Paper Offer#07NAPLES-163

Performance and Engine Roughness of a Diesel Engine

Running on Stabilized Water Diesel Emulsion
Mohamed Y. E. Selim
Mech. Eng. Dept., College of Eng., UAE University
United Arab Emirates

Mamdouh T. Ghannam
Chem.& Pet. Eng. Dept., College of Eng., UAE University
United Arab Emirates

Copyright 2007 SAE International
ABSTRACT
An experimental investigation has been carried out to
produce a stable diesel / water emulsion fuel and use it
in a diesel engine under different operating and design
conditions. The use of advanced mixing technique and
emulsifying agent enabled the production of stable
emulsion of up to 30% water in diesel for up to one
week. In some of the water/diesel ratios, the emulsion
was stable for about 4 weeks.
The physical properties of the stable W/D emulsions in
terms of density, surface tension, and viscosity were
measured and investigated. The effect of surfactant
concentration, mixing time and mixer speed has been
studied. A computer image analyzer system was used to
investigate the water droplets - fuel interaction and the
water droplets distribution within the diesel phase. The
stable emulsion has been used in an indirect injection
Ricardo E6 diesel engine and performance and engine
roughness parameters have been measured. The
engine was fully computerized and the cylinder pressure
data, crank angle data and other performance data were
stored in a PC for off-line analysis. The effect of
water/diesel ratio, engine speeds, loads, fuel injection
angle, and engine compression ratio on combustion
maximum pressure, maximum pressure rise rate, brake
power output and brake specific fuel consumption has
been studied. The water/diesel emulsion was stable for
long enough time for transportation and use. The
addition of water in diesel generally affected the engine
combustion noise, brake power output and specific fuel
consumption.

INTRODUCTION
The use of water into diesel engines has a number of
possible benefits. It has been found by many previous
works that it has influence on reducing the peak flame
temperature and hence reducing the Nitrogen Oxides,
NO
x
emissions [1-7]. It has also been shown [8] that
adding water may help to improve atomization and
mixing, which is attributed to droplet micro-explosions
[9]. The improved mixing is due to the increased
vaporized fuel jet momentum, giving greater air
entertainment into the fuel jet [8]. The improved mixing
also assists in the reduction in the NO
x
emissions from
the diffusive burning portion of the combustion event as
well as reducing the carbon formation. This effect,
together with the chemical effect of the water results in
an increased ignition delay [8,10]. This promotes an
increase in the premixed portion of the combustion
process, which decreases the diffusive burning and
hence also contributes to the reduction in the NO
x
emissions and carbon formation [7]. There is also
considerable evidence that adding water to diesel fuel
can reduce the particulate matter PM or smoke
emissions [7].
There are four primary methods of introducing water into
the diesel engines; water injection into the cylinder using
a separate injector, using hybrid injection, spraying
water into the inlet air, and water / diesel emulsions.
Although all these methods produced a reduction in NO
x

but it has been concluded in a review [11-14] that the
use of water/diesel emulsion was the most effective
technique for the reduction of diesel particulates or
smoke, for four stroke DI engines. It has been also
shown by some industrial manufacturer that production
of such emulsion is possible e.g. Lubrizol [15-16].
Mello and Mellor [1] have modeled the experimental
results of others who tested two methods of water
admission namely stratified diesel-water-diesel injection
inside the cylinder and intake manifold fumigation
(injecting water into intake manifold). They have
compared the experimental NOx results of Kohketsu et.
al. [5] with their modeling using a two-zone characteristic
time model which is based on the dominant physical and
chemical sub-processes occurring in the cylinder. They
have used a fuel injection pump and water injection
pump with a hybrid injection nozzle to inject the water
pulse between two fuel pulses. For the intake manifold
fumigation, it is claimed that it resulted in a presumable
uniform distribution of water vapor in the cylinder at the
time of combustion. The vaporization of water occurs as
the water and air are heated through the compression
stroke. However, diesel/water emulsion reduced NOx
slightly more than fumigation method. Christensen and
Johansson [2] also used the intake manifold fumigation
by using a common low pressure fuel injector; however,
they have found that both carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons increased with water injection. Andrews
et. al. [7] used an emulsifying agent, Arlacel C, to create
the diesel/water emulsion and suggested that ordinary
liquid soap may be used. They however did not prove
the stability of the emulsion for long time. Almost all of
the work published in using the water diesel emulsion
did not study the stability of such emulsion, but either
used another injector to inject the water inside the
combustion chamber or used a mixing device inside the
engine tank with small water/diesel ratios of up to 10%
[10].
There is growing interest in diesel fuel industry to
produce and utilize stable diesel/water emulsion as
ordinary fuel for diesel engines. Fuel additive
manufacturers are trying to make diesel oil and water to
mix, or at least they can be neighborly enough to form a
pollution-cutting diesel fuel. There have been trials to
produce a very stable emulsion that stays in suspension
over a long period of time. If the fuel remains still for
many days, larger droplets of the chemically coated
water may settle to the bottom of a tank.
In the current work it was the first main objective to
produce a stable water/diesel emulsion and study the
parameters affecting the stability of the emulsion. The
emulsion should be stable for many days or weeks to
allow for production of the fuel, transportation and use in
diesel engines.
The second main objective of the present work is then to
experimentally investigate the effects of using the stable
emulsion with different water / diesel ratios on the main
performance parameters of the engine e.g. brake power
output and brake specific fuel consumption. Also the
effect of the emulsion properties on the engine
roughness expressed as maximum pressure rise rate
and maximum pressure will be examined. A
precombustion chamber, single cylinder Ricardo E6
research diesel engine was used throughout the present
work. The variables studied included the engine speed,
the engine load (or fuelling rate), injection timing, engine
compression ratio and the ratio of water to diesel.
EXPERIMENTAL ENGINE TEST RIG
The research engine used in the present study is the
Ricardo E6 single cylinder variable compression indirect
injection diesel engine. The specifications of the engine
are listed in Table 1. The engine cylinder head has a
Ricardo Comet Mk V compression swirl combustion
chamber. This type of combustion system consists of
two parts. The swirl chamber in the head has a top half
of spherical form and the lower half is a truncated cone,
which communicates with the cylinder by means of a
narrow passage or throat. The second part consists of
special cavities cut into the crown of the piston.
The engine is loaded by an electrical dynamometer
rated at 22 kW and 420 volts. The engine is fully
equipped for measurements of all operating parameters
and noise data. The pressure time history is measured
by a water-cooled piezo-electric pressure transducer
and crankshaft degree angle sensor connected to the
relevant amplifiers. The liquid fuel flow rate is measured
digitally by a multi-function micro processor-based fuel
system, Compuflow System. A data acquisition system
is used to collect the important data and store it in a
personal computer for offline analysis. The following
parameters are fed into the computer: cylinder pressure
data, crank angle degrees signal, liquid fuel flow rate
data, engine speed and torque, and
air/oil/coolant/oil/exhaust temperatures. A computer
program in MACBASIC language is written to collect
the data and manage the system and a workstation
operating system has been used to run the program.
The pressure signal is fed into a charge amplifier then to
a data acquisition card linked to the personal computer
and the crank angle signal is fed into a degree marker
shape channel and the output is fed into the acquisition
card. The acquisition card could collect data at the rate
of 250 kHz. The pressure and crank angle data is
stored in the computer disk for offline analysis. A
computer program is written to find the pressure rise rate
data at all cycle points from mid compression stroke to
mid exhaust stroke. The maximum value of pressure
rise rate is then obtained and recorded. This value will
be used to represent the noise level at that operating
condition. The maximum combustion pressure has also
been recorded for the all operating conditions.
Experiments have been carried out after running the
engine for some time until it reaches steady state and oil
temperature is at 50
o
C 5, and cooling water
temperature is at 70
o
C 5.
Data are presented as brake power, brake specific fuel
consumption, maximum pressure and maximum
pressure rise rate in bar/degrees for the following
operating parameters:
a. The water ratio in the diesel emulsion and it is varied
at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% water (the engine could
not run at higher water ratios).
b. The engine speed, and it is varied from 18 to 34 rps
c. The engine load, and it is varied from 2 to 20 Nm
d. The fuel injection timing, and it is varied from 20 to
45 BTDC
e. The engine compression ratio, and it is varied from
14 to 22


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Emulsion Stability
Due to the positive role of water presence with W/D
emulsion on the pollution level of NO
x
and particulate
matters emission, a wide range of water concentration is
studied in this investigation over the range of 0 50% by
volume in 10% increment.
Among numerous tested samples in terms of stability
behavior, the decision was made to investigate the best
sample for each water concentration. Six samples of
W/D emulsions were tested over the water concentration
range of 10 % to 50 %. Table 2 shows the preparing
conditions and stability period for each sample.

The size distribution of water droplets within W/D
emulsion samples listed in Table 2 was observed by the
computer image analyzer system. It has been found that
the water droplets distribution decreases gradually over
the water concentration range of 10 % to 30 % due to
the significant increase of total number of mixing
revolution and therefore producing smaller diameters of
water droplets. Any more addition of water concentration
beyond 30 %, the water droplets distribution slightly
increases producing larger diameters of water droplets
due to the same total number of mixing revolutions is
utilized for 30 %, 40 % and 50 % water concentration.
The Sauter mean droplet diameter D
sv
is used for all
tested emulsions to measure the average diameter of
the water droplets for each emulsion. The results are
reported in Table 3.
Figure 1-a shows the percentage of water separated by
volume versus the elapsed time for 20% W/D emulsion.
The percentage of water separated can be calculated
from:
% water separated = [(H
2
O)
i
-

(H
2
O)
f
] * 100 / (H
2
O)
i

(1)
Where (H
2
O)
i
is the initial water content, and (H
2
O)
f
is
the final water content. This emulsion was prepared with
no surfactant added, three minutes of mixing period, and
with mixing speed range of 15,000 to 60,000 rpm. Figure
1-a shows that the % water separated is almost 80% at
time equals zero, i.e. when the homogenizer was
ceased. This sample needs only five minutes to
separate the whole amount of introduced water. Higher
mixing speed up to 60,000 rpm over 3 minutes of mixing
did not enhance the emulsion stability and that is due to
the absence of surfactant. Another run for 20 % W/D
emulsion was prepared using 20,000 rpm of mixing
speed, no surfactant was added, and mixing period up to
30 minutes. Again, this test showed that almost 90%
water was separated within the first ten minutes of
elapsed time. Therefore, this preliminary study shows
that the presence of surfactant is crucial for W/D
emulsion stability. The surfactant added to the mixture
reduces the interfacial tension between the water and
the diesel to produce the emulsion and to stabilize the
water droplets phase within the continuous phase of
diesel fuel. Non-ionic surfactant of Triton X-100 (iso-
Octylphenoxypolyethoxy ethanol from BDH Middle East
L.L.C. United Arab Emirates) was used as an
emulsifying agent in the concentration range of 0 5 %
by volume. W/D emulsion was prepared by using Silent
Crusher M homogenizer (from Heldolph Instruments
GmbH & Co KG Germany) over rpm range of 5,000
26,000.
Figure 1-b shows the effect of water added on the
emulsion stability in the presence of 0.2 % surfactant
concentration. The emulsions were prepared by mixing
speed 15,000 rpm and mixing time of two minutes.
Figure 1-b shows that the 10 % W/D emulsion remains
stable for almost four weeks (approximately 4 10
4
min)
without any separated water. In the case of 20% W/D
emulsion, it remains stable for ten days before any water
was separated. The behavior of 30 %, 40 %, and 50 %
W/D emulsions are also reported in Figure 1-b. The last
three emulsions remain stable only for five hours, then
the water starts to be separated from the emulsion. As
can be seen, the % water separated gradually increases
with the water concentration. For 50 % W/D emulsion,
for example, 67 % of water was separated within 3.8
days. Figure 1-b shows the importance of the surfactant
role for the W/D emulsion stability. For higher stability
period of higher percentage of water in diesel emulsion,
more amount of surfactant and total number of
revolution are needed. W/D emulsion stability can be
improved significantly through the conditions that avoid
the coalescence mechanism of small water droplets.
Whereas the coalescence will produce larger water
droplets and eventually will lead to unstable W/D
emulsion. The smaller the droplets, the more intense the
agitation should be to disrupt them. For 20% water, at
15000 rpm for 10 minutes mixing, and adding 1%
surfactant, the emulsion was stable for 4 weeks. When
30% water-in-diesel emulsion was prepared, it was
found that it can stay stable for 1 week if 20000 rpm
mixing for 30 minutes and using 1.7% of surfactant were
used.
Engine Results
Figure 2 shows the injection spray pattern photographs
at different water-in-diesel emulsion ratios and at the
same engine speed of 1080 rpm. To produce these
photographs, the injector has been taken outside the
combustion chamber and the engine was driven by the
electric motor in the motor mode. Figure 2-a shows the
spray pattern for pure diesel and the next photos show
for 10%, 20% and 30% water ratios. No big difference
for the spray pattern has been noticed from comparing
the photographs and the engine could run steadily up to
30% water. However, for ratios higher than 30%, the
engine failed to run steadily. The water existence in
diesel, however, affected the combustion pressures as
seen in Fig. 3. The results shown in this figure are
typical for any operating conditions. The injection timing,
engine speed, load and compression ratio were the
same for the different emulsions shown. It can be seen
that from the onset of pressure increase, the water
addition appears to affect the ignition delay period (was
not calculated) and the pressure rise rate. The effect of
the engine parameters on the maximum pressure and
the maximum pressure rise rate will be shown in the
next sections.
Maximum Combustion Pressure
Figure 4-a through d show the effects of engine speed,
injection timing, compression ratio and torque output on
the maximum combustion pressure of the engine when
pure diesel, 10%, 20%, and 30% of water are used. It
can be seen from Fig. 4-a that increasing the engine
speed slightly increased the maximum pressure. This
can be postulated to accelerated combustion at higher
engine speeds. Advancing the fuel injection timing; in
Fig.4-b, increased the maximum pressure at all water
contents. Advancing the injection timing appears to
increase the ignition delay and this leads to higher
maximum pressure and higher maximum pressure rise
rate [10]. Increasing the compression ratio from 14 to 22
increased the maximum pressure of the combustion due
to the higher overall cycle pressures; see Fig. 4-c. Fig.
4-d shows the maximum pressure to increase with
increasing the torque output, or the amount of fuel
injected, which can be due to the increase in the amount
of heat released when the amount of fuel increased. For
all variables studied in Fig.4, the amount of water added
to the fuel did not appear to affect the maximum
combustion pressure. For pure diesel and 10% water in
diesel, the engine could run at all compressions ratios
from 22 to 14. However, for water content of 20%, the
engine could not run at compression ratios below 18.
For water in diesel of 30% the engine could not run at
compression ratios below 22. For lower compression
ratios and higher amounts of water, the ignition delay
period increases [10] and this appears to be the main
factor causing the engine to fail to run. The engine could
run at higher amounts of water if the compression ratio
increases more or a cetane improver has been used.
The increase in compression ratio obviously increases
the mechanical and thermal stresses. It has been shown
[17] that adding more water will reduce the heat flux
through the combustion chamber walls hence reduce the
thermal stresses.
Maximum Combustion Pressure Rise Rate
The effects of the engine speed, injection timing,
compression ratio and torque output on the maximum
pressure rise rate are seen in Fig.5-a through d. The
maximum pressure rise rate is well related to the engine
combustion noise or engine roughness. Examining the
figure show that the maximum pressure rise rate
decreases with increasing the engine speed, increasing
the compression ratio, increasing the engine torque
output and retarding the injection timing. It has been
shown that the main reason that affects the maximum
pressure rise rate is the ignition delay period [10].
Increasing the engine speed enhances the mixing and
vaporization of fuel in air and produces shorter delay. It
has been shown also [18] that the combustion chamber
throat temperature at the point of injection is expected to
increase with increasing the speed which in turn reduces
the ignition delay. Reducing the ignition delay appears to
have caused the reduction in the maximum pressure rise
rate as seen in Fig. 5-a.
Advancing the injection timing from 20 to 45
o
BTDC as
seen in Fig.5-b increased the maximum pressure rise
rate due to the increase in the ignition delay period [10].
The early injection occurs at lower air pressure and
temperature which appears to increase the delay period.
Figure 5-c shows the compression ratio increase to
reduce the maximum pressure rise rate. The increase in
compression ratio causes the ignition delay to reduce
[10]. This appears to be due to the increase in air
pressure and temperature at the time of injection.
The effect of engine torque output on the maximum
pressure rise rate is shown in Fig.5-d. The increase in
engine torque results from increasing the amount of
injected fuel which increases the fuel-air ratio. Increasing
the fuel-air ratio increases the chances of formation of a
flammable mixture which increases the formation of pre-
flame reactions and decrease the ignition delay [10].
It can be seen from Fig.5 that adding the water to the
pure diesel fuel increases the maximum pressure rise
rate and ignition delay period. Running the engine with
pure diesel fuel produces less combustion noise.
Increasing the water content in the emulsion increases
the ignition delay period due to the reduction in air
temperature which accompanies the water evaporation.
It can be seen also that the engine could run steadily up
to 30% water in diesel at all engine speeds, injection
timings and all torque outputs. However it could run at
these conditions at compression ratio of 22 only. For
pure diesel and 10% water the engine could run at lower
compression ratios up to 16. However, for 20% water
the engine could not run at compression ratios lower
than 18. For 30% water the engine could not run at
compression ratios lower than 22. Lowering the
compression ratios reduce the overall pressures and
temperatures which causes the ignition delay to increase
considerably and the engine fails to run.
Brake Power Output
The effects of water content in diesel fuel are shown in
Fig. 6-a through c, at different engine speeds, injection
timings, and compression ratios. It can be generally
seen that the brake power output increases with
increasing the engine speed, compression ratio and
torque output. The brake power output is highest at
injection timing of about 25 to 30
o
BTDC. The addition of
water appears to have caused the brake power output to
drop slightly. The water addition may have caused the
ignition delay period to increase, the maximum pressure
rise to increase also which caused the pressures to
increase before the top dead center as shown in the
typical indicator diagram in Fig.3. This increases the
compression work and reduces the net work of the cycle
which produces less power output. This reduction in
power output is relatively low and can be tolerated if
compared to the benefit of adding water to reduce the
emissions of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Figure 7-a through d shows the effect of water addition
on the brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc, in gram
(fuel + water) per kW-hour. It can be seen that as the
water percentage increased the bsfc increased for all
other variables of engine speeds, injection timings,
compression ratios and torque output. The drop in brake
power output with water addition caused the bsfc to
increase. Also the addition of the water increases the
bsfc of the fuel and the water together. This may be
postulated to the fact that water has no heating value
and the addition of water (10, 20 and 30%) would not
increase much the consumption of the fuel. Increasing
the compression ratio, however, causes the bsfc to
reduce and it is suggested to increase the compression
ratios of such engines.
CONCLUSION
From the present experimental study, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
1. The water diesel emulsion has not shown stability
after few minutes of mixing without adding the
emulsifying agent.
2. For 10% water emulsion, adding emulsifying agent
at 0.2%, optimizing the emulsion mixing speed to
15000 rpm for 2 minutes caused the water-diesel
emulsion to stay stable for 4 weeks.
3. For 20% water emulsion, it was stable for 4 weeks
when 15000 rpm mixing for 10 minutes and 1%
surfactant were used.
4. For 30% water emulsion, it was stable for 1 week
when 20000 rpm mixing for 30 minutes and 1.7%
surfactant were used.
5. The water addition did not change much the
injection spray pattern as seen from the injector tip
photographs.
6. The water addition caused the maximum pressures
to change slightly.
7. The maximum pressure rise rate increased with
increasing the amount of water in the emulsion.
8. The maximum pressure rise rate increased with
reducing the engine speed, advancing the injection
timing, reducing the compression ratio and
reducing the torque output at any water ratio.
9. The engine could run steadily at higher emulsion
ratios only at higher compression ratios (22), when
the compression ratio was reduced to 20, the
engine could not run at emulsion ratios higher than
20%.
10. Adding water to the diesel fuel caused the brake
power output to drop slightly and the brake specific
fuel consumption to increase slightly.
11. The slight reduction in power can be tolerated
compared to the expected reduction in exhaust
emissions of nitrogen oxides when water is added
to diesel fuel.
REFERENCES
1. Mello, J.P. and Mellor, A.M., NO
x
Emissions from
Direct Injection Diesel Engines with Water/Steam
Dilution, SAE paper 1999-01-0836, (1999).
2. Christensen, M. and Johansson, B., Homogeneous
Charge Compression Ignition with Water Injection,
SAE paper 1999-01-0182, (1999).
3. Duffy, K.P. and Mellor, A.M., Further Developments
on a Characteristic Time Model for NO
x
Emissions
from Diesel Engines, SAE paper 982460, (1998).
4. Psota, M.A., Easley, W.L., Fort, T.H. and Mellor,
A.M., Water Injection Effects on NO
x
Emissions for
Engines Utilizing Diffusion Flame Combustion, SAE
971657, SAE Trans. J. of Engines, 106, Section 3,
1835-1843, (1997).
5. Kohketsu, S., Mori, K., and Sakai, K., Reduction of
Exhaust Emission with New Water Injection System
in a Diesel Engine, SAE 960033, (1996).
6. Yoshimoto, Y., Tsukahara, M., and Kuramoto, T.,
Improvements of BSFC by Reducing Diesel Engine
Cooling Losses with Emulsified Fuel, SAE 962022,
(1996).
7. Andrews, G.E., Bartle, K.D., Pang, S.W. and Nurein,
A.M., Diesel / Water Emulsions: Influence on Ignition
Delay and Emissions, Proc. Of the Int. Center for
Heat and Mass Transfer, Hemisphere Publ. Corp.,
pp613-625, Sept. (1987).
8. Greeves, G., Khan, I.M. and Onion, G., Effects of
Water Introduction on Diesel Engine Combustion and
Emissions, 16
th
Symposium Int. on Combustion, pp
321-336, The Combustion Institute, (1976).
9. Dryer, F.L., Water Addition to Practical Combustion
Systems Concepts and Applications, 16
th
Symposium
Int. on Combustion, pp 321-336, The Combustion
Institute, (1976).
10. Radwan, M.S. and Salem, H., A Study of Some
Combustion Characteristics of Gas Oil / Water
Emulsions in a Swirl Chamber Diesel Engine, SAE
892056, (1989).
11. Ryan, T.W., Storment, J.O., Wright, B.R. and
Waytulonis, R., The Effects of Fuel Properties and
Composition on Diesel Engine Exhaust Emissions
A Review, SAE 810953, (1981).
12. Murayama, T., Morishima, Y., Tsukahara, M., and
Miyamoto, N., Experimental Reduction of NO
x
,
Smoke and BSFC in a Diesel Engine Using Uniquely
Produced Water (0-80%) to Fuel Emulsion, SAE
780224, (1978).
13. Coon, C.W., Multicylinder Diesel Engine Tests with
Unstabilized Water in Fuel Emulsions, SAE 810250,
(1981).
14. Afify, H.M., Korah, N.S. and Dicky, D.W., The Effect
of Air Charge Temperature on Performance, Ignition
Delay and Exhaust Emissions of Diesel Engines
Using W/O Emulsions as Fuel, SAE 870555, (1987).
15. Robert A. Okamoto et. al., "Multi-Media
Assessment of Lubrizol's PuriNOx Water/Diesel
Emulsion", State of California Environmental
Protection Agency, March 2004
16. Impact of Lubrizols PuriNOx water/diesel
emulsion on exhaust emissions from heavy-duty
engines, EPA Draft Technical report EPA420-P-
02-007, December 2002.
17. Selim, M.Y.E. and Elfeky, S.M.S.. Effects of
Diesel/water emulsion on heat flow and thermal
loading in a precombustion chamber Diesel engine,
Applied Thermal Eng. Vol. 21:156582, 2001
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Temperature and Heat Flows Under high Load
Conditions, Proc. I.Mech.E. Vol. 179, 1965.

CONTACT
The correspondence author is Dr Mohamed Younes El-
Saghir Selim, Associate Professor at Mech. Eng. Dept.,
UAE University, P O Box 17555 Al-Ain, UAE,
mohamed.selim@uaeu.ac.ae. The permanent address
is: Mech. Power Eng. Dept., Faculty of Eng. At Mattaria,
Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt.
ABBREVIATIONS
W/D: Water in Diesel
NOx: Nitrogen Oxides
Bsfc: Brake specific fuel consumption
KEYWORDS
Diesel engine, nitrogen oxides, water emulsion, stability,
combustion noise, fuel consumption

Table
1
Engine
charac
teristic
s


Table 2
Prepari
ng
Conditi
ons for
Stable
W/D
Emulsions





















Table 3 Average diameter of water Droplets

W/D
ratio

10/90 20/80 30/70 40/60 50/50

D
sv
,
m


4.24

3.71

1.70

2.25

2.62













MODEL

Ricardo E6
TYPE IDI with the pre-
combustion chamber
NUMBER OF CYLINDER

1
BORE STROKE (mm)

76.2 x 111.1
CYCLE

4-stroke
COMPRESSION RATIO

21.07
MAXIMUM POWER (kW)

9, naturally aspirated
MAXIMUM SPEED (rpm)

3000
Injector, type and
pressure
Pentel type, 140 bar
INJECTION TIMING

Varied 20-45BTDC
W/D
ratio

speed

(rpm)
mixing
time
(min.)
surfa
ctant
(%)
stable
period
10/90

20/80

20/80

30/70

40/60

50/50
15,000

15,000

15,000

20,000

20,000

20,000
2

10

10

30

30

30
0.2

0.2

1.0

1.7

2.0

2.0
4 weeks

10 days

4 weeks

1 week

4 hours

1 hour






































































Figure 1-a Instability behavior for different mixing speeds























1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
0
20
40
60
80
Mixing speed = 15,000 rpm
Surf Conc = 0.2 %
Mixing time = 2.0 min
Water Conc., Vol%
10
20
30
40
50
%

S
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
d

W
a
t
e
r
Time, min
0 1 2 3 4 5
70
80
90
100
20% Water-Diesel Emulsion
Mixing time = 3 min
Surf% = 0.0
Mixing Speed, rpm
15,000
30,000
45,000
60,000
%

W
a
t
e
r

S
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
d
Time, minutes

Figure 1-b Stability profile for different W/D emulsions














(a) Pure diesel fuel (b) 10% Water (c) 20% Water (d) 30% Water

Figure 2 Diesel-water emulsion spray pictures, engine speed = 1080 rev / min

0 20 40 60 80 100
Point number, arbitrary units
0
10
20
30
40
50
C
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
Typical Pressure Data
N=1200 rpm, T=10 Nm
IT = 30
o
BTDC, r=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water




Figure 3 Typical combustion pressure crank angle data for pure diesel and different amounts of water



















40
50
60
70
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
IT=35
o
BTDC, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
40
50
60
70
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
N=22 rps, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water










(a) (b)






















(c) (d)

Figure 4 Effect of engine speed, load, injection timing and compressions ratio on
maximum combustion pressure

























12 14 16 18 20 22
Compression Ratio
30
40
50
60
70
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
N =22 rps, IT =35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
0 4 8 12 16 20
Torque, Nm
30
40
50
60
70
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
N =22 rps, CR =22,
IT = 35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
2
4
6
8
(
d
P
/
d

)
m
a
x
,

b
a
r
/
d
e
g
.
IT=35
o
BTDC, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
8
12
16
20
24
(
d
P
/
d

)
m
a
x
,

b
a
r
/
d
e
g
.
N=22 rps, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water











(a) (b)























(c) (d)


Figure 5 Effect of engine speed, load, injection timing and compressions ratio on
maximum pressure rise rate






















16 18 20 22
Compression Ratio
0
2
4
6
8
(
d
P
/
d

)
m
a
x
,

b
a
r
/
d
e
g
.
N =22 rps, IT =35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
0 4 8 12 16 20
Torque, Nm
0
2
4
6
8
(
d
P
/
d

)
m
a
x
,

b
a
r
/
d
e
g
.
N =22 rps, CR =22,
IT = 35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
1000
2000
B
r
a
k
e

P
o
w
e
r
,

W
a
t
t
IT=35
o
BTDC, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
1000
2000
B
r
a
k
e

P
o
w
e
r
,

W
a
t
t
N=22 rps, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water













(a) (b)






















(c)

Figure 6 Effect of engine speed, load, injection timing and compressions ratio on
brake Power output






















14 16 18 20 22
Compression Ratio
0
1000
2000
B
r
a
k
e

P
o
w
e
r
,

W
a
t
t
N =22 rps, IT =35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
800
1200
1600
2000
b
s
f
c
,

g
m

/

k
W
.
h
r
IT=35
o
BTDC, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
800
1200
1600
2000
b
s
f
c
,

g
m

/

k
W
.
h
r
N=22 rps, CR=22
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water













(a) (b)






















(c) (d)


Figure 7 Effect of engine speed, load, injection timing and compressions ratio on
maximum pressure rise rate


14 16 18 20 22
Compression Ratio
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
b
s
f
c
,

g
m

/

k
W
.
h
r
N =22 rps, IT =35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water
0 4 8 12 16 20
Torque, Nm
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
b
s
f
c
,

g
m

/

k
W
.
h
r
N =22 rps, CR =22,
IT = 35
o
BTDC
Pure Diesel
10% Water
20% Water
30% Water