Basic Instrument

JUBAIL UNITED PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY
TRAINING MANUAL PLANT BASIC OPERATION

Procedure Title BASIC INSTRUMENTATION
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CONTENTS

TOPIC

PAGE NO

I. Role of Instrumentation in Industry 2

II. Flow Measurement
2.1. Venturi
2.2. Flow Nozzle
2.3. Annubar Tube
2.4. Rotameter
2.5. Turbin Flow Meter
2.6. Mass Flow Meter
3

III. Pressure Measurement
3.1. Manometer
3.2. Elastic Type
3.3. Electrical Pressure Transducer
9

IV. Temperature Measurement
4.1. Thermocouple
4.2. Filled System
4.3. Bimetallic Element
4.4. Resistant Element

14

V. Level Measurement
5.1. Divert
5.2. Inferential
18

Prepared by : Suprayudi S. Kadir Date: 24 September 2003
Reviewed by : Date:


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I. ROLE of INSTRUMENTATION in INDUSTRY

In the process plant instrumentation involves the following basic elements:

1. Sensing and Measuring - Measuring of process variable such as flow, temp,
pressure & level is done by measuring device like orifice, RTD, thermocouple,
pressure gauge, pressure transmitter and level gauge/transmitter .

2. Transmitting - Measuring the process variable at the accuracy required and
transmitting to the controller for further manipulation.

3. Controller - Devices that controls output for final control element based on
input and set point requirement.

4. Final Control - Done by final control element such as control valves / motor.
Final control element restrict or allows the process as per the output from
controller.

Single Line Block Diagram:

Measuring

Transmitter

Controlling

Final Control
Element

Sensing
Advantage of Instrumentation:

1. Lowering Labour Cost
2. Eliminating or Reducing Human Error
3. Improving Process Quality
4. Reducing Space
5. Flexibility
6. Providing Safety Operations / ESD
7. Minimizing Energy Consumption


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II. FLOW MEASUREMENTS

The most common method of measuring flow is the differential pressure or head
device, which utilizes restriction elements (orifices, ventury, etc.) in a line. For this
method, flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure
generated by flow through the restriction.

Other flow rate measurements include magnetic meters, turbine meters, variable
area meters (rotameters), positive displacement meters, target meters, turbine flow
meters, ultrasonic flow meters and swirl meters (Vortex Flow Meter).

Bernoullis Theorem :

V = K h/p Q = KA h/p W = KA hp

Where :

V = Velocity
Q = Volume Flow Rate
W = Mass Flow Rate
A = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
H = Differential Pressure Across the Element
P = Density of the flowing fluid
K = Constant which includes the ration of the pipe cross-sectional area to the cross-
sectional area of the element, (orifice bore) and correction factors.

The restriction in the line of the flowing fluid produces a differential pressure across
the element (restriction), which is proportional to the flow rate. The proportionality
is not a linear one but has a square-root relationship in which the flow rate is
proportional to the square-root of the differential pressure.

Several different type of primary elements are used as restrictive devices for head
flow measurements. The orifice plate is used more frequently than all other types
confined. There are four varieties of orifice plates.


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Concentric Orifice Plates

Eccentric Orifice Plates:

This orifice is used for fluids with suspended impurities

Segmental Orifice Plates:

This type of orifice is used for fluid solids

Quadrant Edge Orifice Plates

Quadrant edge orifice produce a relatively constant coefficient of discharge. This is
used for fluid flow having less Reynolds No. 100000 down to 5000.

Other primary devices include venturi tubes, flow nozzles, weirs, pitot tubes and
annubars.

The following are the different types of tapping used with above mentioned orifice
plates for the measurement of flow :

a. Flange Taps :
(H. P. & L. P. Tap locations from Orifice plates)
1 from upstream face and 1 from downstream face of the Orifice plate.

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b. Corner Taps:
On the faces of the Orifice plates.

c. Vena Contracts Taps:
Upstream at 1 pipe dia. and downstream at vena contract (The point of
minimum pressure caused by the restriction)

d. Radius Taps:
Upstream at 1 pipe dia. And downstream at pipe dia.

e. Pipe Taps:
Upstream at 2 pipe dia. And downstream at 8 pipe dia.

2.1. Venturi Tubes

When permanent pressure loss is of primary importance in head flow measurement,
the venturi tube deserves strong consideration. The venturi tube consists of a
converging conical inlet section, a cylindrical throat and a diverging cone. Fluid
velocity increases in the converging inlet section, increasing the velocity head and
decreasing the pressure head. The flow rate remains static in the throat section,
where there is no cross sectional dimensional change, but it decreases in the
recovery section and the decreased velocity head is recovered as pressure.

Converging zone Diverging zone
LP
HP

The venturi tube can be used to handle any fluid an orifice plate can handle, plus
fluids that contain some solids because they contain no sharp corners nor project
into the fluid stream.

The accuracy of venturi tube may vary from to 1/3. The high cost of
venturi tube and the greater length required for their installation limit their use.

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2.2. Flow Nozzle

The Flow nozzles are used for flow measurements at high fluid velocities. The flow
nozzle is more rugged and more resistant to erosion that the sharp edge orifice.
For a given diameter and a given differential pressure, it will pass almost 65% more
flow than the orifice.

The cost of flow nozzle is considerably higher than an orifice plate. It is more
compatible for gas service than for liquids. Maintenance is difficult compared to
other primary devices. Differential pressure taps are normally located one diameter
upstream and one-half diameter down stream from the inlet faces of the nozzle.

2.3. Annubar Tubes

It consist of two probe, one probe facing the flow to sense the velocity pressure
and a second probe behind the first with its opening facing downstream sensing the
static pressure.

HP LP

The probe which faces upstream has four sensing parts, each are representing an
annubar segment of the line. An equalizing line inserted into the plenum of the
upstream probe senses the average of the four pressures representing the four line
segments thus providing average pressure for the entire body of flowing material.

Accuracy may vary from % to 1 %. Available in pipe sizes from to
150 inches. The annubar may be installed in any plant desired. It can be installed
easily in an existing line. By using hot taps it can be installed and placed in
service while the line is under pressure. The upstream probe can be rotated while

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in service, allowing the sensing parts to be turned downstream, thus eliminating the
need for purging in some applications.

2.4. Rotameter

The Rotameter is a variable area type flow meter consisting of a vertical tapered
tube with a float which is free to move up or down within the tube. The
measured fluid enters the tube from the bottom and passes upward around the
float and out at the top.

As the flow varies the float raises or falls varying the area of the annual passage
between the float and tube. The float maintains a equilibrium position in which the
upward hydraulic forces acting on it are in balance with its weight less the buoyant
force. The tube is tapered so that there is linear relationship between the flow rate
and the position of the float within the tube. A calibration scale printed on the tube
or near it provides a direct indication of flow rate.

2.5. Turbine Flow Meter

Turbine flow meter consists of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is
free to rotate about its axis which is fixed along the center line of the tube. The
velocity of the flowing stream imparts a force to the turbine blades or rotor which
rotate at a speed proportional to flow rate. In most of the flow meters a magnetic
pick-up system senses the rotation of the rotor thro the tube wall. As each rotor
blade passes the magnetic pick-up coil, are pulse of AC voltage is induced, each
pulse representing a definite flow quantity.

A turbine meter consists essentially of 3 basic components:

a. The housing
b. The rotor assembly
c. The magnetic pick-up coil

Advantages:

1. Good accuracy ( % to %)
2. Excellent repeatability
3. Low pressure drop
4. Easy to install and maintain
5. Suitable for relatively high pressure & temp. application

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Disadvantages:

1. In line mounting required
2. High cost
3. Limited use for slurry application

2.6. Mass Flowmeter

In glycol plant there are two types of mass flowmeter

2.6.1. Mass Flowmeter based on Coriolis Effect

In mass flowmeter sensor tube is vibrated on its natural frequency. The
angular velocity of the vibrating tube to be in combination with the mass
velocity of the flowing fluid causes the tube to twist . The amount of
twist is measured with magnetic position detectors producing signal
which is linearly propotional to mass flow rate of every parcel and
particle passing through the tube.

The output is unaffected by variation in fluid properties such as viscosity,
density , pressure , temperature , pulsation , entrained gases and
suspended solids .

Accuracy of these meters is very high . Such flowmeter we have in
carbonate section .

2.6.2. Thermal Mass Flow Meter

Fluid is passed through a heated tube and temperature at inlet and
outlet tube is measured . Change in temperature is propotional to the
mass flow rate when a definite amount of heat is added to the tube .
In our plant EDC flowmeters are the thermal mass flow meter .


Procedure No.
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III. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

There are three categories of pressure measurements, namely absolute pressure,
gauge pressure and differential pressure.

Absolute Pressure

It is the difference between the pressure at a particular point in a fluid and the
absolute zero of the pressure, i.e. a complete vacuum.

Gauge Pressure

When the pressure measuring device measures the difference between the
unknown pressure and local atmospheric pressure the measurement is known as
gage pressure.

Differential Pressure

When the pressure measuring device measures the difference between the
unknown pressures, neither of which is atmospheric pressure, then the
measurement is known as differential pressure.

TYPES OF PRESSURE ELEMENTS

Following are the pressure elements used for different ranges and and applications

1. Manometers
a. U-Tube manometers
b. Well Type meters
c. Inclined leg manometer

2. Elastic Type Instruments
a. Bourdon Gages
b. Diaphragm Type
c. Bellows Type

3. Electrical Pressure Transducers
a. Capacitance Type
b. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer
c. Piezo Elecric Pressure Transducer

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3.1. Manometer

This is the simplest device for pressure measurement. Some widely used type of
manometers are described here. They are basically a gravity balance devices.
They measure unknown pressures by balancing against the gravitational force of
liquid heads.

3.1.1. U-Tube Manometer

As the name suggests it consists of a hollow U-tube and a scale which can be
directly used to read pressure. The difference between the two columns of
the liquids is the indication of pressure differential. There are no moving parts
and no friction involved in the measurement, therefore, its accuracy is limited
only to the scale visibility.

Other type of manometer we will not discuss here as it is not normally used in the
industry .

3.2. Elastic Type Instrument

3.2.1. Bourdon Gages
Bourdon Gages use the elastic property of material for pressure measurement.
They are the most common devices used for the local indication of pressure.
The material of construction used are model, brass, silicon bronze and
phosphor bronze.

Common C-shaped bourdon tubes have an elliptical cross section and are bent
in to a circular are of 270. Whenever fluid under pressure enters a tube, it
tries to unwind the tube. This result in a travel of the tip. An adjustable link
and pointer arrangement converts this motion of tip to the rotary motion of
pointer which is used for indication purpose. 90 % of the pressure gauges in
our plant are of this type .

3.2.2. Diaphragm Type Instruments

Diaphragm are widely used for pressure and draft measurements in very low
range. They can detect differential pressure even in the range of 0 to 4 mm.

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They can be in the form of flat, corrugated or dish type. They are usually of
two types.

a. Metallic diaphragm type: It consist of a thin metallic diaphragm
made of materials such as brass / bronze. When we apply pressure
to the diaphragms, the diaphragms gets deflected and the motion of
diaphragm operates an indicating mechanism. It is mostly used for
higher pressure ranges.

b. Stack diaphragm gauge: It is more difficult to measure pressure
below atmospheric because the full range is from 0 to 14.7 psi only.
It is here that a stack diaphragm is to use. Since making a
diaphragm stack allows it to move larger distance for the same
applied pressure it becomes more sensitive and can be used to
measure smaller pressure changes. Usually made of rubber or
other flexible material.

They are quite linear and suitable for slurry/corrosive fluids and widely used
for low pressures and also are subjected to vibration and shock disturbances.

3.2.3. Bellows

Bellows are a single piece of expansible collapsible axially flexible pressure
measuring instruments. They consist of several convolution as folds and may
be made from a single piece of metal.

Bellows are usually specified in terms of maximum allowable working stroke.
When we apply a certain pressure from one side of the bellows, the bellows
tend to expand, this is called the stroke of the bellows. This expansion is a
direct measure of the applied pressure. Bellows are basically primary pressure
sensing elements and can be used in conjunction with other devices to
perform a variety of functions.

Advantages of such elements are moderate cost and can be applicable to
higher forces. They can be used for absolute as well as differential pressure
measurement.

Main drawback is the temperature effect of metal, which also expands or
contract the bellows.


Procedure No.
EG1-TNG -00-00021
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3.3. ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pressure transducers function is convert measured pressure in to the electrical
signal for transmission .

3.3.1. Capacitive Pressure Transducers

All the capacitance type transducers are based on following basic equation of
capacitance.

C = (Eo Er A) / D where C = Capacitance
A = Area of the plates
D = Distance between the plates
Eo = Absolute permittivity
Er = Relative permittivity

Any of the above variables can be varied to give deflectable change. A
schematic arrangement for capacitance type pressure transducer is shown in
figure.

C1 C2

Plate-1

diaphragm
P1 P2
Plate-2
When pressure P1 and P2 are applied to given arrangement, diaphragm
deflects accordingly. If P1 is larger than P2 then diaphragm deflects towards
plate-1, which results in increase in capacitance C1 and decrease in
capacitance C2. This change in the capacitance are used for indication of
pressure. Most of the transmitters used in processes are of this type.

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It has very fast response time as ten millisecond. It is very sensitive and
can detect even very small change in pressure. It has very good frequency
response and is able to measure static as well as dynamic pressure changes.

3.3.2. STRAIN GAUGES

A strain gauge is a device which uses the change of electrical resistance of a
wire under strain to measure pressure . Strain gauge changes the
mechanical motion into an electrical signal when a wire length is changed
by tension / compressin ,altewring the wire diameter and hence changing
the resistance of wire . This change in resistance is converted to electrical
signal .

3.3.3. PIEZO ELECTRIC

The piezo electric element is made of an asymmetrical crystalline material
such as barium titanite quartz . This produce a electrical signal when a force
or stress is exerted on the crystal . When this crystal is attatched to a stiff
metallic pressure diaphragm and encased , it will produce a electrical output
signal directly propotional to the change in applied pressure .


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IV. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Methods of temperature measurement are:

1. Thermocouples
2. Filled systems
3. Bimetallic elements
4. Resistance Elements
5. Radiation
6. Optical Pyrometers

4.1. Thermocouples
:

Imparting heat to the junction of two dissimilar metals causes a small continuous e
m f to generated. Thermocouples depends on this principal known as Seeback
effect. An ordinary thermocouples consists of two different kind of wires each of
must be made of a homogenous metal or alloy. The wires are fastened together at
one end to form a measuring junction, normally referred to as hot junction. The
free ends of the wires are connected to the measuring element to form a closed
path in which current can flow. The point where the thermocouple wires connect to
the measuring instrument is designated to reference junction, or the cold junction.

Advantages

Convenient for mounting rugged construction.
Small size, low cost.
Long transmission distance possible.
Good reproducibility for long term.
No danger of contaminating the process by filling liquid.
Wide range form near absolute zero to about 5000
o
F.


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Disadvantages:

Calibration must match temperature e m f relationship it is assumed to follow.

+ Ve Wire

-Ve Wire

Range
o
F

Advantage
Atmosphere
Environment
Recommended
J Iron Constantan -300 to 1400 Most Economical Reducing
K Chromel Alumel -300 to 2300 Most Linear Oxidizing
R Pt-87 Rh-13 Platinum 32 to 2700
Small size, Fast response
Oxidizing
S Pt-90 Rh-10 Platinum 32 to 2700
Small size, Fast response
Oxidizing
T Copper Constantan -300 to 650 Corrosion resistance
Oxidizing or
Reducing
E Chromal Constantan -300 to 1600 Highest emf /
o
F Oxidizing

4.2. FILLED TYPE : Liquid in glass

Liquid in glass is one of the simplest temperature measuring device and almost free
from error. As the other expansion type thermometers. It works on the basis of
physical properties of fluid . When temperature changes volume of the fluid also
changes . The common mercury in glass thermometer and those with colored
liquids are the well known example . For such fluids following the requirement .

Constant co-efficient of cubic thermal expansion in given range
Low freezing temperature.
High boiling temperature.
Easily obtained in pure form.

Advantages:
Low Cost and Simplicity

Disadvantages:
Confinement to local measurement and non-adaptability to records or automatic
control.


Procedure No.
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4.2. Bi-metallic Elements

Bi-metallic elements makes use of two fundamental principles:
that metals change volume with temperature, and
this co-efficient of change is not the same for all the metals.

If two different straight metal strips are bounded together and heated, the resultant
strip will tend to bend toward the side of the metal with the lower expansion rate.
Deflection is proportional to the square of the length and the temperature change
and inversely proportional to the thickness.

Most industrial or residential bi-metal elements use a helical coil, which can be
designed to fit in to a stem more easily than spiral.

Advantages
Less subject to breakage and easier to read.
Can be equipped with recording features.

Disadvantages
Rough handling changes the calibration.

4.4. Resistance Element (R T D)

The resistance temperature detector is based upon the dependence of the
resistance of metal conductors upon temperature As the temperature of the pure
metal increases its resistance also increases. The increase in the resistance is given
as:

Rt = Ro (1 + at + bt
2
+ ct.
3
.)

Ro = Resistance at 0
o
C
t = Temperature of metal
Rt = Resistance at t
o
C
a, b, c, .. = Constants

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This characteristics of the metal make them possible to be used as a temperature
sensors. The widely used metals are nickel, copper and platinum. Their
temperature resistance relation is shown in figure. Semiconductor devices have
tendency to lower their resistance with the increase in temperature. They are
referred to as themistor. Their temperature dependency is shown in figure.

Advantages:
1.Small sizes, fast response and variety of configurations available.
2. When the temp. co-efficient is negative, i.e. thermistor exhibits greater
sensitivity when temperature drops.
3. Good for small span.
4. Higher accuracy.
5. Low Cost.
6. No reference junction compensation necessary.

Disadvantages:
1. Non-linear characteristics of the sensor.
2. Not for very wide range.
3. Interchangeability can be a problem.


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V. LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Level Measurement can be classified as:

1. Direct : For local indication, simple, not widely used.
2. Inferential : Used for remote indication and control.

5.1. Direct

1.Gauge Glass
2.Calibrated tapes or dip sticks.

5.1.1. Level Gauges

Level gauges are the oldest type of level measuring instruments. They are
used since the earliest process developments. Even now, most of the
vessels or equipments are equipped with level gauges, unless high pressure
or fluid characteristics make them inapplicable.

Level gauges are working with the same principle as a U tube manometer
that the difference in the liquid level in U-tube is proportional to the both
end of the U-tube.

They are economical and applicable to a wide range of the fluids. They are
mostly used for indicating purpose. Recording and transmitting facilities are
very difficult to achieve for such type of measurement.

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5.1.2. Float Type

It consist of the element which floats on the level of liquid. So it is referred
to as a float type instrument. Here position of the float element gives direct
indication. Position of level is sensed through a string which actuates the
potentiometer or some other device. Float elements used in such systems
are normally of cylindrical or spherical shape for the top mounted devices.
For the side mounted devices the shape of float is usually spherical.

One simple arrangement for the indicating type float level measurement is
shown in figure. Float are usually of smaller size for high density liquid
applications, while relatively larger floats are used for interface level or low
density applications. These type of instruments are frequently used for
switching application. They are highly suitable for high temperature services
and quit economical.


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5.2. Inferential

Measurements depends upon the material having a physical property which can be
measured and related to level.

5.2.1. Buoyancy

The force produced by a submerged body which is equal to the weight of
the fluid it displaces.

A displacer type element is very much similar to the float type element but
its amount of immersion in the liquid may vary with level unlike the float
type element. Displacer type instrument works on the principle of
Archimedes. A body wholly or partially immerse in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. A typical scheme
for the displacer type level measurement is shown in a figure.

Thus the liquid level i.e. the immersion level of the displacer element can be
detected through the weight of displacer element. Here a spring is placed to
counter the buoyancy forces. The displacement of the displacer element
gives the indication of level.

Displacer type sensor can be used with transmitter also . Change in force
results into change in resistance of the wire to which float is connected .This
change in resistance gets converted to current signal in the transmitter .

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5.2.2. Hydrostatic Head (Differential Pressure Type)

The force or weight produced by the height of the liquid.

Easily adaptable to services of wide level ranges.

a. Diaphragm units:

The following relationship between the level and differential pressure makes
it possible to measure the liquid level by measuring the differential pressure
at tank.

P = sh

where P = Differential Pressure (mm H2O)
s = Sp. Gravity of liquid
H = Liquid level (mm)

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For the tanks operated at atmospheric pressure, the high pressure side of the
instrument is connected to the bottom of the vessel and low pressure side of
the vessel is vented to atmosphere.

HP LP vent
DP

For the closed tank operated at high pressure, the high pressure side of the
instrument is connected to the bottom of the vessel, and low pressure side
of the instrument is connected to the vapor space of the instrument.

LP

DP


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5.2.3. Sonar or Ultrasonic

A high frequency sound signal (20kHZ or greater) are used for detection of
level in this type of level measurement instrument. It consists of an
ultrasonic sound transmitters and receivers. The ultrasonic sound has a
property of returning back at the surface of the material. Same principle is
also useful for the echo meters.

Receiver (detector)
Transmitter

A simple ultrasonic level detector is shown in figure. In this design a blank
shell is fired. It travels through the vapor space of the tank and return back
the level of the liquid. This signal is received by the detector. The
continuous ultrasonic level detected (SONAR) measures the time required for
an ultrasonic sound to travel to the fluid surface and back. As a level
increase, the travel decreases and so it takes lesser time. This is calculated to
detect level.

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