Chapter 5:

BJT Transistor Modeling

2
Topic objectives
At the end of the course you will be able to
Analyze the small signal of BJT circuit network using r
e

model and hybrid equivalent model
Understand the relationship between those two
available model for small signal analysis
Calculate the transistor parameters such as voltage
gain, current gain, input impedance and output
impedance


Introduction
Increasing the power of an AC signal is called amplification
Increase the power level- make it a weak signal become more
stronger
Amplification circuit called amplifier eg. Bipolar transistor
Amplifier properties:1. voltage gain, A
V
, 2. Current gain, A
i
, 3.
Input Impedance, Z
i
, 4. Output Impedance, Z
o

Good Amplifier: high voltage gain, high input impedance, low
output impedance and high bandwidth.
4
How does the amplification be
done?
Conservation; output power of a system
cannot be large than its input and the
efficiency cannot be greater than 1
The input dc plays the important role
for the amplification to contribute its
level to the ac domain where the
conversion will become as =P
o(ac)
/P
i(dc)

5
BJT Transistor Modelling
To begin analyse of small-signal AC response of BJT amplifier the
knowledge of modelling (equivalent circuits) the transistor is
important.
The input signal will determine whether its a small signal (AC) or
large signal (DC) analysis.
The goal when modelling small-signal behaviour is to make of a
transistor that work for small-signal enough to keep things linear
(i.e.: not distort too much)
There are two models commonly used in the small signal analysis:
a) re model
b) hybrid equivalent model (most frequently)
c) Hybrid t model

BJT transistor modeling
A model is the combination of circuit elements, properly
chosen, that best approximates the actual behavior of a
semiconductor device under specific operating conditions.
once the ac equivalent circuit has been determined, the
graphical symbol of the device can be replaced in the schematic
by this circuit and the basic method of ac analysis.
Disadvantages
r
e
model
Fails to account the output impedance level of device and feedback
effect from output to input
Hybrid equivalent model
Limited to specified operating condition in order to obtain accurate
result
7
V
S
V
CC
C
1
C
2
C
3
+
-
V
o
R
S
V
i
+
-
R
E
R
C
R
1
R
2
V
S
+
-
V
o
R
S
V
i
+
-
R
C
R
1
R
2
I/p coupling
capacitor s/c
Large values
Block DC and
pass AC signal
Bypass
capacitor s/c
Large values
DC supply
0 potential
Voltage-divider configuration
under AC analysis
Redraw the voltage-divider
configuration after removing dc
supply and insert s/c for the
capacitors
O/p coupling
capacitor s/c
Large values
Block DC and
pass AC signal
8
V
S
R
S
R2 R1
R
c
Transistor small-
signal ac
equivalent cct
V
o
Z
i
I
i
Z
o
I
o
V
i
+
+
- -
B
E
C
Redrawn for small-signal AC analysis
Modeling of
BJ T begin
HERE!
V
S
+
-
V
o
R
S
V
i
+
-
R
C
R
1
R
2
9
AC bias analysis :

1) Set all DC sources to zero (ground) and replacing
by a short circuit equivalent.

2) Coupling and Bypass capacitors are short circuit.
The effect of there capacitors is to set a lower cut-off
frequency for the circuit.

3) Inspect the circuit (replace BJTs with its small
signal model:r
e
or hybrid).

4) Solve for voltage and current transfer function,
i/o and o/p impedances.
10
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

Input impedance, Z
i
Output impedance, Z
o
Voltage gain, A
v
Current gain, A
i

Input Impedance, Z
i
(few ohms MO)

The input impedance of an amplifier is the value as a
load when connecting a single source to the I/p of
terminal of the amplifier.
11
V
S Two-port
system
V
i
R
sense
I
i
Z
i
+
-
Determining Z
i
+
-
sense
i s
i
R
V V
I

=
i
i
i
I
V
Z =
Two port system
-determining input impedance Z
i

The input impedance of transistor can be approximately determined using dc
biasing because it doesnt simply change when the magnitude of applied ac signal
is change.
for small signal analysis, once the input impedance has been determined the same
numerical value can be used for changing levels of applied signal.
12
Demonstrating the impact of Z
i

V
S
=10mV
Two-port
system
V
i
R
source
Z
i
+
-
+
-
1.2 k
600
mV 6 . 6
600 k 2 . 1
) m 10 ( k 2 . 1
R Z
V Z
V
600 R impedance, source With
system the to applied 10mV Full
0 R source, Ideal
source i
s i
i
source
source
=
+
=
+
=
=
=
13
Example 5.1: For the system of Fig. Below, determine
the level of input impedance
V
S
=2mV
Two-port
system
V
i
=1.2mV
R
sense
Z
i
+
-
+
-
1 k
A 8 . 0
k 1
m 8 . 0
k 1
m 2 . 1 m 2
R
V V
I
sense
i s
i = =

=
: Solution
O =

= = k 5 . 1
8 . 0
m 2 . 1
I
V
Z
i
i
i
14
Output Impedance, Z
o
(few ohms 2MO)


The output impedance of an amplifier is determined at
the output terminals looking back into the system with
the applied signal set to zero.
Two-port
system
R
source
V
s
=0V
R
sense
V
+
-
+
-
I
o
Z
o
V
o
Determining Z
o
sense
o
o
R
V V
I

=
o
o
o
I
V
Z =
cct open become Z R Z o L o >
R
L
Z
o
=R
o
I
amplifier
I
Ro
I
L
Ro L
L o
I I
R R For
>
>
15
Example 5.2: For the system of Fig. below, determine the
level of output impedance
Two-port
system
V
s
=0V
R
sense
V=1 V
+
-
+
-
Z
o
V
o
=680mV
20 k
A 16
k 20
m 320
k 20
m 680 1
R
V V
I
sense
o
o = =

=
: Solution
O =

= = k 5 . 42
16
m 680
I
V
Z
o
o
o
16
Example 5.3: For the system of Fig. below, determine Z
o

if V=600mV, R
sense
=10kO and I
o
=10A
Two-port
system
R
source
V
s
=0V
R
sense
V
+
-
+
-
I
o
Z
o
V
o
( )
( )
mV 500
k 10 10 m 600
R I V V
R
V V
I
sense o o
sense
o
o
=
=
=

=
: Solution
O =

= = k 50
10
m 500
I
V
Z
o
o
o
17
Example 5.4: Using the Z
o
obtained in example 6.3,
determine I
L
for the configuration of Fig below if
R
L
=2.2 kO and I
amplifier
=6 mA.
R
L
Z
o
=R
o
I
amplifier
I
Ro
I
L
mA 747 . 5
k 2 . 2 k 50
) m 6 ( k 50
R Z
) (I Z
I
: rule divider Current
L o
amplifier o
L
=
+
=
+
=
: Solution
18
Voltage Gain, A
V


DC biasing operate the transistor as an amplifier.
Amplifier is a system that having the gain behavior.
The amplifier can amplify current, voltage and power.
Its the ratio of circuits output to circuits input.
The small-signal AC voltage gain can be determined
by:
i
o
v
V
V
A =
19
V
S A
vNL
V
i
R
source
Z
i
+
-
+
-
V
o
+
-
Determining the no load voltage gain
By referring the network below the analysis are:
cct) (open R
i
o
L vNL
V
V
A
load no
= =
vNL A
R Z
Z
V
V
A
: resistance source with
s i
i
s
o
vs
+
= =
20
Example 5.5: For the BJT amplifier of fig. below,
determine: a)V
i
b) I
i
c) Z
i
d) A
vs
V
S
=40mV
BJT amplifier
A
vNL
=320
V
i
R
s
Z
i
+
-
+
-
V
o
=7.68V
+
-
1.2 k
mV 24
320
7.68

A
V
V

V
V
A a)
vNL
o
i
i
o
vNL
= = =
=
: Solution
source s
s
i s
i
R R
A 33 . 13
k 2 . 1
m 24 m 40
R
V - V
I b)
=
=

= =
O =

= = k 8 . 1
33 . 13
m 24
I
V
Z c)
i
i
i
192 ) 320 (
k 2 . 1 k 8 . 1
k 8 . 1
A
R Z
Z
A d) vNL
s i
i
vs =
+
=
+
=
21
Current Gain, A
i


This characteristic can be determined by:
i
o
i
I
I
A =
BJT
amplifier
V
i
Z
i
+
-
V
o
+
-
I
i
R
L
Determining the loaded current gain
I
o
L
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
L i
i o
i i
L o
R V
Z V
Z / V
R / V
= =
r
e
Transistor Model

BJTs are basically current-controlled devices, therefore the r
e

model uses a diode and current source to duplicate the behavior
of a transistor.
One disadvantage to this model is its sensitivity to the DC level.
This model is designed for specific circuit conditions.
The use of r
e
model then becomes more desirable because an
important parameter of the equivalent circuit is determined by the
actual operating conditions but one must still turn to data sheets
for some of the other parameters of the equivalent circuit.



r
e
Transistor Model
Derived directly from the operating conditions of the
transistor
Can also be derived directly from the hybrid parameters
Employs a diode and controlled current source to describe the
transistor behavior.
The r
e
model also failed to include the feedback term, which
in some cases can be important.
The r
e
model is really a reduced version of the hybrid-t model
used extensively for high frequency analysis.

24
r
e
model
r
e
equivalent circuit.
r
e
Transistor Model
25
E
B B
C
Common-base BJT transistor - pnp
I
c
I
e
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
c I
e
r
e
model for the pnp common-base
configuration
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
c I
e
common-base r
e
equivalent cct
r
e
current emitter
of level DC the is I
I
26mV
r
E
E(dc)
e =
isolation
part,
Z
i
=r
e
e
b b
c
A 0 Ic =
I
c
I
e=
0A
Determining Z
o
for common-base
r
e
V
s
=0V
Z
o
~ O
Therefore, the input impedance, Z
i
= r
e
that less than 50.
For the output impedance, it will be as
follows;
Common-Base Configuration
26
The common-base characteristics
27
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
e
r
e
Defining A
v
=V
o
/V
i
for the common-base configuration
BJT common-base
transistor amplifier
V
i V
o
+
-
+
-
Z
i
O = o Z
R
L
I
o
( ) L e L c L o o R I R I R I V o = = =
e
L
e
L
v
r
R
r
R
A
gain, Voltage
~
o
=
e e i e i r I Z I V = =
e e
L e
v
r I
R I
Vi
Vo
A
o
= =
28
1 A
gain, Current
i ~ o =
e
e
e
c
i
o
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
o
=

= =
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
e
r
e
Defining A
i
=I
o
/I
i
for the common-base configuration
BJT common-base
transistor amplifier
V
i
V
o
+
-
+
-
Z
i
O = o Z
R
L
I
o
29
Example 5.6: For a common-base configuration in figure
below with I
E
=4mA, o=0.98 and AC signal of 2mV is
applied between the base and emitter terminal:
a) Determine the Z
i
b) Calculate A
v
if R
L
=0.56kO
c) Find Z
o
and A
i
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
c I
e
common-base r
e
equivalent cct
r
e
30
Solution:

O = = = = 5 . 6
m 4
m 26
I
26m
r Z a)
E
e i
43 . 84
5 . 6
) k 56 . 0 ( 98 . 0
r
R
A b)
e
L
v = =
o
=
98 . 0
I
I
A
Z c)
i
o
i
o
= o = =
~
31
e
b b
c
e c I I =
I
c I
e
common-base r
e
equivalent cct
r
e
=
i
I
32
Example 5.7: For a common-base configuration in previous
example with I
e
=0.5mA, o=0.98 and AC signal of 10mV is
applied, determine:
a) Z
i
b) V
o
if R
L
=1.2kO c) A
v
d)A
i
e) I
b
O = = = 20
m 5 . 0
m 10
I
V
Z a)
: Solution
e
i
i
88mV 5
(1.2k) 0.98(0.5m)
R I R I V b) L e L c o
=
=
o = =
8 . 58
m 10
m 588
V
V
A c)
i
o
v = = =
98 . 0 A d) i = o =
A 10
) 98 . 0 1 ( m 5 . 0
) 1 ( m 5 . 0
I - I
I - I I e)
e e
c e b
=
=
o =
o =
=
33
Common-Emitter Configuration

Common-emitter BJT transistor
r
e
model
r
e
equivalent cct.
Still remain controlled-current source (conducted
between collector and base terminal)
Diode conducted between base and emitter terminal
Input Output
Base & Emitter terminal Collector & Emitter terminal
34
common-emitter BJT transistor
E E
B
C
I
b
I
c
b c I I | =
c
e e
b
I
c
I
b
r
e
model npn common-emitter configuration
b c I I | =
c
e e
b
I
c
I
i
=I
b
Determining Z
i
using r
e
equivalent model
r
e
I
e
+
-
V
be
+
-
V
i
(1)
Ii
Vi
Zi =
gives (1) into subtitute
and Ibre Iere Vbe Vi | ~ = =
b
e b
b
be
I
r I
I
V
Zi
|
~ =
e r Zi | =
O 7k ~ 6 to hundred between ranges
i
Z
35
The output graph
36
b I |
c
e
b
I
i
=I
b
r
e
model for the C-E transistor configuration
r
e
r
o
e
0A b I =
c
e
b
I
i
=I
b
r
e
r
o
e
V
s
=0V
= 0A
o Z
impedance) high cct, (open Z
the thus ignored is r if
r Z
o
o
o o
=
=
Output impedance Z
o

37
e
b b
c
b c o I I I | = = I
i
=I
b
r
e
Determining voltage and current gain for the
common-emitter amplifier
BJT common-emitter
transistor amplifier
V
i
V
o
+
-
+
-
O = o Z R
L
I
o
e i r Z | =
e
L
v
r
R
A =
Ib
Ib
Ib
Ic
Ii
Io
A
gain, Current
i
|
= = =
( ) L b L c L o o R I R I R I V | = = =
e b i i i r I Z I V | = =
e b
L b
i
o
v
r I
R I
V
V
A
gain, Voltage
|
|
= =
| = i A
38
Example 5.8: Given |=120 and I
E(dc)
=3.2mA for a common-
emitter configuration with ro= O, determine:

a) Z
i
b)A
v
if a load of 2 kO is applied c) A
i
with the 2 kO load
O = = | =
O = = =
975 ) 125 . 8 ( 120 r Z
125 . 8
m 2 . 3
m 26
I
26m
r a)
e i
E
e
: Solution
15 . 246
125 . 8
k 2
r
R
b)A
e
L
v = = =
120
I
I
A c)
i
o
i = | = =
39
Example 5.9: Using the npn common-emitter configuration,
determine the following if |=80, I
E(dc)
=2 mA and r
o
=40 kO

a) Z
i
b) A
i
if R
L
=1.2k O c) Av if R
L
=1.2k O
O = = | =
O = = =
k 04 . 1 ) 13 ( 80 r Z
13
m 2
m 26
I
26m
r a)
e i
E
e
: Solution
b I |
c
b
I
i
=I
b
r
e
model for the C-E transistor configuration
r
e
r
o
e
R
L
I
o
40
67 . 77
) 80 (
k 2 . 1 k 40
k 40
R r
r
I
R r
) I ( r
A
R r
) I ( r
I
I
I
I
I
i A b)
(cont) Solution
L o
o
b
L o
b o
i
L o
b o
L
b
L
i
o
=
+
= |
+
=
+
|
=
+
|
=
= =
6 . 89
13
k 40 k 2 . 1
r
r R
v A c)
e
o L
= = =
41
Hybrid Equivalent Model
r
e
model is sensitive to the dc level of operation
that result input resistance vary with the dc
operating point
Hybrid model parameter are defined at an
operating point that may or may not reflect the
actual operating point of the amplifier
Hybrid modeling
42
ac model
Hybrid-t model
They are equivalent
Works in linear region only
Steps to analyze a transistor circuit
43
1 DC problem
Set ac sources to zero, solve for DC quantities, IC and
VCE.

2 Determine ac quantities from DC parameters
Find gm, rt, and re.

3 ac problem
Set DC sources to zero, replace transistor by hybrid-t
model, find ac quantites, Rin, Rout, Av, and Ai.
44
Hybrid Equivalent Model
The hybrid parameters: h
ie
, h
re
, h
fe
, h
oe
are developed and used to model the transistor.
These parameters can be found in a specification sheet for a transistor.
45
Determination of parameter
0V V
o
i
12
0V V
i
i
11
o 12 i 11 i
o
o
V
V
h
I
V
h
V h I h V
=
=
=
=
+ =
0A I
o
o
22
0V V
o
i
21
o
o 22 i 21 O
o
o
V
I
h
I
I
h
, 0V V Solving
V h I h I
=
=
=
=
=
+ =
H
22
is a conductance!
46
General h-Parameters for any
Transistor Configuration
h
11
=h
i
= input resistance unit ohm
h
12
=h
r
= reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo) unitless
h
21
= h
f
= forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii) unitless
h
22
= h
o
= output conductance unit Siemens
47
Simplified General h-Parameter Model
The model can be simplified based on these approximations:

hr ~ 0 therefore hrVo = 0 and ho ~ (high resistance on the output)


Simplified
48
Common emitter hybrid
equivalent circuit
ac fe
e ie
h
r h
B =
B =
49
Common base hybrid equivalent
circuit
1 ~ =
=
o
fb
e ib
h
r h
50
Common-Emitter re vs. h-Parameter Model
hie = |re
hfe = |
hoe = 1/ro
51
Common-Base re vs. h-Parameter Model
hib = re
hfb = -o
BJT SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS
DC and AC Analysis -- Application of
Superposition
DC analysis:
Find the DC equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open
circuits and inductors (if any) by short circuits.
Find the DC Q-point from the equivalent circuit by using the
appropriate large-signal transistor model.
AC analysis:
Find the AC equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short
circuits, inductors (if any) by open circuits, dc voltage sources by
ground connections and dc current sources by open circuits.
Replace the transistor by its small-signal model (to be developed).
Use this equivalent circuit to analyze the AC characteristics of the
amplifier.
Combine the results of dc and ac analysis (superposition) to yield the
total voltages and currents in the circuit.
AC Analysis
In realistic and useful electronic circuit, the input can be
decomposed into two separate components:
The DC component, V
I
The small signal component, v
i
(t)
The DC component signal is not a function of time (as a
constant e.g. V
I
=12V)
The small-signal component v
i
(t) is a function of time.
This signal is an AC signal
This signal v
i
(t) is referred as the small-signal component
because its magnitude is generally small for all time t
Large-Signal vs. Small-Signal Models
The large-signal model is used to determine the DC operating
point (V
BE
, V
CE
, I
B
, I
C
) of the BJT.




The small-signal model is used to determine how the output
responds to an input signal.
Small-Signal Models for Independent
Sources
The voltage across an independent voltage source does not vary
with time. (Its small-signal voltage is always zero.)
It is regarded as a short circuit for small-signal analysis.






The current through an independent current source does not vary
with time. (Its small-signal current is always zero.)
It is regarded as an open circuit for small-signal analysis.


Large-Signal
Model
Small-Signal
Model
AC equivalent of a network is obtained by:
1. Setting all DC sources to zero
2. Replacing all capacitors by s/c equiv.
3. Redraw the network in more convenient and logical
form
Common emitter fixed bias
configuration(r
e
model)
Figure 6.1 Common emitter fixed-
bias configuration
Figure 6.2 network of figure 6.1 following the
removal of the effects V
cc,
C
1
and C
2
Figure 6.3 substituting r
e,
model into the network of Figure 6.2

Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Configuration
The input is applied to the base
The output is taken from the
collector
High input impedance
Low output impedance
High voltage and current gain
Phase shift between input and
output is 180
Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Configuration
AC equivalent
r
e,
model
Common emitter fixed bias
configuration
Determine |, re, and ro:
| and ro: look in the specification sheet for the transistor or test the transistor using a
curve tracer.
re: calculate re using dc analysis:
E
e
I
26mV
r =
Input Impedance: Output Impedance:






e B i
r || R Z | =
e B

e i
r 10 R
r Z
|
|
>
~
O
r || R Z
C o
=
c

o
10 ro
Z
R
R
c
>
~
Voltage Gain
e
C
v C o
e
o C
e b
o C b
v
e b i
o C b O
i
O
v
r
R
A 10R or r if
r
) r || (R
-
r I
) r || (R I
A
r I V
) r || (R I V
V
V
A
= > O =
=

=
=
=
=
Common-Emitter (CE) Fixed-Bias Configuration
Current gain
( )( )
( )( )
C
i
v i
B o
B o
i
o
i
e B C o
e B C o
B o
i
o
i
e B
B
C o
o
i
b
b
o
i
o
i
e B
B
i
b
e B
i B
b
C o
o
b
o
C o
b o
o
R
Z
A A
oo equation t this use can or we

R r
R r
I
I
A
, r 10 R and 10R r if
r R R r
R r
I
I
A
r R
R
R r
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
A

r R
R
I
I
and
r R
I R
I
R r
r
I
I
and
R r
I r
I
circuits output and input the to rule divider - current
the applying by determined is gain current The
=
= ~ =
> >
+ +
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
Common-Emitter (CE) Fixed-Bias Configuration
Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Calculations
C o
R r
e
C
v
e
o C
i
o
v

r
R
A
r
) ||r (R
V
V
A
10 >
=
= =
e B C o
r , R R r i
e B C o
o B
i
o
i
A
) r )(R R (r
r R
I
I
A
10 10 > >
~
+ +
= =
C
i
V i
R
Z
A A =
Current gain
from voltage gain:
Input
impedance:
Output
impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
e E
r R e i
e B i
r Z
||| R Z
10 >
~
=
C o
O
R r C o
C o
R Z
||r R Z
10 >
~
=
Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
r
e
model requires you to
determine |, r
e
, and r
o
.
Voltage Gain
e
C
v C o
e
o C
v
o C
e
i
o
e
i
b
o C b O
r
R
A 10R or r if
r
) r || (R
A
) r || (R
r
V
V
r
V
I
) r || )(R I ( V

= > O =

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
CE Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
Current gain
( )( )
( )
( )
e
e o
o
i
o
i
C o
e C o
o
i
o
i
B 2 1
r R'
R'

r R' r
r R'
I
I
A
, R 10 r for
r R' R r
r R'
I
I
A
R R || R R'
format. same the have
gain will current for the equation the , R' the
for except ion, configurat bias - fixed emitter -
common that similar to so is network the since
+
~
+
~ =
>
+ +
= =
= =
CE Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
C
i
V i
i
o
i
i
o
i
e
R
Z
A A
option an as
I
I
A
R'
R'
I
I
A
, r 10 R' if And
=
~ =
= =
>
|
|
CE Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
Calculations
Input impedance
e i
2 1
r || R Z
R || R R
' =
= '
Output impedance
C o
10R r C o
o C o
R Z
r || R Z
>
~
=
Voltage gain
C o
10R r
e
C
i
o
v
e
o C
i
o
v
r
R
V
V
A
r
r || R
V
V
A
>
~ =

= =
Current gain
e C o
C o
r 10 R , 10R r
i
o
i
10R r
e i
o
i
e C o
o
i
o
i
I
I
A
r R
R
I
I
A
) r R )( R (r
r R
I
I
A
| > ' >
>
| ~ =
| + '
' |
~ =
| + ' +
' |
= =
Current gain from A
v

C
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
2 1
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R || R R
+
= = '

Gain Calculations
Voltage Gain (Av):






Current Gain (Ai):






Current Gain from Voltage Gain:


e
o C
i
o
v
r
r || R
V
V
A

= =
C o
e
C
i
o
v
10R r
r
R
V
V
A
>
~ =
) r R )( R (r
r R
I
I
A
e C o
o
i
o
i
|
|
+
'
+
'
= =
C o
e i
o
i
10R r
r R
R
I
I
A
>
+
'
'
~ =
|
e C o
i
o
i
r 10 R , 10R r
I
I
A
|
|
> ' >
~ =
C
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
CE Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
Phase Relationship
A CE amplifier configuration will always have a phase relationship between input and
output is 180 degrees. This is independent of the DC bias.
CE Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration
Defining the input impedance of a transistor with an
unbypassed emitter resistor
E b
e E
E e b
E e
b
i
b
E b e b i
E e e b i
R Z
to reduced be can above eqn , r an greater th much is R since
R r Z
1, an greater th normally is since
R ) 1 ( r
I
V
Z
R I ) 1 ( r I V
R I r I V
: side input the to KVL Applying
~
+ ~
+ + = =
+ + =
+ =
CE Emitter-Bias Configuration
Impedance Calculations
E b
E e b
E e b
b B i
R Z
) R (r Z
1)R ( r Z
Z || R Z
| ~
+ | ~
+ | + | =
=
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
C o
R Z =
Voltage Gain
E
C
i
o
V
E b
E e
C
i
o
V
E e b
b
C
i
o
V
C
b
i
C b C o o
b
i
b
R
R
V
V
A
R ion Z approximat for the and
R r
R
V
V
A
gives ) R (r Z ng substituti
Z
R
V
V
A
R
Z
V

R I R I V
Z
V
I

= =
~
+

= =
+ =

= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =
=
CE Emitter-Bias Configuration
Current Gain
C
R
Z
A A
Z R
R
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I I
Z R
R
I
I
Z R
I R
I
: in result ll circuit wi input the to rule divider - current the Applying . I I
ion approximat permit the to Z to close often too is R of magnitude The
i
v i
b B
B
i
b
b
o
i
o
i
b
o
b o
b B
B
i
b
b B
i B
b
i b
b B
=
+
= = =
=
=
+
=
+
=
=
|
|
|
CE Emitter-Bias Configuration
Gain Calculations
Current gain from A
v
:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
E b
E e b
R Z
E
C
i
o
v
) R (r Z
E e
C
i
o
v
b
C
i
o
v
R
R
V
V
A
R r
R
V
V
A
Z
R
V
V
A
| ~
+ | =
~ =
+
= =
|
= =
b B
B
i
o
i
Z R
R
I
I
A
+
|
= =
C
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
Emitter-Follower Configuration
This is also known as the common-collector configuration.
The input is applied to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.
There is no phase shift between input and output.
Impedance
Calculations
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
e E
r R e o
e E o
r Z
||r R Z
>>
~
=
E b
E e b
E e b
b B i
R Z
) R (r Z
)R ( r Z
||Z R Z
~
+ ~
+ + =
=
1
Gain Calculations
Current gain from voltage gain:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
E e E e E
R r , R r R
i
o
v
e E
E
i
o
v

V
V
A
r R
R
V
V
A
~ + >>
~ =
+
= =
1
b B
B
i
Z R
R
A
+
~
E
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
Common-Base Configuration
The input is applied to the emitter

The output is taken from the
collector

Low input impedance.
High output impedance

Current gain less than unity

Very high voltage gain

No phase shift between input
and output
Calculations
e E i
r || R Z =
C o
R Z =
e
C
e
C
i
o
v
r
R
r
R
V
V
A ~
o
= =
1
I
I
A
i
o
i
~ o = =
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Common-Emitter Collector Feedback Configuration
A variation of the common-emitter fixed-bias configuration
Input is applied to the base
Output is taken from the collector
There is a 180 phase shift between the input and output
Calculations
F
C
e
i
R
R

r
Z
+
=
1
F C o
R || R Z ~
e
C
i
o
v
r
R
V
V
A = =
C
F
i
o
i
C F
F
i
o
i
R
R
I
I
A
R R
R
I
I
A
~ =
+
= =
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Collector DC Feedback Configuration
The input is applied to the
base
The output is taken from
the collector
There is a 180 phase shift
between input and output
This is a variation of the common-
emitter, fixed-bias configuration
Calculations
F
C
e
i
R
R

r
Z
+
=
1
F C o
||R R Z ~
e
C
i
o
v
r
R
V
V
A = =
C
F
i
o
i
C F
F
i
o
i
R
R
I
I
A
R R
R
I
I
A
~ =
| +
|
= =
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Two-Port Systems Approach
o o Th
R Z Z = =
With V
i
set to 0 V:
The voltage across
the open terminals is:
where A
vNL
is the no-
load voltage gain
i vNL Th
V A E =
Effect of Load Impedance on Gain
L
i
v i
R
Z
A A =
This model can be applied
to any current- or voltage-
controlled amplifier.
Adding a load reduces the
gain of the amplifier:
vNL
o L
L
i
o
v
A
R R
R
V
V
A
+
= =
Effect of Source Impedance on Gain
The amplitude of the
applied signal that
reaches the input of
the amplifier is:
s i
s i
i
R R
V R
V
+
=
vNL
s i
i
s
o
vs
A
R R
R
V
V
A
+
= =
The internal resistance of the signal source reduces the overall
gain:
Combined Effects of R
S
and R
L
on Voltage Gain
Effects of R
L
:
Effects of R
L
and R
S
:
L
i
v i
o L
vNL L
i
o
v
R
R
A A
R R
A R
V
V
A
=
+
= =
L
i s
vs is
vNL
o L
L
s i
i
s
o
vs
R
R R
A A
A
R R
R
R R
R
V
V
A
+
=
+ +
= =
Cascaded Systems
The output of one amplifier is the input to the next
amplifier
The overall voltage gain is determined by the product of
gains of the individual stages
The DC bias circuits are isolated from each other by the
coupling capacitors
The DC calculations are independent of the cascading
The AC calculations for gain and impedance are
interdependent
R-C Coupled BJT Amplifiers
C o
R Z =
Input impedance,
first stage:
Output impedance,
second stage:
Voltage gain:

e i
R R R Z | = || ||
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
1
|| || ||
v v v
e
C
v
e
e C
v
A A A
r
R
A
r
R R R R
A
=
=
|
=
Cascode Connection
This example is a CECB
combination. This arrangement
provides high input impedance
but a low voltage gain.

The low voltage gain of the
input stage reduces the Miller
input capacitance, making this
combination suitable for high-
frequency applications.
Darlington Connection
The Darlington circuit provides
very high current gain, equal to the
product of the individual current
gains:
|
D
= |
1
|
2

The practical significance is that
the circuit provides a very high
input impedance.
DC Bias of Darlington Circuits
B D B D E
I I I | ~ + | = ) 1 (
E E E
R I V =
E D B
BE CC
B
R R
V V
I
| +

=
Base current:
Emitter current:
Emitter voltage:
Base voltage:
BE E B
V V V + =
Feedback Pair
This is a two-transistor circuit that operates like a Darlington
pair, but it is not a Darlington pair.
It has similar characteristics:
High current gain
Voltage gain near unity
Low output impedance
High input impedance
The difference is that a Darlington uses a pair of like
transistors, whereas the feedback-pair configuration uses
complementary transistors.
Current Mirror Circuits
Current mirror
circuits provide
constant current in
integrated circuits.
Current Source Circuits
Constant-current sources can be built using FETs, BJTs, and
combinations of these devices.
I
E
~ I
C
E
BE Z
E
R
V V
I I

= ~
Current Source Circuits
V
GS
= 0V
I
D
= I
DSS
= 10 mA
100
Hybrid Equivalent Model
r
e
model is sensitive to the dc level of operation
that result input resistance vary with the dc
operating point
Hybrid model parameter are defined at an
operating point that may or may not reflect the
actual operating point of the amplifier
Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network
For the hybrid equivalent model to be described, the parameters are defined
at an operating point that may or may not give an actual picture of the
operating condition of the amplifier.
The quantities h
ie
, h
re
, h
fe
and h
oe
are called the hybrid parameters and are
the components of a small-signal equivalent circuit. The description of the
hybrid equivalent model begins with the general two-port system.
Two-port system representation (Black
model realisation)
The hybrid equivalent model
With
output
shorted
With
input
open
102
Determination of parameter
0V V
o
i
12
0V V
i
i
11
o 12 i 11 i
o
o
V
V
h
I
V
h
V h I h V
=
=
=
=
+ =
0A I
o
o
22
0V V
o
i
21
o
o 22 i 21 O
o
o
V
I
h
I
I
h
, 0V V Solving
V h I h I
=
=
=
=
=
+ =
H
22
is a conductance!
For the transistor, even though it has three basic configurations, they are all four-
terminal configurations, and thus, the resulting equivalent circuit will have the
same format. The h-parameter will however change with each configuration. To
distinguish which parameter has been used or which is available, a second
subscript has been added to the h-parameter notation.
(i) For the common-base configuration: the lower case letter b
(ii) For the common-emitter configuration: the lower case letter e
(iii) For the common-collector configuration: the lower case letter c
Complete hybrid equivalent model

Equivalent Circuits Through Hybrid Parameters

h
i
= input resistance
h
r
= reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo)
h
f
= forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
h
o
= output conductance
hybrid equivalent circuit
104
Common emitter
Common base
105
Simplified General h-Parameter Model
Since h
r
is normally small, therefore the model can be simplified based on
these approximations:
h
r
~ 0 therefore h
r
V
o
= 0 (short circuit) and h
o
~ (high resistance on the
output). 1/h
o
= resistance is often large enough and can be approximated
by an open circuit.


Simplified
Hybrid transistor model
To distinguish parameters to be used for
different configurations
r
e
vs. h-Parameter Model
ac fe
e ie
h
r h
=
=
Common-Emitter
Common-Base
1 ~ =
=
h
r h
fb
e ib
Fixed-Bias Configuration
Approximate hybrid equivalent circuit
ie B i
h R Z || =
oe C o
h R Z / 1 || =
( )
ie
o C fe
i
o
v
h
e h R h
V
V
A
/ 1 ||
= =
fe
i
o
i
h
I
I
A ~ =
Input impedance:

Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Voltage-Divider Configuration
ie
fe
i
h R
R h
A
+ '
'
=
ie i
h || R Z ' =
C o
R Z ~
( )
ie
oe C fe
v
h
1/h || R h
A =
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Approximate hybrid equivalent circuit
Un-bypassed Emitter Bias Configuration
b B i
E fe b
Z R Z
R h Z
|| =
=
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
C o
R Z ~
E
C
E fe
C fe
B
C fe
v
R
R
R h
R h
Z
R h
A ~ = =
C
i
v i
b B
B fe
i
R
Z
A A
Z R
R h
A
=
+
=
Approximate hybrid equivalent circuit
Emitter-Follower Configuration
b o i
E fe b
Z || R Z
R h Z
=
=
b B i
E fe b
Z R Z
R h Z
|| =
=
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
fe
ie
E o
h
h
R Z || ~
fe ie E
E
i
o
v
h h R
R
V
V
A
/ +
= =
E
i
v i
b B
B fe
i
R
Z
A A
Z R
R h
A
=
+
=
Approximate hybrid equivalent circuit
Common-Base Configuration
ib E i
h || R Z =
C o
R Z =
ib
C fb
i
o
v
h
R h
V
V
A = =
1 h
I
I
A
fb
i
o
i
~ = =
Input impedance:
Output impedance:
Voltage gain:
Current gain:
Approximate hybrid equivalent circuit
The h-parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifier having a
voltage source V
s
, with its input resistance R
s
connected to the input
terminals and a load resistance R
L
connected to the output
terminals.
h-Parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor
Complete Hybrid Equivalent model
Two-port system
Current Gain (A
I
)
Input Resistance (Z
i
)
Voltage Gain:-
Where,
Output Resistance (Z
O
)
FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR CE AMPLIFIER
WITH AND WITHOUT SOURCE IMPEDANCE
At different frequencies of the input signal, the performance of the device is
different. The analysis till now has been limited to the mid-frequency spectrum.
Frequency response of an amplifier refers to the variation of the magnitude
and phase of the amplifier with frequency.
a) Gain vs. frequency for a
CE amplifier (b) Phase angle
vs. frequency for a CE
amplifier
The Hybrid t Model
The hybrid pi model is most useful for analysis of high-
frequency transistor applications.
At lower frequencies the hybrid pi model closely
approximate the r
e
parameters, and can be replaced by
them.
Troubleshooting
Check the DC bias voltages

If not correct, check power supply, resistors,
transistor. Also check the coupling capacitor
between amplifier stages.

Check the AC voltages

If not correct check transistor, capacitors and
the loading effect of the next stage.
Troubleshooting