BIO-INSPIRED CONTROL METHODOLOGY OF WALKING

FOR INTELLIGENT PROSTHETIC KNEE

Prof G.C.Nandi, Bhaskar Gupta
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory,
Indian Institute Of Information Technology, Allahabad. India
{gcnandi,bhaskar}@iiita.ac.in

Keywords: Anthropomorphic knee, Bio-inspired, Biped Locomotion, Central Pattern Generator, Prosthesis, Semi active
control.
Abstract: A detail analysis of bio inspired human walk keeping active prosthetic leg in mind has been presented. In
existing advanced Active Knee prostheses the stiffness and damping at the prosthesis knee joint are applied
by hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders. The damping of cylinders is controlled by either torque control
scheme or trajectory control schemes by classifying gait into phases. These classifications and control are
governed by finite set of rules. These algorithms lack in instant speed adaptivity and have stance instability.
In this paper we analyzed detail human walk to solve the above problem in a bio-inspired manner and also
endeavoured various soft-computing techniques presently being used in biped locomotion for the use in
prosthesis. An attempt to implement neural architecture controller using Central Pattern Generator (CPG)
for prosthesis has been made. Earlier we thought that a neural CPG approach which works perfectly fine for
humanoid biped locomotion will be a better option for prosthesis control, however the results were
unexpected and the approach couldnt be used. None the less we were able to devise biological report of
walking which can be used as a reference for further development of bio-inspired control algorithms.
1 INTRODUCTION
A simple step is complex series of actions. What
happens quite naturally when walking normally
must be consciously and physically controlled by
some who has lost the limb trans-femorally.
Prosthesis knee control is a complex control and
after dedicated research a small number of
companies have succeeded in developing electronic
knees for clinical use. Prominent among those are
Endolite Intelligent Prosthesis (IP) and Otto Bock C-
leg. These controllers offer adjustable resistance for
various speeds at different phases of gait cycle. C-
Leg onboard intelligence can detect stairs and other
activities and provides variable resistance through
microprocessor based control via a servo powered
hydraulic damper. The algorithm for providing the
appropriate resistance at knee is the key point of
development.
Many researchers have worked on algorithms based
on either trajectory (position control) or torque based
control (force control). Researcher D. Zlatnik [1]
used soft-control non analytical technique,
Kalanovic [2] worked on feedback error learning
neural network scheme. In the beginning of semi-
active research Grimes [3] worked with echo
control based on input from sound side leg and so
did Kautz [4]. On the same steps recently Ju-Won
Lee1 [5] worked on postural control based on Neural
Network and EMG signals. There has been constant
research at MIT since past 30 years and various
strategies, multi-mode microcontroller based
prosthesis has been developed [6,7,8]. Popovic [9]
worked on using out-space Lyapunov tracking
control for control knee prosthesis. More advancing
towards anthropomorphic steps, recently a user
adaptive knee using simple torque control scheme is
developed by Herr [10]. It outfits the performance of
other trajectory based sophisticated control and is in
market/sponsored by ssur.
After so many enhancements on biologically
adaptive prosthetic leg, yet one finds the problem in
walking stably and naturally. Simple following
appropriate trajectory in swing phase does not solve
the problem. If a person walks with a stone in his
shoes, he would still be able to follow the trajectory
but the walking would be considerably different and

uncomfortable. Also, in all the schemes stance
instability is the major factor. They all struggle to
provide appropriate stance stability and flexion.
Amputee psychologically fears about stance flexion
and does not bend the knee much and unable to use
the power prosthesis to fullest and walk naturally.
Much work needs to be done in identifying and
model source of the stance instability.
Looking for the need to study human walking more
closely, we endeavour here indebt walking analysis
and various aspects of it. Understanding the
biological manner of biped locomotion, we analyzed
various control schemes and finally came up with a
strategy for anthropomorphic biped locomotion.
Section 2 describes the walking in detail and the
requirement analysis. Section 3 ventures the biped
strategy using Central Pattern Generator (CPG)
using Matuskas oscillator. Section 4 summarizes
various control strategies and their drawbacks
providing the new solution. Section 5 concludes the
present research and provides practical
implementation trace. Its expected that soft force
control using intelligent phase classification is the
best control strategy to be ventured and
implemented.
2 HUMAN WALKING SYSTEM
The natural motion control is made possible by an
array of specialized sensory cells that are embedded
in skin, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. These
mechanoreceptors convert mechanical phenomena-
such as touch, pressure, muscle stretch, tendon force,
and joint angles into streams of nerve impulses
that can be interpreted by brain and spinal cord,
which makes the central nervous system. Based on
this rich flow of sensory data, muscles can be
commanded to contract with the synchrony and
precision to provide stability to a human.
There are two major abilities essential to walking.
The first, equilibrium, is the ability to assume an
upright posture and maintain balance. Locomotion,
the ability to initiate and maintain rhythmic
stepping, is the second. However, although these
two abilities are essential, there are many additional
contributing factors involved. The musculoskeletal
system must provide intact bones and well
functioning joints as well as adequate muscle
strength. Normal muscle tone is very important and
is controlled at the sub cortical level. Muscle tone
must be high enough to resist gravity, but low
enough to allow movement. Reciprocal innervations
of muscles allows for graded action between agonist
and antagonist necessary for skilled movements.
Vision is also vital to normal walking. It is
particularly important when other sensory input is
reduced. Vision gives information about the
movement of the head and body relative to the
surroundings and is important for the automatic
balance responses to changes in surface conditions.
Other sensory systems that are important are the
vestibular, auditory, and sensorimotor systems.
Most algorithms take care of locomotion
requirements of the prosthesis. The equilibrium
comes with the weight distribution in the leg and its
alignment. If we look into the details of phases of
walking, A human gait can broadly be classified into
two phases wiz: Swing Phase and Stance Phase as
shown in figure 1.
The walking analysis was done by placing visual
sensors on subjects body and capturing the 3D view
using two high speed, high resolution video cameras
placed at side by side at distance from walking test
bed. The cameras were calibrated using 11-DLT
(Direct Linear Transformation) parameters. For
prosthesis kinematics analysis, the data from C-leg
(Otto Bock Company) was sniffed using an rs-232
data spy cable. All the data were collected and
interpreted using Matlab 6.5 image processing
toolbox, m-files and MS Excel. 20 healthy Subjects
were told to walk at self selected slow, normal, and
Figure 1: An example of a figure positioned at the top of the page.

fast walking speed. An amputee was trained for two
weeks on C-leg and its kinematics was captured 10
times each for his self selected slow, normal and
walking speed. Figure 2.a shows a healthy subject
and 2.b shows the amputee being analysed. Figure 9
and 10 shows the knee angle graphs which were
generated by above experiments.






2.1 Phases of walking
The walking can be sub divided into following
phases:
2.1.1 Initial Contact
Its the moment when the swing leg foot just
touches the floor. The heel strikes at first place. The
hip is flexed, the knee is extended, and the ankle is
dorsiflexed to neutral. The other leg is at the end of
terminal stance. This phase in some walking steps
can be skipped. Mostly people skip it in fast walking
to cut the time of swing phase so that they can
accelerate more. At heel strike, the foot can have an
acceleration of several hundreds m/s
2
over periods of
some 25 ms. In fact it is a
deceleration, the foot is moved down and backward
at 2-3 m/s and is stopped by the floor very abruptly,
in 10 - 15 ms. As we look into the moment variation
of knee at initial contact, we see that there is a power
burst (concentric) at initial contact. The positive KO
burst is real but present only in those subjects who
can achieve full knee extension at terminal swing.
The eccentric contraction of the hamstrings to
control end range knee flexion is not always
effective, resulting in slightly excessive knee
extension past the 4 or 5 degrees of knee flexion that
is desirable at initial contact. In an effort to correct
this excessive extension, the hamstrings fire
forcefully such that at initial contact the knee is
flexing from a slightly extended position at late
terminal swing, applying a posterior shear force to
the force platform at initial contact, leading to the
brief anterior shear GRF. Hence there is contraction
of the knee flexors at initial contact and early
loading response, and the subsequent KO power
generation. The co-contraction of the knee flexors
and extensors at early loading response is a good
thing, since it increases the stability of the knee
joint.

2.1.2 Loading Response
Its the double stance period beginning when the
foot contacts the floor and continuing until the other
foot is lifted for swing. This is a period of extensive
muscle activity. The ankle dorsiflexors act
eccentrically to prevent slapping of the foot on the
ground. The quadriceps act eccentrically to control
knee flexion. Hip flexion is controlled by isometric
action of the hamstrings (primarily biceps femoris)
and gluteus maximus (primarily its lower portion).
The erector spinae, paraspinal muscles stabilizes the
trunk during weight transfer, and to prevent its
forward flexion during the rapid slowing of forward
movement which occurs at initial contact. The knee
flexes up to 20 degrees in this phase. The speed of
walking can be changed in this phase by increasing
Figure 2.a A healthy subject. 2.b Amputee with
C-leg beinf analysed
Figure 3. Knee Moment, Angle, Power of
four subjects. Reference: 11

the rate of weight transfer from one leg to the other.
The acceleration and energy transfer changes the
speed. Hence to detect speed F(v), one can major the
time period (t) or the change in force (F
A
).
.
F(v) ( F
A
)

(1)
F(v) ( 1/t )

(2)

The next task of the gait cycle is single limb support
during which one limb provides truncal stability
while progression must be continued.

2.1.3 Mid Stance
In this phase the leg advances over the foot by ankle
dorsiflexion while the hip and knee extend. The
other leg is advancing in its mid-swing phase. As the
body moves over the stance limb, activity in the
foot's intrinsic muscles (which are primarily subtalar
supinators) activate to convert the foot into an
increasingly rigid structure. This supination force is
augmented by activity in the ankle plantar flexors,
which act eccentrically to control closed chain ankle
dorsiflexion in the form of tibial advancement over
the stable foot. The quadriceps act concentrically to
initiate knee extension and the hip abductors
continue their activity, becoming isometric as they
halt contralateral pelvic drop.

2.1.4 Terminal Stance
It begins with the heel rise of the stance foot and
continues until the swing leg strikes the ground. Foot
intrinsic and ankle plantar flexors continue to
function as during midstance, becoming isometric at
around 35 to 40 percent of the gait cycle, when
continued forward momentum in the body's upper
part causes the heel to rise from the floor.

2.1.5 Pre-Swing
Its the second double stance interval in the gait
cycle. It begins with the initial contact of the
opposite legs foot and ends with toe-off. Along with
loading response, this is a period of widespread
muscle activity. The foot is in its most supinated and
rigid position. Acting on this rigid base, the plantar
flexors act concentrically, producing a propulsive
"pushoff." The iliopsoas also contributes to
propulsion as it shifts from eccentric to concentric
activity which will advance the extremity into swing
phase. The moment at knee is minimum and the leg
gathers all energy and pushes off to propel itself in
swing phase. The peak force and push off defines
the speed of walking. The change in speed can take
place in this phase. Speed is inversely proposional to
the pre-swing time period and directly proportional
to the force applied. Dewai Qi [6] figured out that
the toe-lift time is more consistently related to
change in speed then force. If k
1
is a constant and t
change in toe-left time its related as :

F(v) = (k
1
/t + k
1
)
2
(3)

2.1.6 Initial Swing
It begins when the foot is lifted from the floor and
ends when the swinging foot is opposite the stance
foot. During this very brief phase, the hip flexors
and knee extensors (primarily rectus femoris)
continue their preswing activity.


2.1.7 Mid Swing
It continues from the end point of the initial swing
and continues until the swinging limb is in front of
the body and the tibia is vertical. The knee is
allowed to extend in response to gravity while the
ankle continues dorsiflexion to neutral. The other leg
is in late mid stance. Muscle activity virtually ceases
except for the dorsiflexors as the extremity's inertia
carries it through swing like a pendulum. Hence for
the prosthetic knee should be allowed to swing at
zero damping factor or minimum torque, like free
fall.

2.1.8 Terminal Swing
It begins when the tibia is vertical and ends when
the foot touches the floor. Limb advancement is
completed by knee extension. The hip maintains its
flexion and the ankle remains dorsiflexed to neutral.
The hamstrings (primarily the medial group) act
eccentrically to decelerate the swinging extremity,
while the dorsiflexors hold the ankle in position for
initial contact. Just before the foot touches the
ground, the quadriceps and the hip abductors initiate
activity, disclosing the existence of a feedforward
mechanism by which the body prepares for the large
ground reaction its joints will encounter at initial
contact. Hence the knee should be able to provide
sufficient damping which replicates the deceleration.
In this phase the change in speed can take place as
the user grounds the foot sooner to cut the swing
phase and move faster.

2.1.9 Speed Detection
The change of speed and hence the detection of it
can be done by noting down the loading response,
terminal swing, and pre-swing time period and by
analysing the rate of transfer of force/weight in load
bearing phase. Equation (4) relates the factors
together. This detection helps to detect the speed and
its change as soon as it occurs rather then noting
down the time period of complete gait cycle and
then updating parameters. Presently speed detection
and updation lags by one step cycle.
If k
0
and k
1
are constant then the relationship is
defined as:

.
F(v) = k
o
(

F
A
) + (k
1
/t + k
1
)
2
(4)

3 BIPED STRAEGIES
Humanoid robot research and development of active
prosthetic knee joints has made remarkable progress
in the two decades. The biped is taught to walk using
either following the traditional path planning way or
biologically inspired way. Figure 4 shows the ways
the humanoids are being controlled. One might think
if the humanoids algorithms have achieved the
walking control that is very close to human beings
and are very stable, why not use the same algorithm
for the prosthetic knee? For the same question in
mind we ventured into various strategies of
humanoid locomotion.
Various approaches have been followed in studies
around the world for humanoid walking. Figure 4
classifies the humanoid walk in major categories.
Among these most ventured are Central Pattern
Generator (CPG)[12][13][14], Zero Moment Point
(ZMP) tracking [12][15], learning and divide-and-
conquer [16]. Other researchers applied various soft
computing techniques to tackle the humanoid
walking problem. Such a work is done by C. Paul
[17] using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
sensorimotor technique. Biological similarity and
stability of Neural Oscillators for producing
sustained oscillations has made oscillator based CPG
design, a focal point of various humanoid walking
studies.
3.1 Traditional way of Humanoid
walk
The traditional way of controlling a biped robot is
modelling its kinetics, dynamics and generating
most optimised, stable trajectory for which a robot
can walk. Zero Moment Point ensures the stability of
the inverse pendulum structure of biped while
walking. Since it requires a perfect knowledge of
robot structure, model and its dynamics, these ways
cannot be implemented in prosthesis where the
human beings weight change, walking style, speed
changes and many perturbations.
In respect to humanoid research applied to
prosthesis recently R.Rastogi [19] has worked upon
task oriented stable trajectory generation using ZMP.
3.2 Bio-Inspired Humanoid walk
As the figure 5 displays the human neural system of
walking. These neural algorithms, to a very
simplified extent are implemented in humanoid
walking. Study of CPG using Rayleigh Oscillators
with respect to prosthesis has been explored by
K.Jibran [20]. In humans the EMG signals can be
identified to sense the muscle, nerve signal and
commands. But these signals are weak due to too
many muscles at stump, and hence noisy data. So,
EMG sensor legs are not used commercially yet and
the human CPG is not used to control the prosthetic
leg. Hence as seen in humanoids the CPG system
gets feedback from angles at various joints, we
developed a bipedal locomotion algorithm based on
Central Pattern Generator (CPG).
Our CPG model is composed of four coupled neural
oscillators (NO) to resemble two hip and knee joints.
Feedbacks from sensors placed on hip, knee joints
and environment are used to update it online and use
one of its coupled NO to generate control signal for
prosthetic knee.
For design of CPG the NO developed by Matsuoka
[18] have been modelled which solve the nonlinear
dynamics using first order differential equations
Firgure 5. Human walking system
Traditional Way
Biped Locomotion
Sensorimotor
Reflexes
Bio Inspired
Trajectory
Generation
Zero
Moment
Point
Central
Pattern
Generators
Figure 4. Biped Locomotion
HMCD-
Human
Motion
Data
Capture

given below. The detail work of making CPG can be
found in report by H.Anand [21].

3.2.1 The CPG Based Locomotion
A 5-link biped robot has been modelled for
simulation study of walking in robots. Key
parameters of the biped are given in table 1
The characteristic equations of the mutually
inhibiting neurons in a neural oscillator are as
follows:

Tr*Xi/t = -Xi b*Yi + c w*max(0,Xj)
+ a(i,k)* max(0,X(k))+h*Feed(i) (4)

Ta Yi/t = -Yi + max(0,Xi) (5)

Tr*Xj/t = -Xj b*Yj + c w*max(0,Xi) +
a(i,k)*max(0,X(k))+h*Feed(j) (6)

Ta Yj/t = -Yj + max(0,Xj) (7)

Where Tr and Ta represent the rise time and
adaptation time for neurons and are responsible for
frequency and shape of output of oscillators along
with inter oscillator connection weights. The weights
of connection between oscillators have been kept
constant throughout the simulation. Input c is used to
vary amplitude of joint angles.
Oscillatory sensory feedback Feed(i) and Feed(j)
provides necessary entrainment, hence accounting
for environment change as shown in Fig 6.
Output of the mutually inhibiting neurons in an
oscillator provides the angular change is opposite
directions for symmetrical out of phase oscillations.
The oscillator outputs have been used for computing
joint angles which correspond to extensor and flexor
angles of antagonistic muscles for each joint. This
interconnection of oscillators provides inverse phase
relationships between contralateral and ipsilateral
sides for symmetrical motion. Optimal values of
weights have been carefully chosen through hand
tuning to give acceptable response over a wide range
of frequencies and patterns generated for gait.
Paramters used in CPG design using oscillators are
given in table 2.
Implementation of CPG and Stick diagram
simulations of humanoid biped walking has been
done using MATLAB 6.5. The weights of
connections between oscillators were decided using
hand tuning and remain constant throughout the
simulation. Input to oscillators is used to observe the
variations in the step length, stride length of biped
gait pattern. Time constants have been chosen to
receive optimal results close to human like gait and
also to vary the frequency of walking.

3.2.2 The CPG Result and Discussion
Figure 7 shows the result of our CPG model. As
you can see there is a transient phase at beginning
due to non linearity. In beginning steps the angular
velocity and hence the biped is unstable and then
rapidly stabilizes and synchronises the rhythm
repeats. Yet this approach if successful will be
robust controller for prosthesis which mimics totally
human model of walking.
To implement the same in prosthesis we place the
left knee NO to be real and its output to be used for
controller. The other three NO wiz: Left, right hip
and right knee NO were given only feedback from
an inverse kinematics trajectory of a human being. It
was expected that the system will work fine. But the
results indicated that the CPG remained in transient
phase and was not able to achieve the normal
walking trajectory.
Due to miss match with the feedback to virtual NO
the CPG was restarted every time and hence
remained in transient phase. This algorithm works
TABLE 1
KEY PARAMETERS OF BIPED
Link
1
Link
2
Link
3
Link
4
Link
5
Length
[meters]
0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5
Mass
[Kg]
7.5 5 7.5 5 30

Figure. 6. Interconnections of oscillators and feedback
connections.
TABLE 2
KEY PARAMTERS OF CPG
Ta Tr b w h
Hip 0.05 0.6 2.69 2.0 0.05
Knee 0.1 1.2 2.69 2.0 0.05

fine with biped robot simulation as shown in figure
8.





Hence we concluded that the hypothesis of using
humanoid biped algorithms which are robust and
stable walking algorithms cannot be used in
prosthesis.
4 DISCUSSION
The present algorithms lack synchronisation and
have lots of instability. There is a need to venture in
biologically adaptive soft algorithms for human
prosthesis in more different way. The present CPG
models used in humanoids which evolved in years of
brain storming by many researchers cannot be used
here. Person requirements are very different from a
humanoid who wants to walk. The user may change
the load, carry back packs, suitcases. The user
wishes to change the style. The algorithm must be
adaptive to adapt to the user specific gait pattern and
its speed.
The user can change its walking speed by either
accelerating the loading response phase, pushing the
ground with more jerks in pre-swing phase or places
the foot at ground before completion of terminal
swing phase. By detection of speed change as soon
as its done we can now make the adaptive controller
which will be user speed adaptive.
At initial contact the KO burst and knee flexion at
loading response is very important to have a natural
gait. Amputees are physiologically afraid of
buckling the knee no matter even if you assure that
the knee wont buckle. Figure 9 shows the angle
variation of an amputee prosthetic leg wearing a C-
Leg. As we can see, the stance flexion is maximum
upto 8 degrees instead of 20 for healthy subjects
walking. The amputee was trained two months on C-
leg but he couldnt overcome the fear of bulking and
falling during stance flexion. So, looking
biologically where nature provides a KO burst to
flex the knee, we can make the algorithm which
forces the user, amputee to flex the knee
automatically at initial contact.
There was a strange observation apart from these
during walking of healthy subjects. As shown in
figure 10 a,b,c; the stance flexion angle has
perturbations in slow and normal walking. And the
graph we refer to, for prosthetic knee control is close
to brisk walking. However the amputee doesnt do
brisk walking and generally walk slowly or with
normal speed. Perhaps one of the factors of stance
instability in present knee controllers is due to
improper reference model of walking. All normal
and standard walking is closer to brisk walk.
To solve this problem we need to go soft computing
Figure 8. Stick Picture for Bipedal walking
simulations (every 0.4s interval) at c=4
Figure 9. Knee angle of an amputee walk


techniques rather then sticking to finite rules and
phase classification. We can digitally filter the
sampled data coming for feedback with kalman filter
and apply fuzzy or Bayesian phase classification to
identify the phases of walking. The work is being
progressed and new soft computing phase classifier
torque control schemes are being ventured as a next
step.
5 CONCLUSION
The new era of intelligent prosthesis has some
drawbacks such as stance instability, walking in
synchronization of both legs and instant detection of
change in speed. Looking closely to biological
human walking we attempt to improve speed
detection by analysing biological walk and also
analysed the stance period closely. This will now
help researchers in making better bio-adaptive
algorithms. In approach to control methodologies
neural architecture and humanoid approach of
walking were tried and found to be insufficient.
Humanoid biped algorithms cannot be implemented
as it is in prosthesis leg. The biological walking
analysis in respect to walking can now be helpful
and we can look towards soft computing techniques
to classify the walking in finer phases and devising
speed adaptive stable algorithms.
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