V

VARIABLE
Reference: Constants.
VARIANCE
In statistics the variance of a set of data is the square of the standard deviation of the
data:
Variance =
2
Reference: Standard Deviation.
VARIATION
There are two kinds of variation discussed in this text. One is direct variation, which
is also called direct proportion, and the other is inverse variation, which is also called
inverse proportion. Both of these terms are explained in the entry Proportion.
Reference: Proportion.
VECTOR
In this entry we discuss only two-dimensional vectors. Vectors are quantities that have
both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors are force, velocity, and accelera-
tion. Speed is not a vector, because it has magnitude, but not direction. Suppose Ken
is using a garden roller on the lawn and he is pulling with a force of 200 newtons. We
have stated the magnitude of the force, but not the direction. We may add that Ken is
pulling at an angle of 30

to the horizontal. Both the magnitude and the direction are

needed to describe a vector quantity.
In this entry, a line segment represents a vector, and the length of the line segment
represents the magnitude or size of the vector and the direction of the line segment is
464
The A to Z of Mathematics: A Basic Guide.
Thomas H. Sidebotham
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN: 0-471-15045-2
VECTOR 465
the direction of the vector. Ken is pulling the garden roller with a force of 200 newtons
at an angle of 30

with the lawn. This vector can be represented by a line segment

which is drawn at an angle of 30

with the horizontal (see gure a). An arrow on the

line indicates the direction in which the force acts. Figure a is a scale drawing of the
vector where 200 newtons is represented by the length of the line segment.
(a)
30
200 N
There are different ways of writing vectors. Suppose a vector is represented on
the grid in gure b by a line segment AB. In writing by hand, it is difcult to express
vectors by thick letters as when using heavy type, and this notation will not be used
in this text. Writing the vector AB means that its direction is from A to B. The vector
BA is the negative of AB, and its direction is from B to A.
A
B
a
F
AB
AB or
a F or a or F or
AB
(b)
Vectors are also expressed as 2 by 1 matrices, in a similar way to translations. The
vector AB can be expressed as AB =

4
3

, and the vector BA =

4
3

. (For this positive

and negative convention see the entry Translations.) When vectors are expressed as
2 by 1 matrices they are called column vectors, and can be added and subtracted in
the following way.
Example 1. If a =

2
1

and b =

4
3

, work out (a) a +b, (b) a b, and (c) 2a +3b

Solution. For (a), write
a +b =

2
1

4
3

2 +4
1 +(3)

Adding the numbers in the column vectors

=

2
2

Adding integers
466 VECTOR
For (b), write
a b =

2
1

4
3

2 4
1 (3)

Subtracting the numbers in the column vectors

=

6
4

Subtracting integers
For (c), write
2a +3b = 2

2
1

+3

4
3

4
2

12
9

Multiplying the rst vector by 2 and the

second by 3
=

8
7

Adding the two vectors

The magnitude, or size, of a vector is the length of the line segment that represents
the vector. It is found using the theorem of Pythagoras.
Example 2. Find the magnitude of the vector a =

4
3

.
(c)
3
4
a
Solution. The vector is drawn in gure c. Write
a
2
= 4
2
+(3)
2
Pythagoras Theorem
a
2
= 16 +9 Squaring the numbers
a
2
= 25
a =

25 Taking square roots

a = 5
The magnitude of the vector is 5.
Vectors can also be added using a vector triangle, as explained in the following
example.
VECTOR TRIANGLE 467
Example 3. Pat loves swimming and decides to swim across a stream that ows
uniformly at a speed of 2 km/h. In still water Pat can swim at 3 km/h. Her plan is to
swim directly across the stream at right angles to the bank, but the water pulls her
downstream. What is her resultant speed, andinwhat directiondoes she cross the river?
RIVER
3
2
R

P
S
R
S
2 km/h
P
3 km/h
(d)
Solution. Let the velocity of the stream be S and the velocity of Pat be P. These two
vectors are added using a vector triangle in the following way. Draw the vector P (see
gure d). Draw the vector S starting at the point where P ends. Then complete the
triangle of vectors with the resultant vector R as the hypotenuse. Draw an arrow on
the vector R in the direction from where P starts to where S ends, as shown in the
gure. Write
R
2
= 3
2
+2
2
Theorem of Pythgoras
R
2
= 9 +4
R
2
= 13
R = 3.61 (to 2 dp) Taking the square root of 13
tan =
3
2
Tan =
opposite
adjacent
, using trigonometry
= tan
1

3
2

If tan = a, then = tan

1
a
= 56.3

Using the calculator

Pats resultant speed is 3.61 km/h at an angle of 56.3

with the bank.

References: Components of a Vector, Line Segment, Pythagoras Theorem, Translation,
Trigonometry.
VECTOR TRIANGLE
References: Components of a Vector, Vector.
468 VERTICAL
VELOCITY
Velocity is dened to be the rate at which the displacement of an object is changing
as time changes. The basic unit of velocity, as of speed, is meters per second. Another
common unit is kilometers per hour. If an object is traveling at a constant speed of v
meters/second for t seconds and covers d meters, then the formulas connecting these
quantities are
distance = speed time, speed =
distance
time
, time =
distance
speed
Example. Amanda runs the 100 meters in 12.9 seconds. Find her speed in meters/
second and in kilometers/hour, assuming she runs at a constant speed throughout.
Solution. Write
Speed =
distance
time
=
100
12.9
Substituting distance = 100, time = 12.9
= 7.75 (to 2 dp)
Amandas speed is 7.75 meters/second.
Now write
Speed = 7.75 3.6 1 meter/second = 3.6 kilometers/hour
= 27.9
Amandas speed is 27.9 kilometers/hour.
Reference: Displacement.
VELOCITYTIME GRAPHS
Reference: Acceleration.
VERTEX
Reference: Edge.
VERTICAL
Reference: Horizontal.
VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES 469
VERTICAL LINE TEST
Reference: Correspondence.
VERTICAL PLANE
Reference: Inclined Plane.
VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES
When two straight lines intersect at a vertex there are two pairs of congruent angles.
Angles at the vertex that are opposite each other are called vertically opposite angles,
and are equal in size. In this geometry theorem, vertically has no reference to the
word vertical, but is derived from the word vertex (see gure a):
Angle a = angle b and Angle c = angle d
a
b
c
d
(a)
Example. Figure b shows an open pair of scissors. If angle x = 47

, nd the size
of angle y.
(b)
x y
Solution. Write
y = 47

Vertically opposite angles are equal

Reference: Geometry Theorems.
470 VOLUME
VOLUME
The volume of a solid shape is a measure of the three-dimensional space it occupies.
It is measured in cubic units, which is written as units
3
. We can nd the volume of a
solid shape, say a cuboid, by counting the number of cubes that its three-dimensional
space occupies. The volume of a cuboid measuring 3 cm by 2 cm by 3 cm can be
found by counting the number of cubic centimeters (abbreviated cm
3
) it occupies.
There are three layers of cubes, and in each layer there are six cubes, so the volume
of the cuboid is 6 +6 +6 = 18 cm
3
.
length
width
height
Alternatively, the volume of the cuboid can be found using the formula (see the
gure)
Volume = length width height
= 3 2 3 Substituting length = 3, width = 2,
and height = 3
= 18 cm
3
For examples of nding the volumes of well-known solids see the respective entries.
The units commonly used for volume are
r
Cubic millimeter, mm
3
r
Cubic centimeter, cm
3
r
Cubic meter, m
3
The relationships between these units are
1000 mm
3
= 1 cm
3
1,000,000 cm
3
= 1 m
3
When we are nding the volume of liquid that a vessel holds we say we are nding
the capacity of the vessel.
References: Capacity, Cube, Cuboid, Metric Units.