Functions of Blood System

Transport: to and from tissue cells

Nutrients to cells: amino acids, glucose, vitamins, minerals, lipids (as lipoproteins).
Oxygen: by red blood corpuscles (oxyhaemoglobin - 4 x O2 molecules/haemoglobin).
Wastes from cells: urea, CO2 (mainly as HCO3- in solution in the plasma).
Temperature Regulation: by altering the blood flow through the skin.
Immunity: protection against pathogens blood clotting; phagocytes, lymphocytes and
antibodies distributed in blood.
Communication: hormones distributed to all parts of the body in the blood.
Defence: clotting following a wound
Composition of Blood Plasma: pale yellow sticky liquid; 55% of blood volume.
Components: water 92%, dissolved protein 8%, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals
(mainly NaCl), urea, CO2, hormones, antibodies.
Blood Cells

Red Blood Cells
Tiny (8) biconcave disc-shaped cells (thus large SA).
Do not have nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes.
Cell full of haemoglobin binds O2 (and CO).
Made in the bone marrow live about 120 days.
Destroyed and recycled by the liver.

White Blood Cells (leucocytes)
These are colourless cells and possess a nucleus.
They function in defending the body against pathogens.
Phagocytes - granulocytes feed on pathogens by phagocytosis.
Monocytes are one form of phagocytes.
Lymphocytes agranulocytes - produce antibodies, the specific defence proteins.
Made in bone marrow and lymphatic tissue.
Platelets
Responsible for clotting of the blood
Responsible for repair of damaged tissue releasing the hormone platelet growth factor.
Short life under 7 days.
Made in bone marrow
Blood Vessels
Artery v. vein
The wall of the artery is thicker: thicker connective tissue layer, thicker mixed layer of
muscle and elastic tissue.
The lumen of the artery is much narrower.
Arteries do not have valves along their length, veins do.
Valves in the veins prevent the backflow of blood so the flow is in one correct direction
towards the heart.
Blood flows away from the heart in arteries; blood flows towards the heart in veins.
Blood pressure in arteries is higher and so also the speed of blood flow
Pulsed flow in an artery, steady flow in a vein.
Many tissues, thus both are organs
Arterioles have muscular walls which control how much blood flows to a particular organ
e.g.
guts after meal,
skin for temperature regulation
muscle when working hard Note: Blood supply to brain is constant!
Capillaries
Capillaries are the link between arteries and veins where exchange with tissues occurs.
The capillary wall is one cell thick and somewhat porous ideal to allow materials to pass
in and out.
All tissue cells very close to a capillary so exchange is very efficient.
Exchange at the capillaries is by diffusion, mass flow and active transport.
Blood flow in capillaries is slow giving enough time for effective exchange.
One type of cell, thus a tissue.
Closed System of Blood Vessels
The blood does not make direct contact with the tissue cells.
The blood is retained in the blood vessels.
A closed system is very responsive to the change needs of the organs and is highly
efficient.
Double Circulation
The double circuit prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Therefore
oxygen supply is highly efficient.
Pulmonary Circulation: deoxygenated blood flows from the heart to the lungs
oxygen is taken on and carbon dioxide is excreted,
oxygenated blood flows from the lungs back to the heart.
Systemic Circulation: oxygenated blood flows from the heart to the organ systems of the
body.
oxygen is delivered and carbon dioxide is taken on,
deoxygenated blood flow from the organs systems back to the heart.
Portal System
A portal blood vessel has a set of capillaries at each end.
The hepatic portal vein carries blood rich in absorbed nutrients from the capillaries in the
gut to capillaries in the liver.
Hepatic artery supplies liver with O2
Hepatic vein takes all the blood away from the liver, back to heart.
The Heart
The heart is a double pump.
The right atrium collects deoxygenated blood from all parts (vena cava).
The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (for gas exchange = O2,
CO2) (pulmonary artery)
The left atrium collects oxygenated blood from the lungs (pulmonary vein)
The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all parts (aorta).
The right and left side fill and empty in unison.
Each chamber pumps the same volume of blood.
The wall of the left ventricle is about three times thicker than that of the right ventricle.
The left ventricle needs more cardiac muscle to give the blood a much stronger push.
Blood pressure therefore highest in left ventricle
Cardiac output = stroke volume x pulse rate Heart action
Blood enters the atria, filling them. (= atrial diastole)
The sino-atrial node (= SAN) in the right atrium generates a nerve impulse causing the
atria to contract (atrial systole)
The sympathetic nerve impulses increase heart rate
The vagus nerve impulses decrease heart rate
Blood pressure in atria rises above that in ventricles
Blood forced into the ventricles (AV valves open).
The impulse arrives at the atrio-ventricular node (= AVN)
Impulse delayed (0.2 s) giving time for ventricles to fill (ventricular diastole).
The impulse enters the ventricles and travels through the Bundle of His (in septum).
The ventricles contract and force the blood out of the pulmonary artery and aorta
(ventricular systole).
The AV valves close preventing blood returning to the atria.
The semi-lunar valves are pushed open by the higher blood pressure in the ventricles.
The elastic artery walls expand (=a pulse).
When the blood pressure falls the arteries recoil squeezing the blood away from the heart.
Ventricular blood pressure falls, closing the semilunar valves.
the arteries.
Cardiac cycle
Diastole: relaxed cardiac muscle the heart fills with blood under low pressure from the
veins.
Systole: cardiac muscle contracting the chambers of the heart are emptying of blood.
Atrial Systole: contraction and emptying of the atria supplying extra blood to the
ventricles.
Ventricular Systole: contraction and emptying of the ventricles ejecting blood from the
heart into the arteries.
Cardiac Muscle
The muscle making up the heart is called cardiac muscle.
It is myogenic, i.e., stimulates itself to contract does not need external stimulation.
It is an involuntary, strong muscle that does not fatigue (no anaerobic respiration).
The SAN (pacemaker)
A small area of cardiac muscle in the wall of the right atrium, near entry of vena cava.
Its automatic rhythmic contraction starts each cardiac cycle.
Two nerves from the medulla oblongata connect to it influencing its rate of contraction.
One nerve accelerates the heart rate and the other reduces it back to resting rate.
Factors affecting heart rate:
Since the heart can only pump out the blood that is returned to it, the primary cause of
increased cardiac output when exercising, is blood to the heart caused by the
muscles squeezing the veins.
Increase: exercise, increased body temperature, stress, mental excitement, infection.
Decrease: increased physical fitness, sleep, and mental relaxation.
Coronary circulation
The blood flowing through the heart does not supply the heart with blood
Coronary artery supplies heart muscle with blood
No coronary vein directly drains back in diastole.
Major blood vessels:
Arteries: Aorta; Pulmonary (CO2, O2); Carotid (neck); Renal; Hepatic
Veins: Vena Cava; Pulmonary (CO2, O2); Renal; Jugular; Hepatic; Hepatic Portal;
Blood Pressure
The pressure varies along the circuit measured with sphygmomanometer
Pressure decreases in the following order:
o ventricle > artery > arteriole > capillary > venule > vein > atrium.
Standard healthy readings: 80 mm Hg diastolic, 120 mm Hg systolic.
Formation of Tissue Fluid
As the blood enters the capillaries the high hydrostatic pressure forces some of the plasma
out through the wall.
The escaped fluid (tissue fluid) is similar in composition to plasma, but lower in protein.
Therefore the remaining blood has a lower water potential
And a lower hydrostatic pressure
At the venule end the hydrostatic pressure is lower
Thus water returns to blood down water potential gradient.
The 10% excess tissue fluid must be drained away by the lymphatic system.
The Lymphatic System
A collection of special drainage vessels receiving excess tissue fluid.
Once the tissue fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries it is called lymph.
Lymph nodes (e.g. tonsils) filter the lymph and produce lymphocytes.
The lymph vessels have many valves, but low pressure.
The lymph is moved along by the squeezing action of:
o the skeletal muscles,
o pressure changes in the thorax during breathing and
o by the rhythmic contraction of the lymph vessel walls.
Lymph re-enters the blood just before the right atrium.
Functions of the Lymphatic System:
Circulatory role
Return the excess tissue fluid to the blood: this maintains blood volume, pressure and
concentration.
Collect and deliver the absorbed lipids from the small intestine to the blood
Defence role
The lymph nodes filter out pathogens in the lymph.
Production and export of lymphocytes to the blood system for general distribution.
Detection of antigens and production of specific antibodies.

The main transport system of human is the circulatory system, a system
of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (the heart) and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.

Its functions:

To transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells.
To remove waste and carbon dioxide from the cells.
To provide for efficient gas exchange.

The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood form the body and
pumps it to the lungs.

The left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to
the body.

The double circulation

Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and
then out to the rest of the body. It is brought back to the right-side of the
heart, before going back to the lungs again.

This is call a double circulation system, because the blood travels through
the heart twice on one complete journey around the body:

one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)
the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high
pressure circulation).



The importance of a double circulation


Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. The
septum in the heart ensures this complete separation. Oxygenated
blood flows through the left side of the heart while deoxygenated
blood flows through the right.
The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept higher than
that in the pulmonary circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker wall,
pumps blood under higher pressure to the body and delivers
oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body. The right
ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under lower
pressure, thereby avoiding any lung damage.










# 73 Blood cells - structure and functions
Blood consists of cells floating in plasma.

Most of the cells are red blood cells.
A much smaller number are white blood cells.
There are also fragments formed from special cells in the bone marrow, called platelets.


Red and white blood cells as seen under a light microscope.

Blood as seen through a microscope:

The largest cells are white cells.
The others are all red cells.
There are also a few platelets.

Functions of blood cells

Red blood cells transport oxygen.
White blood cells protect against disease.
Blood platelets help the blood to clot.

1.Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae
and some limb bones. Produced at a very fast rate about 9000
million per hour!
Transport O2 from lungs to all respiring tissues. Prepare CO2 for
transport from all rerspiring tissues to lungs.
Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-containing pigment
which can carry O2. In the lungs, Hb combines with O2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin. In other organs, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into Hb
and O2.
Have no nucleus --> can fit more Hb inside the cytoplasm, but
can lives only for about 4 months.
Have a special biconcave disc shape --> increases the surface area
and makes the diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier.
Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone
marrow. Some of the iron from the Hb is stored, and used for making
new Hb, some of it is turned into bile pigment and excreted.

2. White blood cells (leukocytes)

Made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.
Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood
capillaries into all parts of the body.
There are many different kinds of white blood cells. They all have the
function of fighting pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and
viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in your body:

a. Phagocytes:

Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause
infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them.

b. Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign
materials.


o Have large nuclei
o Responsible for immunity
o There are two different types of lymphocytes:

B-lymphocytes: secrete special proteins called antibodies in
response to contact with their particular antigen, which may be an
invading pathogen or a foreign tissue that has been transplanted.

T-lymphocytes attack foreign or infected cells and kill them.

3. Platelets (thrombocytes)

Functions of the blood

Transportation of R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs, oxygen, food nutrients, hormones,
and waste products.
Defence against disease, by white blood cells phagocytosis and
production of antibodies.
Supplying cells with glucose to respire and keep a constant
temperature.