; the input
is given to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.
In case of oscillator also, the BJ T is used as an amplifier. The oscillator consists of
an amplifier and a reactive positive feedback network. For generation of audio
AM Transreceiver

frequency (AF) wave, the feedback network is an RC feedback network. Examples
of such AF amplifiers include Wien Bridge oscillator, Phase-shift oscillator etc. In
these oscillator usually an Op-Amp is used as amplifier. For generation of RF signal,
the feedback signal must be an LC network or LC tuned circuit. Colpitts oscillator is
of such type. Other such oscillators include Hartley oscillator and Armstrong
oscillator. The Colpitts oscillator we are using uses a BJ T as amplifier. This
oscillator can also be constructed using Op-Amp as amplifier.
BC547 is a general purpose, low power BJT which is made up of silicon. It is very
commonly used as voltage amplifier and oscillator circuit.

3. 1N4148 High Speed Diode
The 1N4148 is a general purpose, high speed PN Junction diode. Its switching speed
is very high of 4ns. The diode in case of envelope detector is used as a half wave
rectifier which has to rectify the carrier signal of very high frequency. That is why
this high speed is used in envelope-detector circuit. The main features of this diode
are:
Hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) package
High switching speed: max. 4 ns
General application
Continuous reverse voltage: max. 100 V
Repetitive peak reverse voltage: max. 100 V
Repetitive peak forward current: max. 450 mA.

AM Transreceiver

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
In this section we will discuss the results obtained at various levels of the project
and the outputs of various circuits constructed.
1. RF Oscillator:
The Oscillator is used to generate the carrier wave for the modulator circuit. The
carrier signal is set to be 1.1MHz. The output of the oscillator is successfully
obtained by setting L=10 H and C=1nF. The amplitude of the carrier signal is
found to be 1.5 V (3 V
P-P
).
2. Amplitude Modulator:
The output of the amplitude modulator is also successfully obtained. Its amplitude is
found to vary with the message signal amplitude. The high speed diode uded is
1N4148. The switching speed of this diode is very high and hence it is it is guud for
such circuits.
3. Envelope Detector:
The envelope detector is found to give proper output and the message signal found
to be retrieved properly from the modulated signal. However, the attenuation of the
circuit is found to be very high and hence the output demodulated signal amplitude
is found to be very less ( 0.50 mV).
4. RF Amplifier:
This circuit is tried to build using both transistor and Op-Amp, however, the output
of the circuit could not be obtained properly. Because of lack of time we could not test a
number of elements to realize this circuit. Therefore this circuit has to be eliminated.
That is why the initial objective of designing a wireless transreceiver was also to be
dropped and we designed the transreceiver systema wired one.
5. Audio Amplifier:
Bothe the voltage and current AF amplifier was constructed using non-inverting
amplifier using LM741 Op-Amp. The circuit was found to give proper output for
audio signal and hence it was selected.

AM Transreceiver

CONCLUSION:
The amplitude modulated trensreceiver circuit is constructed by combining all the
circuits discussed according to the block diagram. General AM scheme is used to construct
the circuit. The biggest disadvantage of this scheme is that it is that AM signal can be
received very easily if the frequency of the carrier used to transmit the signal is known.
Thus there is a risk of information leakage. This disadvantage can be overcome by
employing DSBSC (Double Side-Band Suppressed Carrier) AM. In case of DSBSC AM,
coherent demodulation is required in which the AM signal is to be multiplied with the
carrier of same frequency and phase as that is used to modulate the signal. However it
makes the receiver more costly and bulky. DSBSC AM scheme can be used in our case if
we feel the need of information privacy and risk.

AM Transreceiver

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. B. P. Lathi and Zhi Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communicatuion System,
4
th
Edition, Chapter 4, Page 151-158
2. Amplitude Modulator, http://www.zen22142.zen.co.uk/spice/spice.htm
3. A. Chakrabarti, Circuit Theory, 5
th
4. The J ack Daniel Company, DUPLEXERS An Introductory Tutorial,
http://www.rfsolutions.com/duplex.htm
5. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, Op-Amps and Linerar Integrated Circuits, 4
th
Edition,
Chapter 2, Page 46
6. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory,
10
th
7. A. K. Sawhney and Puneet Sawhney, A Course in Electrical and Electronics
Measurement and Instrumentation, 18
th
Edition (Reprint 2008), Chapter 22, Page
847-849.

LM741
Operational Amplifier
General Description
The LM741 series are general purpose operational amplifi-
ers which feature improved performance over industry stan-
dards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in replacements
for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in most applications.
The amplifiers offer many features which make their appli-
cation nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and
output, no latch-up when the common mode range is ex-
ceeded, as well as freedom from oscillations.
The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A except that
the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0C to
+70C temperature range, instead of 55C to +125C.
Features
Connection Diagrams
Metal Can Package Dual-In-Line or S.O. Package
00934102
Note 1: LM741H is available per JM38510/10101
Order Number LM741H, LM741H/883 (Note 1),
LM741AH/883 or LM741CH
See NS Package Number H08C
00934103
Order Number LM741J, LM741J/883, LM741CN
See NS Package Number J08A, M08A or N08E
Ceramic Flatpak
00934106
Order Number LM741W/883
See NS Package Number W10A
Typical Application
Offset Nulling Circuit
00934107
August 2000
L
M
7
4
1
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
A
m
p
l
i
f
i
e
r
2004 National Semiconductor Corporation DS009341 www.national.com
Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 2)
If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required,
please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
(Note 7)
LM741A LM741 LM741C
Supply Voltage 22V 22V 18V
Power Dissipation (Note 3) 500 mW 500 mW 500 mW
Differential Input Voltage 30V 30V 30V
Input Voltage (Note 4) 15V 15V 15V
Output Short Circuit Duration Continuous Continuous Continuous
Operating Temperature Range 55C to +125C 55C to +125C 0C to +70C
Storage Temperature Range 65C to +150C 65C to +150C 65C to +150C
Junction Temperature 150C 150C 100C
Soldering Information
N-Package (10 seconds) 260C 260C 260C
J- or H-Package (10 seconds) 300C 300C 300C
M-Package
Vapor Phase (60 seconds) 215C 215C 215C
Infrared (15 seconds) 215C 215C 215C
See AN-450 Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability for other methods of
soldering
surface mount devices.
ESD Tolerance (Note 8) 400V 400V 400V
Electrical Characteristics (Note 5)
Parameter Conditions LM741A LM741 LM741C Units
Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max
Input Offset Voltage T
A
= 25C
R
S
10 k 1.0 5.0 2.0 6.0 mV
R
S
50 0.8 3.0 mV
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
R
S
50 4.0 mV
R
S
10 k 6.0 7.5 mV
Average Input Offset 15 V/C
Voltage Drift
Input Offset Voltage T
A
= 25C, V
S
= 20V 10 15 15 mV
Adjustment Range
Input Offset Current T
A
= 25C 3.0 30 20 200 20 200 nA
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
70 85 500 300 nA
Average Input Offset 0.5 nA/C
Current Drift
Input Bias Current T
A
= 25C 30 80 80 500 80 500 nA
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
0.210 1.5 0.8 A
Input Resistance T
A
= 25C, V
S
= 20V 1.0 6.0 0.3 2.0 0.3 2.0 M
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
, 0.5 M
V
S
= 20V
Input Voltage Range T
A
= 25C 12 13 V
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
12 13 V
L
M
7
4
1
www.national.com 2
Electrical Characteristics (Note 5) (Continued)
Parameter Conditions LM741A LM741 LM741C Units
Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max
Large Signal Voltage Gain T
A
= 25C, R
L
2 k
V
S
= 20V, V
O
= 15V 50 V/mV
V
S
= 15V, V
O
= 10V 50 200 20 200 V/mV
T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
,
R
L
2 k,
V
S
= 20V, V
O
= 15V 32 V/mV
V
S
= 15V, V
O
= 10V 25 15 V/mV
V
S
= 5V, V
O
= 2V 10 V/mV
Output Voltage Swing V
S
= 20V
R
L
10 k 16 V
R
L
2 k 15 V
V
S
= 15V
R
L
10 k 12 14 12 14 V
R
L
2 k 10 13 10 13 V
Output Short Circuit T
A
= 25C 10 25 35 25 25 mA
Current T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
10 40 mA
Common-Mode T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
Rejection Ratio R
S
10 k, V
CM
= 12V 70 90 70 90 dB
R
S
50, V
CM
= 12V 80 95 dB
Supply Voltage Rejection T
AMIN
T
A
T
AMAX
,
Ratio V
S
= 20V to V
S
= 5V
R
S
50 86 96 dB
R
S
10 k 77 96 77 96 dB
Transient Response T
A
= 25C, Unity Gain
Rise Time 0.25 0.8 0.3 0.3 s
Overshoot 6.0 20 5 5 %
Bandwidth (Note 6) T
A
= 25C 0.437 1.5 MHz
Slew Rate T
A
= 25C, Unity Gain 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 V/s
Supply Current T
A
= 25C 1.7 2.8 1.7 2.8 mA
Power Consumption T
A
= 25C
V
S
= 20V 80 150 mW
V
S
= 15V 50 85 50 85 mW
LM741A V
S
= 20V
T
A
= T
AMIN
165 mW
T
A
= T
AMAX
135 mW
LM741 V
S
= 15V
T
A
= T
AMIN
60 100 mW
T
A
= T
AMAX
45 75 mW
Note 2: Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is
functional, but do not guarantee specific performance limits.
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Electrical Characteristics (Note 5) (Continued)
Note 3: For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and T
j
max. (listed under Absolute Maximum
Ratings). T
j
= T
A
+ (
jA
P
D
).
Thermal Resistance Cerdip (J) DIP (N) HO8 (H) SO-8 (M)
jA
(Junction to Ambient) 100C/W 100C/W 170C/W 195C/W
jC
(Junction to Case) N/A N/A 25C/W N/A
Note 4: For supply voltages less than 15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
Note 5: Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for V
S
= 15V, 55C T
A
+125C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E, these
specifications are limited to 0C T
A
+70C.
Note 6: Calculated value from: BW (MHz) = 0.35/Rise Time(s).
Note 7: For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A.
Note 8: Human body model, 1.5 k in series with 100 pF.
Schematic Diagram
00934101
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Physical Dimensions inches (millimeters)
unless otherwise noted
Metal Can Package (H)
Order Number LM741H, LM741H/883, LM741AH/883, LM741AH-MIL or LM741CH
NS Package Number H08C
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Physical Dimensions inches (millimeters) unless otherwise noted (Continued)
Ceramic Dual-In-Line Package (J)
Order Number LM741J/883
NS Package Number J08A
Dual-In-Line Package (N)
Order Number LM741CN
NS Package Number N08E
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Physical Dimensions inches (millimeters) unless otherwise noted (Continued)
10-Lead Ceramic Flatpak (W)
Order Number LM741W/883, LM741WG-MPR or LM741WG/883
NS Package Number W10A
National does not assume any responsibility for use of any circuitry described, no circuit patent licenses are implied and National reserves
the right at any time without notice to change said circuitry and specifications.
For the most current product information visit us at www.national.com.
LIFE SUPPORT POLICY
NATIONALS PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS
WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT AND GENERAL COUNSEL OF NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR
CORPORATION. As used herein:
1. Life support devices or systems are devices or systems
which, (a) are intended for surgical implant into the body, or
(b) support or sustain life, and whose failure to perform when
properly used in accordance with instructions for use
provided in the labeling, can be reasonably expected to result
in a significant injury to the user.
2. A critical component is any component of a life support
device or system whose failure to perform can be reasonably
expected to cause the failure of the life support device or
system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.
BANNED SUBSTANCE COMPLIANCE
National Semiconductor certifies that the products and packing materials meet the provisions of the Customer Products Stewardship
Specification (CSP-9-111C2) and the Banned Substances and Materials of Interest Specification (CSP-9-111S2) and contain no Banned
Substances as defined in CSP-9-111S2.
National Semiconductor
Americas Customer
Support Center
Email: new.feedback@nsc.com
Tel: 1-800-272-9959
Europe Customer Support Center
Fax: +49 (0) 180-530 85 86
Email: europe.support@nsc.com
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Email: jpn.feedback@nsc.com
Tel: 81-3-5639-7560
www.national.com
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p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
A
m
p
l
i
f
i
e
r
2002 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation Rev. A2, August 2002
B
C
5
4
6
/
5
4
7
/
5
4
8
/
5
4
9
/
5
5
0
NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor
Absolute Maximum Ratings T
a
=25C unless otherwise noted
Electrical Characteristics T
a
=25C unless otherwise noted
h
FE
Classification
Symbol Parameter Value Units
V
CBO
Collector-Base Voltage : BC546
: BC547/550
: BC548/549
80
50
30
V
V
V
V
CEO
Collector-Emitter Voltage : BC546
: BC547/550
: BC548/549
65
45
30
V
V
V
V
EBO
Emitter-Base Voltage : BC546/547
: BC548/549/550
6
5
V
V
I
C
Collector Current (DC) 100 mA
P
C
Collector Power Dissipation 500 mW
T
J
Junction Temperature 150 C
T
STG
Storage Temperature -65 ~ 150 C
Symbol Parameter Test Condition Min. Typ. Max. Units
I
CBO
Collector Cut-off Current V
CB
=30V, I
E
=0 15 nA
h
FE
DC Current Gain V
CE
=5V, I
C
=2mA 110 800
V
CE
(sat) Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage I
C
=10mA, I
B
=0.5mA
I
C
=100mA, I
B
=5mA
90
200
250
600
mV
mV
V
BE
(sat) Base-Emitter Saturation Voltage I
C
=10mA, I
B
=0.5mA
I
C
=100mA, I
B
=5mA
700
900
mV
mV
V
BE
(on) Base-Emitter On Voltage V
CE
=5V, I
C
=2mA
V
CE
=5V, I
C
=10mA
580 660 700
720
mV
mV
f
T
Current Gain Bandwidth Product V
CE
=5V, I
C
=10mA, f=100MHz 300 MHz
C
ob
Output Capacitance V
CB
=10V, I
E
=0, f=1MHz 3.5 6 pF
C
ib
Input Capacitance V
EB
=0.5V, I
C
=0, f=1MHz 9 pF
NF Noise Figure : BC546/547/548
: BC549/550
: BC549
: BC550
V
CE
=5V, I
C
=200A
f=1KHz, R
G
=2K
V
CE
=5V, I
C
=200A
R
G
=2K, f=30~15000MHz
2
1.2
1.4
1.4
10
4
4
3
dB
dB
dB
dB
Classification A B C
h
FE
110 ~ 220 200 ~ 450 420 ~ 800
BC546/547/548/549/550
Switching and Applications
High Voltage: BC546, V
CEO
=65V
Low Noise: BC549, BC550
Complement to BC556 ... BC560
1. Collector 2. Base 3. Emitter
TO-92
1
B
C
5
4
6
/
5
4
7
/
5
4
8
/
5
4
9
/
5
5
0
Typical Characteristics
Figure 1. Static Characteristic Figure 2. Transfer Characteristic
Figure 3. DC current Gain Figure 4. Base-Emitter Saturation Voltage
Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage
Figure 5. Output Capacitance Figure 6. Current Gain Bandwidth Product
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
20
40
60
80
100
I
B
= 50A
I
B
= 100A
I
B
= 150A
I
B
= 200A
I
B
= 250A
I
B
= 300A
I
B
= 350A
I
B
= 400A

I
C
[
m
A
]
,

C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R

C
U
R
R
E
N
T
V
CE
[V], COLLECTOR-EMITTER VOLTAGE
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
0.1
1
10
100
VCE = 5V

I
C
[
m
A
]
,

C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R

C
U
R
R
E
N
T
VBE[V], BASE-EMITTER VOLTAGE
1 10 100 1000
1
10
100
1000
VCE = 5V

h
F
E
,

D
C

C
U
R
R
E
N
T

G
A
I
N
IC[mA], COLLECTOR CURRENT
1 10 100 1000
10
100
1000
10000
IC = 10 IB
VCE(sat)
VBE(sat)

V
B
E
(
s
a
t
)
,

V
C
E
(
s
a
t
)
[
m
V
]
,

S
A
T
U
R
A
T
I
O
N

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
IC[A], COLLECTOR CURRENT
1 10 100 1000
0.1
1
10
100
f=1MHz
IE = 0

C
o
b
[
p
F
]
,

C
A
P
A
C
I
T
A
N
C
E
VCB[V], COLLECTOR-BASE VOLTAGE
0.1 1 10 100
1
10
100
1000
VCE = 5V

f
T
,

C
U
R
R
E
N
T

G
A
I
N
-
B
A
N
D
W
I
D
T
H

P
R
O
D
U
C
T
IC[mA], COLLECTOR CURRENT
Package Dimensions
B
C
5
4
6
/
5
4
7
/
5
4
8
/
5
4
9
/
5
5
0
0.46 0.10
1.27TYP
(R2.29)
3
.
8
6
M
A
X
[1.27 0.20]
1.27TYP
[1.27 0.20]
3.60 0.20
1
4
.
4
7

0
.
4
0
1
.
0
2

0
.
1
0
(
0
.
2
5
)
4
.
5
8

0
.
2
0
4.58
+0.25
0.15
0.38
+0.10
0.05
0
.
3
8
+
0
.
1
0
0
.
0
5
TO-92
Dimensions in Millimeters
2002 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation Rev. I1
TRADEMARKS
The following are registered and unregistered trademarks Fairchild Semiconductor owns or is authorized to use and is not
intended to be an exhaustive list of all such trademarks.
DISCLAIMER
FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR RESERVES THE RIGHT TO MAKE CHANGES WITHOUT FURTHER NOTICE TO ANY
PRODUCTS HEREIN TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY, FUNCTION OR DESIGN. FAIRCHILD DOES NOT ASSUME ANY
LIABILITY ARISING OUT OF THE APPLICATION OR USE OF ANY PRODUCT OR CIRCUIT DESCRIBED HEREIN;
NEITHER DOES IT CONVEY ANY LICENSE UNDER ITS PATENT RIGHTS, NOR THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS.
LIFE SUPPORT POLICY
FAIRCHILDS PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT
DEVICES OR SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR
CORPORATION.
As used herein:
1. Life support devices or systems are devices or systems
which, (a) are intended for surgical implant into the body,
or (b) support or sustain life, or (c) whose failure to perform
when properly used in accordance with instructions for use
provided in the labeling, can be reasonably expected to
result in significant injury to the user.
2. A critical component is any component of a life support
device or system whose failure to perform can be
reasonably expected to cause the failure of the life support
device or system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.
PRODUCT STATUS DEFINITIONS
Definition of Terms
Datasheet Identification Product Status Definition
Advance Information Formative or In
Design
This datasheet contains the design specifications for
product development. Specifications may change in
any manner without notice.
Preliminary First Production This datasheet contains preliminary data, and
supplementary data will be published at a later date.
Fairchild Semiconductor reserves the right to make
changes at any time without notice in order to improve
design.
No Identification Needed Full Production This datasheet contains final specifications. Fairchild
Semiconductor reserves the right to make changes at
any time without notice in order to improve design.
Obsolete Not In Production This datasheet contains specifications on a product
that has been discontinued by Fairchild semiconductor.
The datasheet is printed for reference information only.
FACT
FACT Quiet series
FAST
FASTr
FRFET
GlobalOptoisolator
GTO
HiSeC
I
2
C
ImpliedDisconnect
ISOPLANAR
LittleFET
MicroFET
MicroPak
MICROWIRE
MSX
MSXPro
OCX
OCXPro
OPTOLOGIC
OPTOPLANAR
PACMAN
POP
Power247
PowerTrench
QFET
QS
QT Optoelectronics
Quiet Series
RapidConfigure
RapidConnect
SILENT SWITCHER
SMART START
SPM
Stealth
SuperSOT-3
SuperSOT-6
SuperSOT-8
SyncFET
TinyLogic
TruTranslation
UHC
UltraFET
VCX
ACEx
ActiveArray
Bottomless
CoolFET
CROSSVOLT
DOME
EcoSPARK
E
2
CMOS
EnSigna
Across the board. Around the world.
The Power Franchise
Programmable Active Droop
DATA SHEET
Product data sheet
Supersedes data of 2002 J an 23
2004 Aug 10
DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTORS
1N4148; 1N4448
High-speed diodes
M3D176
2004 Aug 10 2
NXP Semiconductors Product data sheet
High-speed diodes 1N4148; 1N4448
FEATURES
Hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35)
package
High switching speed: max. 4 ns
General application
Continuous reverse voltage: max. 100 V
Repetitive peak reverse voltage: max. 100 V
Repetitive peak forward current: max. 450 mA.
APPLICATIONS
High-speed switching.
DESCRIPTION
The 1N4148 and 1N4448 are high-speed switching diodes
fabricated in planar technology, and encapsulated in
hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35)
packages.
MARKING
TYPE NUMBER MARKING CODE
1N4148 1N4148PH or 4148PH
1N4448 1N4448
Fig.1 Simplified outline (SOD27; DO-35) and
symbol.
The diodes are type branded.
handbook, halfpage
MAM246
k a
ORDERING INFORMATION
TYPE NUMBER
PACKAGE
NAME DESCRIPTION VERSION
1N4148 hermetically sealed glass package; axial leaded; 2 leads SOD27
1N4448
2004 Aug 10 3
LIMITING VALUES
In accordance with the Absolute Maximum Rating System (IEC 60134).
Note
1. Device mounted on an FR4 printed-circuit board; lead length 10 mm.
SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. MAX. UNIT
V
RRM
repetitive peak reverse voltage 100 V
V
R
continuous reverse voltage 100 V
I
F
continuous forward current see Fig.2; note 1 200 mA
I
FRM
repetitive peak forward current 450 mA
I
FSM
non-repetitive peak forward current square wave; T
j
=25 C prior to
surge; see Fig.4
t =1 s 4 A
t =1 ms 1 A
t =1 s 0.5 A
P
tot
total power dissipation T
amb
=25 C; note 1 500 mW
T
stg
storage temperature 65 +200 C
T
j
junction temperature 200 C
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
T
j
=25 C unless otherwise specified.
SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. MAX. UNIT
V
F
forward voltage see Fig.3
1N4148 I
F
=10 mA 1 V
1N4448 I
F
=5mA 0.62 0.72 V
I
F
=100 mA 1 V
I
R
reverse current V
R
=20 V; see Fig.5 25 nA
V
R
=20 V; T
j
=150 C; see Fig.5 50 A
I
R
reverse current; 1N4448 V
R
=20 V; T
j
=100 C; see Fig.5 3 A
C
d
diode capacitance f =1 MHz; V
R
=0 V; see Fig.6 4 pF
t
rr
reverse recovery time when switched from I
F
=10 mA to
I
R
=60mA; R
L
=100 ;
measured at I
R
=1 mA; see Fig.7
4 ns
V
fr
forward recovery voltage when switched from I
F
=50 mA;
t
r
20 ns; see Fig.8
2.5 V
THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
Note
1. Device mounted on a printed-circuit board without metallization pad.
SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS VALUE UNIT
R
th(j-tp)
thermal resistance from junction to tie-point lead length 10 mm 240 K/W
R
th(j-a)
thermal resistance from junction to ambient lead length 10 mm; note 1 350 K/W
2004 Aug 10 4
GRAPHICAL DATA
0 100 200
300
200
0
100
mbg451
T
amb
(C)
I
F
(mA)
Fig.2 Maximum permissible continuous forward
current as a function of ambient
temperature.
Device mounted on an FR4 printed-circuit board; lead length 10 mm.
Fig.3 Forward current as a function of forward
voltage.
handbook, halfpage
0 1 2
600
0
200
400
MBG464
V
F
(V)
I
F
(mA)
(1) (2) (3)
(1) T
j
=175 C; typical values.
(2) T
j
=25 C; typical values.
(3) T
j
=25 C; maximum values.
Fig.4 Maximum permissible non-repetitive peak forward current as a function of pulse duration.
Based on square wave currents.
T
j
=25 C prior to surge.
handbook, full pagewidth
MBG704
10
t
p
(s)
1
I
FSM
(A)
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
2
10
3
10
1
2004 Aug 10 5
0 100
T
j
(C)
200
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
2
10
(1)
1
I
R
(A)
mgd290
(2)
Fig.5 Reverse current as a function of junction
temperature.
(1) V
R
=75 V; typical values.
(2) V
R
=20 V; typical values.
Fig.6 Diode capacitance as a function of reverse
voltage; typical values.
f =1 MHz; T
j
=25 C.
handbook, halfpage
0 10 20
1.2
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.8
MGD004
V
R
(V)
C
d
(pF)

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