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H O W
A N D
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T H E H O W A N D W H Y W O N D E R B O O K O F
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A N D W H A T Y<
Wr i t t en by MARTI N K E E N
I l l ust r at ed by WA L T E R F E RGUS ON
Edi t or i al Pr oduc t i on: DONAL D D. WO L F
Edi t ed under t he super vi si on of
Dr. Paul E. Bl a c k wo o d
Speci al i st f or El ement ar y Sci ence
U. S. Dep a r t ment of Heal t h, Educ at i on and Wel f ar e
Was hi ngt on, D. C.
Tex t and i l l ust r at i ons appr ov ed by
Oak es A. Wh i t e
Br ook l y n Chi l dr en' s Mus eum
Br ook l y n, Ne w Yo r k
W O N D E R B O O K S N E W Y O R K
ff
I n t r o d u c t i o n
The How and Why Wonder Book of the Microscope i nt r oduces one of
t he i nst r ument s t hat has been most i mpor t ant t o sci ent i st s i n t hei r never-
endi ng search for accur at e knowl edge about our wor l d. The i nst r ument
hel ps our eyes, wonderful as t hey are, t o be even mor e wonderful , by ext end-
i ng t he sense of sight. It br i ngs before our eyes t he wor l d of invisible life,
t he worl d of tiniest pl ant s and ani mal s, t he bacteria and protozoa. I ndeed,
t he mi cr oscope makes t he "unseen wor l d" visible.
But t o get full pl easur e and benefit from t hi s r emar kabl e i nst r ument
requi res knowl edge of how t o oper at e it careful l y. It r equi r es pr act i ce in
focusi ng l i ght and in pr epar i ng speci mens for exami nat i on. Thi s book will
hel p t he begi nni ng microscopist l ear n t hese t hi ngs. An d it gives di rect i ons for
usi ng t he mi cr oscope t o observe t he det ai l s of ma ny c ommon t hi ngs all
ar ound us. A page of this book suddenl y becomes a mass of st ri ngy fibers,
whi l e t he surface of a t ree leaf becomes a mi r acl e of desi gns when vi ewed
t hr ough a mi cr oscope.
Ever y young scientist has ahead of hi m ma ny exci t i ng experi ences expl or-
i ng t he unseen wor l d. The How and Why Wonder Book of the Microscope,
l i ke t he ot her publ i cat i ons in t he series, is a useful t eacher and gui de in
t hat expl or at i on.
Paul E. Blackwood
Specialist for Elementary Science
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Washington, D. C.
1961, by Wonder Books, Inc.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.
C o n t e n t s
AN UNSEEN WORLD
Page
4
THE MICROSCOPE 5
What is a microscope? 5
How does it work? 5
What is a simple microscope? 6
What can you see with a simple microscope? 7
How can you keep a record of what you see? 8
What is a focus? 9
How can you make a water-lens microscope? 10
Who invented the microscope? 11
What is a microscopist? 11
How was diamond dust used for a
microscope? 12
What objects did he study? 12
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 12
What is a compound microscope? 12
What are the two systems of lenses? 13
What are some parts of a compound
microscope? 13
How do you find out the magnifying power
of a microscope? 14
What are the other parts of a compound
microscope? 14
How do you use a laboratory compound
microscope? 15
How do you focus it? 17
How do you clean the equipment? 17
What equipment will you need to become
a microscopist? 18
What kind of microscope should you get? 18
THE WORLD OF INVISIBLE L I F E -
BACTERIA AND PROTOZOA 19
What are the smallest plants in the world? 19
Where are bacteria found? 19
How are bacteria useful? 19
What do bacteria look like? 20
When do they thrive best? 20
What is the process of pasteurization? 21
How fast do bacteria reproduce? 21
How can you get bacteria? 21
How do you prepare bacteria for the
microscope? 22
How can you stain bacteria? 23
How can you prepare a stained slide? 24
What is a hanging drop mount? 24
How can you make your own hanging
drop mount? 25
What are the smallest animals in the world? 25
What do the protozoa eat? 26
How can you examine protozoa? 26
How can you keep protozoa in place? 27
How do protozoa move about? 27
Page
What is a Peranema? 28
What is an amoeba? 28
How does an amoeba move? 28
What is a paramecium? 28
What is inside a protozoan? 29
How do protozoa collect wastes and water? 29
How does the amoeba eat? 30
How does a paramecium get its food? 30
How can you feed protozoa? 30
How do bacteria and protozoa suspend life? 31
Where do hay-infusion bacteria and
protozoa come from? 31
How do the number of bacteria and
protozoa increase? 31
How do they reproduce? 32
What kind of microscopic plants live in
"houses"? 33
MOLDS, MILDEW, YEAST BUDDING 34
How can you grow plants on a slice of bread? 34
What do molds look like?
How are molds useful to man?
What is mildew?
What is yeast budding?
How else does yeast budding differ from
cell division?
How are yeasts useful to man?
How can you see fermentation?
INSECTS
Where can you keep insects?
What does a fly's eye look like?
How can a fly walk upside down?
FABRICS
How is cotton thread made?
How do natural fibers differ from
man-made (artificial) ones?
How is muslin woven?
How is knitted fabric made?
BLOOD
What does blood do?
What is blood made of?
How can you get a sample of your blood?
How do you make a blood smear?
What do blood cells look like?
How can you see blood in circulation?
How can you observe the insides of living
things?
THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
What are the limitations of optical
microscopes?
What is an electron microscope?
How does this microscope help man?
35
35
35
37
38
38
39
39
39
39
40
40
40
A n U n s e e n W o r l d
T h e h u ma n e ye i s a wo n d e r f u l o r g a n .
O u r eyes t el l us mo r e a b o u t t h e wo r l d
a r o u n d u s t h a n a n y of o u r o t h e r s ens e
o r g a n s do. T h e si ze a n d s h a p e of t hi ngs ,
t he i r c ol or , t he i r di s t a nc e f r om us , a n d
wh e t h e r o n e obj ect is i n f r ont o r i n b a c k ,
a b o v e or be l ow, a r e al l t hi ngs we l e a r n
b y us i ng o u r eyes . We c a n see t hi ngs
t h a t a r e o n l y a f ew i nc he s i n f r ont of
o u r eyes, a n d t he n we c a n l ook o u t t he
wi n d o w a n d i ns t a nt l y see t hi ngs mo r e
t h a n a mi l e a wa y .
Ye t , r e ma r k a b l e as o u r eyes ma y be ,
t h e r e a r e ma n y t hi ngs t h e y c a n n o t en-
a b l e u s t o see. A mo n g t h e s e a r e ve r y
s mal l t hi ngs . Us u a l l y , wh e n we t a l k
a b o u t s mal l t hi ngs , we me a n t hi ngs
a b o u t t he si ze of t h e p e r i o d a t t he e n d
of t hi s s e nt e nc e . No w, y o u c a n see t he
p e r i o d qui t e easi l y, a n d if it we r e onl y
o n e - t e n t h i t s si ze, y o u c o u l d still see i t .
Bu t if t he p e r i o d s h r a n k t o one - hun-
d r e d t h of i t s p r e s e n t si ze, you wo u l d
p r o b a b l y l os e s i ght of i t . Ye t , s mal l a s
t h e s h r u n k e n p e r i o d mi g h t be, it wo u l d
still be mu c h l a r ge r t h a n mi l l i ons of
Microorganisms are organisms of microscopic size.
s * ;
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1 FAIRY SHRIMP
2 DINOFLAGEUATE
3 HYDROIDS
4 NEMATODE
5 NOCTILUCA
6 PLANARIAS
7 PROTOMYXA
8 HAIOSPHAERA
di f f er ent k i n d s of t hi ngs t h a t exi st i n
y o u r e v e r y d a y wo r l d .
T h e r e a r e c e r t a i n p l a n t s wh i c h we
s hal l s oon l e a r n a b o u t t h a t a r e s o
s mal l you c o u l d p u t 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 of t h e m o n
t he p e r i o d a t t he e n d of t hi s s e nt e nc e .
A n d t he r e a r e a n i ma l s t h a t a r e n o t
mu c h bi gger .
N o ma t t e r h o w cl os el y y o u l o o k a t
t h e s heet of p a p e r o n wh i c h t he s e wo r d s
a r e p r i n t e d , it wi l l still l ook l i ke a f ai r l y
s mo o t h s ur f ace, b u t if y o u r e ye s c o u l d
see mu c h s ma l l e r t hi ngs t h a n t he y n a t u -
r al l y c a n, y o u wo u l d s ee t h a t t h e p a p e r
i s r e a l l y a t wi s t e d ma s s of fibers.
T h e r e a r e h u n d r e d s of de t a i l s a b o u t
t he wo r l d t h a t a r e t o o s ma l l f or y o u r
u n a i d e d eyes t o see. Ho w, t h e n , d o we
l e a r n a b o u t t he s e de t a i l s ? Wh a t c a n we
us e t o a i d o u r e ye s i n s eei ng t h e u n s e e n
wo r l d of ve r y s mal l t hi ngs t h a t a r e al l
a r o u n d us ? We c a n us e a n i n s t r u me n t
c a l l e d a microscope.
T h e M i c r o s c o p e
What is a
microscope?
A mi c r o s c o p e i s a n i n s t r u me n t f or l ook-
i n g a t s ma l l t h i n g s .
T h e wo r d microscope
c o me s f r o m t wo an-
c i e nt Gr e e k wo r d s , mikros, wh i c h me a n s
" s ma l l , " a n d skopein, wh i c h me a n s " t o
l ook a t . "
Al l mi c r o s c o p e s h a v e o n e t h i n g i n
c o mmo n : T h e y c o n t a i n o n e o r mo r e
p a r t s c a l l e d lenses. A l e ns i s a n y c l e a r
s u b s t a n c e t h a t h a s a def i ni t e s h a p e a n d
wi l l b e n d l i ght r a y s a s t h e y p a s s t h r o u g h
i t . Mo s t l ens es a r e ma d e of gl as s , b u t
a l e ns c o u l d be ma d e of wa t e r , of oi l ,
o r of c l e a r pl a s t i c .
How does
it work?
Wh e n we s ee a n y t h i n g , we d o so be-
c a u s e l i ght i s r ef l ect ed
f r om t he obj e c t t o o u r
eyes . If t he r a ys of l i ght
c o me s t r a i ght f r om t h e obj e c t t o o u r
eyes , we s ee t h e obj e c t i n i t s n a t u r a l
si ze. Bu t if t h e r a y s of l i ght c o mi n g t o
o u r e ye s a r e b e n t i n a c e r t a i n wa y , t h e n
t h e obj e c t l o o k s bi gge r . Wh e n t hi s h a p -
pe ns , we s ay t h e obj e c t i s magnified. A
l e ns of t h e p r o p e r s h a p e c a n b e n d l i ght ,
s o t h a t t hi ngs we see t h r o u g h t h e l ens
a r e ma gni f i e d. A n y l ens t h a t d o e s t hi s i s
a mi c r o s c o p e .
Y o u ma y wo n d e r if l ens es c a n a l s o
H
ft
LINEN TESTER
ma k e t hi ngs l o o k s ma l l e r . T h e a n s we r
i s " ye s . " Yo u c a n eas i l y p r o v e t hi s b y
l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e l a r g e e n d of a h a n d
t e l e s c ope o r a p a i r of field gl as s es .
What is a
simple
microscope?
Mi c r o s c o p e s t h a t a r e ma d e of o n e , o r
p e r h a p s t wo , l e ns e s a r e
u s u a l l y c a l l e d magni-
fying glasses, o r hand
lenses. T h e s e a r e
p r o p e r n a me s f or t h e m, b u t t h e y a r e
a l s o mi c r o s c o p e s . Ha v e y o u e v e r s een
t h e ma g n i f y i n g gl as s u s e d b y s t a mp col -
l e c t or s ? I t i s ma d e u p of j us t o n e o r
t wo s ma l l l ens es fixed i n a me t a l f r a me
a n d h e l d i n t h e h a n d of t h e p e r s o n us i ng
i t . Ha v e y o u e v e r s e e n a j e we l e r o r a
wa t c h ma k e r l o o k i n g a t a g e m o r a
wa t c h t h r o u g h a b l a c k , s n o u t y - l o o k i n g
obj e c t h e l d a t o n e eye?" Th i s i s a mi c r o-
s c o p e c a l l e d a loupe. Di d y o u e ve r see a
p i c t u r e of t h e d e t e c t i v e S h e r l o c k
Ho l me s h o l d i n g a r o u n d ma g n i f y i n g
gl as s fixed i n a c i r c ul a r b a n d of me t a l
a n d a t t a c h e d t o a s hor t h a n d l e ? Al l
There are many kinds of
instruments for looking
at small thingsused by
detectives and others.
t he s e a r e e x a mp l e s of simple micro-
scopes. A s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e i s o n e t h a t
i s ma d e u p of o n e o r mo r e l e ns e s t h a t
s h o w y o u a ma gni f i e d obj e c t r i ght - s i de-
u p a n d i n t h e s a me p l a c e wh e r e y o u
wo u l d see i t wi t h o u t t h e l ens . Y o u wi l l
u n d e r s t a n d t hi s def i ni t i on b e t t e r wh e n
we l e a r n a b o u t t h e o t h e r k i n d of mi c r o-
s c ope .
Y o u c a n b u y a si ngl e- o r doubl e - l e ns
mi c r o s c o p e i n a l mo s t a n y t o y s t or e o r
f i v e - a n d - t e n - c e n t s t o r e . S u c h mi c r o -
s c ope s r a n g e i n pr i c e f r o m l ess t h a n a
d o l l a r t o t h r e e o r f o u r dol l a r s . T h e v e r y
c h e a p o n e s ma y h a v e p o o r l y - ma d e gl as s
l e ns e s o r pl a s t i c l e ns e s t h a t s c r a t c h
eas i l y. A d o l l a r a n d a hal f i s p r o b a b l y
t h e p r i c e f or wh i c h y o u c a n b u y a ve r y
us ef ul h a n d l ens , s u c h a s i s u s e d b y
s t a mp c ol l e c t or s .
FINGERPRI
What can
you see
wi t h a
simpl e
microscope?
Wh e n y o u h a v e o b t a i n e d y o u r s i mpl e
mi c r o s c o p e , y o u c a n
us e i t t o l e a r n t hi ngs
a b o u t y o u r da i l y wo r l d
t h a t y o u n e v e r k n e w
be f or e . Ob t a i n a ma g -
a z i ne wi t h a s mo o t h , o r
sl i ck, p a p e r c o v e r t h a t b e a r s t h e c ol or
p h o t o g r a p h of a p e r s o n . T h e ma j o r i t y
of t h e sl i ck p a p e r ma g a z i n e s h a v e
c ove r s l i ke t hi s . Wi t h y o u r mi c r o s c o p e ,
e x a mi n e t h e f ace of t h e p e r s o n i n t h e
pi c t ur e . Y o u wi l l s ee t h a t t h e c o l o r of
t he flesh of t h e f a c e i s ma d e u p of ma n y
t i ny d o t s or s p e c k s of di f f er ent c ol or s .
T h e r e a r e r e d, ye l l ow, a n d g r e e n o r b l u e
dot s , a n d t h e wh i t e c o l o r of t h e p a g e
s h o ws t h r o u g h i n s pa c e s n o b i g g e r t h a n
t he c o l o r e d dot s . T a k e t h e ma g n i f y i n g
l e ns a wa y a n d l o o k a t t h e p a g e wi t h
y o u r u n a i d e d eye. Y o u wi l l s ee h o w t h e
c o mb i n a t i o n of t he s e dot s , t o o s ma l l t o
b e s een wi t h o u t t h e mi c r o s c o p e , b l e n d s
t o g e t h e r t o p r o d u c e t h e c ol or of flesh.
Wi t h t h e mi c r o s c o p e , l o o k a t t h e r e d
a r e a of t he c h e e k o r a t t h e l i ps. Y o u
Newspaper print looks like this when it is magnified.
wi l l s ee t h a t t h e r e a r e mo r e r e d d o t s
c r o wd e d c l os e r t o g e t h e r i n o r d e r t o pr o-
d u c e t h e r e d d e r c ol or .
Op e n y o u r h a n d k e r c h i e f a n d l o o k a t
i t a s y o u h o l d i t u p t o t h e l i ght . Y o u
c a n eas i l y see t h a t i t i s wo v e n of t h o u -
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A swatch of wool under a microscope shows its weave.
Cotton gabardine twill as viewed under a microscope.
s a n d s of t h r e a d s . N o w us e y o u r mi c r o-
s c ope t o l o o k a t t h e h a n d k e r c h i e f . Y o u
wi l l see h o w e a c h t h r e a d is wo v e n , first
u n d e r , t h e n ove r , t h e t h r e a d s n e a r i t .
No t e t h a t al l t h e t h r e a d s a r e n o t e q u a l l y
t hi c k. Y o u wi l l see t h a t mo s t of t h e
t h r e a d s l o o k f uzzy b e c a u s e f r o m t he i r
s i des t i ny, f r a ye d filaments of fiber s t i ck
o u t .
L o o k a t s e ve r a l di f f er ent s a mp l e s of
m
* * <
c l o t h t h a t h a v e c o l o r e d p a t t e r n s . H o w
c a n y o u t el l wh i c h s a mp l e s h a v e t h e
c ol or p r i n t e d o n t h e m a n d wh i c h h a v e
t h e c o l o r wo v e n i n t o t h e m? Y o u c a n
d o t hi s b y t r a c i n g a s i ngl e t h r e a d wi t h
y o u r mi c r o s c o p e . If, a s f a r a s y o u c a n
f ol l ow t h e t h r e a d , i t i s o n e c ol or , t h e n
t he c l o t h h a s a wo v e n p a t t e r n . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , if y o u t r a c e a s i ngl e t h r e a d
a n d find t h a t i t i s c o l o r e d di f f er ent l y i n
di f f er ent p a r t s of t h e p a t t e r n , t h e n t h e
p a t t e r n wa s p r i n t e d o n t h e c l ot h.
Yo u r mi c r o s c o p e wi l l r e ve a l h u n -
d r e d s of n e w t hi ngs , if y o u c a r e f ul l y
e x a mi n e t h e obj e c t s of y o u r da i l y wo r l d .
E x a mi n e a s t one t h a t h a s di f f er ent
c ol or s i n i t . L o o k a t t h e s ma l l h a i r s o n
t h e b a c k of y o u r h a n d . E x a mi n e a pi e c e
of wo o d a l o n g t he s ur f a c e wh e r e a car -
p e n t e r h a s s a we d i t . L o o k a t t h e l eg of
a n i ns e c t .
Amethyst crystal's form when magnified.
When you look at this print of a
baby under a microscope, you can
see that it is made up of many dots.
Y o u wi l l a d d g r e a t l y t o y o u r i nt e r e s t
a n d k n o w l e d g e
How can you
w h e n w o r k i n g
keep a record . . ,
- . _ w i t h a m i c r o -
of wh a t you s ee?
s c ope , if y o u k e e p
a r e c o r d of wh a t y o u see. Y o u c a n k e e p
s u c h a r e c o r d i n a n o t e b o o k o r o n file
c a r d s t h a t a r e five i n c h e s l ong a n d t h r e e
i n c h e s wi de . B o t h t h e n o t e b o o k a n d t h e
c a r d s c a n b e b o u g h t i n a l mo s t a n y st a-
t i o n e r y o r five-and-ten-cent s t or e.
He r e a r e t h e t hi ngs t o p u t i n y o u r
r e c o r d b o o k o r c a r d s :
Examination number . . .
Date of examination . . .
Object examined . . .
Where I found it . . .
What I saw . . .
Remarks . . .
Un d e r r e ma r k s , y o u mi g h t wa n t t o
8
An image out of focus (left).
Image now in focus (right).
Diagram (left): light passing
through simple microscope.
wr i t e s o me t h i n g l i ke : " C o mp a r e t hi s
wi t h E x a mi n a t i o n n u mb e r " F o r
e x a mp l e , y o u ma y h a v e j us t e x a mi n e d
t he a n t e n n a of a but t er f l y, a n d s o me
t i me be f or e , y o u h a d e x a mi n e d t h e a n-
t e n n a of a mo t h . Yo u wo u l d p r o b a b l y
wa n t t o ma k e n o t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
a n t e n n a s of t he s e t wo k i n d s of i ns e c t s
a r e q u i t e di f f er ent . So, o n t h e c a r d
b e a r i n g y o u r r e c o r d of t h e e x a mi n a t i o n
of t h e but t er f l y' s a n t e n n a , y o u r e f e r t o
t he c a r d b e a r i n g t h e r e c o r d of t h e e x a m-
i na t i on of t h e mo t h ' s a n t e n n a ; a n d o n
t he mo t h ' s c a r d , y o u r ef er t o t h e b u t t e r -
fly. Cr os s - r e f e r e nc e s l i ke t hi s wi l l gr e a t l y
i nc r e a s e y o u r k n o wl e d g e of t h e t hi ngs
you e x a mi n e .
Wh e n y o u we r e e x a mi n i n g t h i n g s wi t h
A,
L
. y
u r
s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e ,
a focus?
y o u
P
r o b a b l
y n o t i c e d t h a t
y o u c o u l d n o t s ee c l e a r l y
wh e n y o u h e l d t h e l e ns j us t a n y o l d di s-
t a n c e f r om t h e obj e c t . Y o u h a d t o mo v e
t he l ens b a c k a n d f o r t h unt i l t h e obj e c t
b e c a me cl ear . Wh y wa s t hi s n e c e s s a r y ?
Y o u r e ye h a s a l ens . Th i s l e ns c ove r s
t h e p a r t of y o u r e ye t h a t i s c o l o r e d a n d
a l s o t h e d a r k s pot , t h e pupi l , a t i t s cen-
t e r . L i k e al l l ens es , t h e o n e i n y o u r e ye
b e n d s r a y s of l i ght . T h e l i ght i s b e n t s o
t h a t i t f al l s o n t h e b a c k of y o u r e ye
wh e r e l i ght - s ens i t i ve ma t e r i a l s a r e l o-
c a t e d. Wh e n t h e l e ns i n y o u r e ye wo r k s
j us t r i ght , i t b e n d s l i ght so t h a t e a c h
l i ght r a y e n t e r i n g y o u r e ye f r o m a n ob-
j e c t f al l s e x a c t l y i n t h e p r o p e r p l a c e t o
gi ve a s h a r p i ma g e of t h e obj e c t o n t he
b a c k of t h e eye. As l o n g a s t h e p o i n t
wh e r e t h e l i ght r a y s f o r m a s h a r p i ma g e
i s e x a c t l y o n t h e b a c k of t h e eye, we
s ee t h e obj e c t s h a r p l y a n d cl ear l y. If t hi s
p o i n t i s t o o f ar f o r wa r d o r t o o f a r b a c k ,
o b j e c t s we s ee a r e f uzzy a n d b l u r r e d .
T h i s i s wh a t h a p p e n s t o n e a r - a n d f ar -
s i ght e d p e r s o n s . T h e p o i n t a t wh i c h a
l e ns f o r ms a s h a r p i ma g e i s c a l l e d t h e
focus of t h e l ens .
T h e l e ns of y o u r mi c r o s c o p e a l s o h a s
a f ocus . Y o u h a d t o mo v e t h e mi c r o-
s c o p e b a c k a n d f o r t h unt i l t h e f oc us of
i t s l e ns wa s e xa c t l y wh e r e i t c o u l d wo r k
wi t h t h e l e ns i n y o u r eye, s o a s t o f o r m
a s h a r p i ma g e o n t h e b a c k of y o u r eye.
We cal l t h e mo v i n g b a c k a n d f or t h of a
l e ns t o f o r m a s h a r p i ma g e focusing t h e
l ens .
Wi t h a p a i r of pl i er s , s t r a i g h t e n o u t a
p a p e r c l i p o r a
How can you
p i e c e o f w k e o f
make a wat er- . ., . . ,
, . s i mi l ar t hi c kne s s .
lens microscope?
A t o n e e n d of t h e
wi r e , b e n d a c o mp l e t e l o o p a b o u t one -
s i xt e e nt h of a n i n c h a c r os s . R u b a l i t t l e
gr e a s e o r c o o k i n g oi l o n t h e l oop. Di p
t h e l o o p i n wa t e r a n d ge nt l y r e mo v e i t .
Wi t h i n t h e l o o p wi l l b e a d r o p of wa t e r
t h a t f o r ms a l ens . L o o k a t t h e p r i n t o n
a p a g e t h r o u g h t h e wa t e r l ens . T h e l e ns
wi l l p r o b a b l y ma g n i f y t h e p r i n t t o t wi c e
i t s n a t u r a l si ze. Ev e n t u a l l y , t h e wa t e r
wi l l e v a p o r a t e , b u t i t i s e a s y t o ma k e
a n o t h e r wa t e r l ens .
A di f f er ent k i n d of mi c r o s c o p e wi t h
a wa t e r l e ns c a n a l s o b e ma d e . Wi t h a
h e a v y s he a r s , c u t a s t r i p f r o m a t i n c a n.
Th i s t i n s t r i p s h o u l d b e a b o u t o n e i n c h
wi d e a n d f o u r i n c h e s l ong. Be car ef ul
n o t t o c u t your s el f o n t h e s h a r p e dge s
of t h e t i n. Wh e n t h e s t r i p i s c ut , dul l
t h e e d g e s wi t h a file, o r c o v e r t he e d g e s
wi t h a d h e s i v e t a p e .
Ma r k t h e e x a c t c e n t e r of t h e t i n s t r i p.
P l a c e t h e s t r i p o n a pi e c e of wo o d , a n d
dr i ve a me d i u m- s i z e na i l t h r o u g h t h e
c e nt e r . D o n o t us e a na i l t h a t wi l l ma k e
a h o l e mo r e t h a n one - s i xt e e nt h i n c h i n
d i a me t e r . R e mo v e t h e na i l a n d t he pi e c e
of wo o d .
B e n d t h e e n d s of t h e s t r i p d o wn wa r d ,
s o t h a t t h e s t r i p wi l l s t a nd. As wi t h t h e
l o o p mi c r o s c o p e , r u b a l i t t l e gr e a s e o r
oi l a r o u n d t h e hol e i n t h e s t r i p. St a n d
t h e s t r i p o n i t s t wo e nds . Di p a pe nc i l
i n wa t e r a n d car ef ul l y r e mo v e i t . Tr a n s -
f er a d r o p of wa t e r f r o m t h e e n d of t he
p e n c i l t o t h e hol e , s o t h a t a d r o p h a n g s
i n t h e hol e , f o r mi n g a l ens .
P l a c e a s ma l l p a n e of wi n d o w gl as s
o n t h e t o p s of t wo t i n c a n s of t h e s a me
SALT CRYSTALS
MAGNIFIED
WATER DROP
BENT TIN STRIP
WINDOW GLASS PANE
TIN CAN
LIGHT REFLECTED FROM MIRROR
10
The first microscopist was
Antony van Leeuwenhoek,
a cloth merchant from Hol-
land. He is pictured here
with the microscope of his
design, (b. 1632,d. 1723)
si ze. Pl a c e t h e t i n s t r i p c a r e f ul l y o n t h e
c e nt e r of t h e gl as s . Be n e a t h t h e gl as s ,
p r o p a flat mi r r o r , s u c h a s i s f o u n d i n
l a dy' s h a n d b a g s , s o t h a t l i ght i s r ef l ect ed
u p wa r d t h r o u g h t h e gl a s s a n d t h e wa t e r
l ens .
Be n e a t h t h e l ens , p l a c e a f ew g r a i n s
of p e p p e r , sal t , o r s uga r , a n d l o o k d o wn
t h r o u g h t h e l ens . F o c u s t h e l e ns b y
ge nt l y pr e s s i ng o n t h e s t r i p. H o w ma n y
t i me s d o y o u t h i n k t h e wa t e r l e ns ma g -
ni fi ed t h e g r a i n s ?
a l e ns a t o n e e n d . T h e s e we r e c a l l e d flea
gl as s es o r fly gl as s es , a n d t he s e n a me s
s h o w p r e t t y wel l wh a t t he s e mi c r o-
s c ope s we r e u s e d f or .
What is a
microscopist?
Who
invented
the microscope?
We d o n ' t k n o w j us t wh o ma d e t h e first
mi c r o s c o p e . I n t h e
t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
a m o n k n a m e d
R o g e r B a c o n
l e a r ne d h o w t o g r i n d gl as s t o ma k e s pec-
t acl es . A l i t t l e whi l e a f t e r wa r d , gent l e-
me n c a r r i e d a b o u t wi t h t h e m a s ma l l
mi c r o s c o p e t ha t - c ons i s t e d of a me t a l
t ube , a b o u t t h e si ze of y o u r t h u mb , wi t h
Al t h o u g h we d o n o t k n o w wh o i n v e n t e d
t h e mi c r o s c o p e , we d o
k n o w wh o wa s t he first
microscopist. A mi c r o-
s copi s t i s a p e r s o n wh o us e s a mi c r o-
s c ope t o s t u d y s ma l l t hi ngs i n a car ef ul
a n d s ys t e ma t i c wa y . If y o u s t u d y t hi ngs
car ef ul l y wi t h y o u r s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e
a n d k e e p a r e c o r d of y o u r findings, y o u
a r e a mi c r os c opi s t . T h e first mi c r os c o-
pi s t wa s An t o n y v a n L e e u we n h o e k .
V a n L e e u we n h o e k wa s a c l ot h me r -
c h a n t wh o l i ved i n De l f t , Ho l l a n d dur -
i ng mo s t of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d
p a r t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h . H e l i ved a qui e t
l i fe a s a t r a d e s ma n , b u t h e wa s , i n hi s
s p a r e t i me , o n e of t h e wo r l d ' s g r e a t
sci ent i f i c di s c ove r e r s .
11
LOUSE
How was diamond
dust used for
a microscope?
GRASS
SPIKELET
He o b t a i n e d d i a mo n d d u s t f r o m t h e
d i a mo n d c u t t e r s
o f D e l f t w i t h
wh i c h h e g r o u n d
a ne a r l y- s phe r i -
c a l l ens . H e mo u n t e d t h e l e ns o n a de-
vi ce t h a t i n c l u d e d a me t a l r o d i n t o
wh i c h a s c r e w- t h r e a d wa s c ut . By t u r n -
i ng t h e r o d , h e c o u l d ma k e v e r y fine
f oc us i ng a d j u s t me n t s f or hi s l ens . T h e
l ens a n d t h e f oc us i ng de vi c e we r e b o t h
a t t a c h e d t o a me t a l p l a t e t h a t h a d a
hol e i n i t , j us t b e l o w t h e l ens . By pl ac-
i ng obj e c t s b e n e a t h t h e hol e , v a n Le e u -
we n h o e k c o u l d ma g n i f y t h e m a s mu c h
a s 3 0 0 t i me s t he i r n a t u r a l si ze.
H e wa s f a s c i na t e d b y t h e wo r l d of
t i ny t h i n g s t h a t hi s mi c r o s c o p e o p e n e d
u p f or h i m, a n d s p e n t h o u r s e x a mi n i n g
al l s or t s of t hi ngs a r o u n d h i m a n d wr i t -
i ng c a r e f ul r e p o r t s o n wh a t h e s a w. H e
p u t ma n y of hi s r e p o r t s i n t o l e t t e r s t h a t
h e s e nt t o t h e Ro y a l Soc i e t y of L o n d o n ,
a n a s s oc i a t i on ma d e u p of s ci ent i s t s .
T h e s ci ent i s t s ma r v e l e d a t wh a t v a n
L e e u we n h o e k wr o t e . T h e y h o n o r e d h i m
b y ma k i n g t he i r o wn mi c r o s c o p e s a n d
i mi t a t i n g hi s o b s e r v a t i o n s .
He h i r e d a n i l l us t r a t or , c a l l e d a l i m-
ne r , wh o j o i n e d h i m i n hi s o b s e r v a t i o n s
a n d t h e n ma d e d r a wi n g s of wh a t t h e y
b o t h s a w. On e t i me v a n L e e u we n h o e k
p u t a l ous e u n d e r hi s mi c r o s c o p e . T h i s
l i t t l e a n i ma l wa s t o o a c t i ve t o o b s e r v e
wel l , s o v a n L e e u we n h o e k r e mo v e d i t s
h e a d . Ho we v e r , t h e l ous e ' s l egs k e p t
k i c k i n g f or mo r e t h a n a n h o u r . Me a n -
whi l e , a s v a n L e e u we n h o e k wr o t e i n
hi s not e s , " t h e L i mn e r c o u l d n o t a d mi r e
t h e s i ght e n o u g h , a n d i t t o o k h i m a l o n g
t i me t o p u t hi s h a n d t o p a p e r . "
What objects
did he study?
H e s t u d i e d t h e e ye s of a s h r i mp , codf i sh,
wh a l e , r a b b i t , c o w,
a n d be e t l e . H e s t udi e d
t h e e ggs of a n t s a n d
l i ce. Seeds , bl os s oms , f r ui t s, a n d o t h e r
p a r t s of t h e p l a n t ; t h e c i r c ul a t i on of
b l o o d i n t h e t ai l of a fish; t h e t a r t a r o n
t h e t e e t h of a n e i ght - ye a r - ol d b o y a n d
t wo l a di e s ; v i n e g a r eel s, c r a bs , a n d oys-
t e r e ggs al l t he s e we r e a mo n g t h e
t hi ngs v a n L e e u we n h o e k p l a c e d be-
n e a t h hi s mi c r o s c o p e .
Wh e n h e wa s ei ght y- f i ve, h e di s cov-
e r e d t h a t " s o me h u n d r e d s of n e r v e s
e q u a l t h e si ze of a s i ngl e h a i r of a ma n ' s
b e a r d ! " A n d wh e n h e wa s p a s t ni ne t y,
h e wa s s t u d y i n g " t h e wo n d e r f u l per f ec-
t i ons a n d f o r ma t i o n s " i n t h e e ye of a fly.
Wi t h hi s s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e , hi s car e-
f ul wo r k , a n d hi s e n t h u s i a s m, An t o n y
v a n L e e u we n h o e k o p e n e d u p a wo r l d
t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o t h e c o n q u e s t of
ma n y di s e a s e s a n d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
h o w t h e ma n y t hi ngs i n t h e wo r l d a r e
c o n s t r u c t e d .
T h e C o m p o u n d
M i c r o s c o p e
What is a
compound
microscope?
Wh e n mo s t p e o p l e h e a r t h e wo r d " mi -
c r o s c o p e , " t h e y us ua l l y
t h i n k of t h e k i n d t h a t
i s s een i n l a b o r a t o r i e s .
T h i s mi c r o s c o p e , a s
s een f r o m t h e out s i de , h a s a h e a v y me t a l
f oot , a p l a t f o r m o n wh i c h t o p l a c e wh a t
i s b e i n g e x a mi n e d , a n o s e p i e c e t h a t
p o i n t s a t t h e p l a t f o r m, a n d a l o n g t u b e
ANTHERS OF FLOWERS
[ (CONVEX LENS)
Part of a feather mag-
nified (below); how light
rays pass through a com-
pound mi croscope
(right); a compound
microscope (far right)
with its parts indicated.
L
FIRST
IMAGE
EYEPI ECE
COARSE ADJUSTMENT
(CONVEX LENS)
C0N
DENSER
SUBSTAGE
a t t h e t o p of wh i c h t h e mi c r o s c o p i s t
pl a c e s hi s eye. T h i s k i n d of mi c r o s c o p e
i s c a l l e d a biological microscope, o r a
laboratory microscope. I t i s a l s o a com-
pound microscope.
What are the
two systems
of lenses?
I n a c o mp o u n d mi c r o s c o p e , t h e r e a r e
m a n y l e n s e s . T h e s e
l e ns e s a r e g r o u p e d i n-
t o t wo s ys t e ms . On e
s ys t e m d o e s e x a c t l y
wh a t a s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e d o e s i t
s hows a n u p r i g h t i ma g e , j us t a s t h e e ye
wo u l d see i t , o n l y l a r ge r . T h e f oc us of
t hi s set of l ens es i s a t a p o i n t wh e r e t h e
NCLINATION
JOINT
PILLAR
s e c o n d s ys t e m c a n gr e a t l y ma g n i f y t h e
i ma g e a n d l o c a t e i t j us t a t t h e p l a t f o r m
of t h e mi c r o s c o p e .
L e t u s e x a mi n e t h e c o mp o u n d l a b o r a -
t o r y mi c r o s c o p e i n
Wh a t a r e s ome
Q r d e r t Q l e a r n i t
. p a r t s . Fi r s t , l et u s
compound
r
mi croscope? e x a m i n e t h e p a r t
t h r o u g h wh i c h l i ght
pa s s e s . Ri g h t a b o v e t h e p l a t f o r m, wh i c h
i s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d t h e stage, i s a n a r r o w
t u b e t h a t c o n t a i n s l ens es . T h i s t u b e i s
c a l l e d t h e objective. T h e mi c r o s c o p e
ma y h a v e o n l y o n e obj e c t i ve t h a t fits
i n t o a wi d e r t u b e , c a l l e d t h e nosepiece.
Ho we v e r , mo s t l a b o r a t o r y mi c r o s c o p e s
h a v e t wo o r t h r e e obj e c t i ve s a t t a c h e d t o
a r o t a t i n g nos e pi e c e . Wi t h t hi s a r r a n g e -
me n t , t h e mi c r o s c o p i s t n e e d onl y t u r n
13
GLOEOCAPSA
t h e n o s e p i e c e t o t h e r i ght l o c a t i o n i n
o r d e r t o b r i n g i n t o us e t h e obj e c t i ve h e
wa n t s .
Y o u ma y wo n d e r wh y a mi c r o s c o p e
wo u l d h a v e mo r e t h a n o n e obj ect i ve.
E a c h obj e c t i ve h a s a di f f er ent ma gni f y-
i ng p o we r . T h e mi c r os c opi s t c hoos e s
t h e o b j e c t i v e w h i c h m a g n i f i e s t h a t
a mo u n t wh i c h be s t e n a b l e s h i m t o ob-
s er ve wh a t he i s l o o k i n g at . If y o u l o o k
cl os el y a t t h e obj e c t i ve s of a l a b o r a t o r y
mi c r o s c o p e , y o u wi l l see ma r k e d o n o n e
l Ox, o n t h e s e c o n d 43x, a n d o n t h e t h i r d
97x. T h e " x " me a n s " t i me s " a n d s t a n d s
f or j us t wh a t i t d o e s i n mu l t i p l i c a t i o n .
A n obj e c t i ve wi t h 4 3 x o n i t me a n s t h a t
i t s l ens es wi l l ma gni f y 4 3 t i me s n a t u r a l
si ze.
How do you
find out the
magnifying
power of a
microscope?
Ab o v e t h e nos e pi e c e , i s a wi d e tube. I t
i s us ua l l y e mp t y , b u t
s o me t i me s o n e o r t wo
s p e c i a l l e n s e s a r e
wi t hi n t h e t ube . Fi t t i n g
i n t o t h e u p p e r p a r t of
i t i s a n a r r o we r t u b e
c a l l e d t h e extension tube. Th i s o n e c on-
t a i ns l ens es . T h e l ens es i n t h e u p p e r
p o r t i o n t o g e t h e r ma k e u p t h e eyepiece,
o r ocular. O n t h e o c u l a r , y o u wi l l see i t s
ma gni f yi ng p o we r ma r k e d . Us u a l l y , t hi s
i s 5 x o r l Ox. If y o u u s e a l Ox o c u l a r
wi t h a 4 3 x obj e c t i ve , t h e mi c r o s c o p e
h a s a t ot a l ma gni f yi ng p o we r of 10 x 4 3 ,
o r 4 3 0 . I n s hor t , t o k n o w wh a t t h e
ma gni f yi ng p o we r of a mi c r o s c o p e is,
y o u mu l t i p l y t h e p o we r of t h e o c u l a r b y
t h e p o we r of t h e obj e c t i ve .
What are the
other parts of
a compound
microscope?
e r n mi c r o s c o p e .
T h e p a r t s of t h e mi c r o s c o p e y o u h a v e
j us t l e a r n e d a r e t h e
mo s t i mp o r t a n t , b u t
i t wo u l d b e h a r d t o
us e t h e m wi t h o u t t h e
o t h e r p a r t s of a mo d -
A t t h e b o t t o m of t he
mi c r o s c o p e , i s a b r o a d , h e a v y me t a l
base, s o me t i me s c a l l e d t he foot. Th i s
b a s e h o l d s t h e wo r k i n g p a r t s of t he
mi c r o s c o p e s t e a dy. Ri s i n g f r om t h e
b a c k of t h e b a s e i s t h e pillar. Th i s , t oo,
h o l d s t h e mi c r o s c o p e s t e a dy, b u t a t t h e
t o p of t h e pi l l ar i s a j oi nt , t h e inclination
joint, t h a t a l l ows t h e u p p e r p a r t of t h e
mi c r o s c o p e t o b e t i l t ed b a c k wa r d a n d
f o r wa r d . T h e l a r g e c u r v e d p a r t t h a t
d o e s t h e t i l t i ng i s c a l l e d t h e arm. T h e
u p p e r e n d of t h e a r m h o l d s t he t ube ,
whi l e t he l o we r e n d h o l d s t h e stage.
Af f i xed t o t h e s t a ge a r e t wo s t r i ps of
s pr i ngy st eel . T h e y a r e c a l l e d clips, a n d
t he i r t a s k i s t o h o l d s p e c i me n s o n t he
s t age, e s pe c i a l l y wh e n t h e s t a ge is t i l t ed.
O n mo r e e xpe ns i ve mi c r o s c o p e s , t h e
s t a ge i s ma d e i n t wo l ayer s . T h e u p p e r
l a ye r c a n b e mo v e d f o r wa r d o r b a c k -
wa r d , o r t o t he r i ght o r l eft , b y t u r n i n g
p a i r s of k n o b s .
Wh e r e t h e t u b e me e t s t h e a r m i s a
ve r y i mp o r t a n t me c h a n i s m t h e ad-
justment. T h e r e i s a coarse adjustment
a n d a fine adjustment. Yo u r e me mb e r
t h e s c r e w- t h r e a d e d r o d t h a t v a n Le e u -
we n h o e k fitted t o hi s s i mpl e mi c r o s c o p e .
T h e c o a r s e a n d t h e fine a d j u s t me n t s
b o t h cons i s t of ve r y a c c u r a t e l y ma -
c h i n e d s c r e w t h r e a d s , b y me a n s of
SCENADESMUS
EUGLENA
whi c h t h e t u b e s a n d obj e c t i ve s c a n b e
r ai s ed a n d l o we r e d , i n o r d e r t o f oc us
t he mi c r o s c o p e .
At t h e ve r y b o t t o m of t h e a r m, a
mirror i s affi xed, s o t h a t a b e a m of l i ght
c a n be s hi ne d up, t h r o u g h a hol e i n t h e
s t age, t o t he b o t t o m of t h e obj e c t i ve ,
a n d f r om t he r e , t h r o u g h t h e t u b e s t o t h e
eyepi ece. Be t we e n t h e mi r r o r a n d t h e
s t age, s o me mi c r o s c o p e s h a v e a t h i r d
s ys t em of l ens es t o b e t t e r c o n c e n t r a t e
t he l i ght f r om t h e mi r r o r . Th i s s ys t e m
is cal l ed a substage condenser.
Su p p o s e y o u wi s h t o e x a mi n e a h a i r
f r o m y o u r h e a d .
How do you use
a laboratory
compound
microscope?
Fi r s t , p l a c e o n t h e
s t a ge a glass slide,
wh i c h i s a pi e c e of
c l e a r gl as s o n e i nc h
wi de a n d t h r e e i nc he s l ong, a n d a b o u t
hal f a s t hi c k as wi n d o w gl as s . P u s h t h e
sl i de u n d e r t h e cl i ps, s o t h a t i t i s h e l d
firmly. T h e n c u t a one - i nc h l e n g t h of
ha i r a n d p l a c e i t o n t h e sl i de r i ght a b o v e
t he hol e i n t h e s t age. Yo u r b r e a t h mi g h t
easi l y b l o w t h e h a i r a wa y , s o fix i t i n
pl ace. Th i s i s be s t d o n e wi t h a ma t e r i a l
cal l ed Canada balsam. Ho we v e r , if y o u
ha ve n o b a l s a m, us e c l e a r h o u s e h o l d ce-
me n t o r c l e a r fingernail pol i s h.
P u t a s mal l d r o p of b a l s a m o n t o p
of t he ha i r . Wa i t a f ew mo me n t s i n
t he h o p e t h a t a n y t i ny b u b b l e s i n t h e
b a l s a m wi l l r i s e t o t h e s ur f a c e a n d b u r s t .
Do n ' t wa i t t o o l ong, f or C a n a d a b a l s a m
( a n d h o u s e h o l d c e me n t a n d fingernail
pol i s h) h a r d e n i n ai r . So ge nt l y p l a c e
ZYGNEMA
SYNURA
o n t he b a l s a m a ve r y t hi n pi e c e of gl ass,
a b o u t o n e i nc h s q u a r e , c a l l e d a cover
glass o r cover slip. If y o u see b u b b l e s
b e n e a t h t h e c o v e r gl ass, ge nt l y pr e s s
d o wn u p o n t h e c ove r gl as s wi t h t he t i p
of a p a i r of t we e z e r s o r a t o o t h pi c k.
Th i s s h o u l d h e l p t o e xpe l t h e b u b b l e s .
N o w t h e h a i r is p r o p e r l y mounted.
Ne x t , t a k e c a r e of t h e l i ght i ng. T o
d o t hi s , l ook a t t he s t a ge f r om t h e si de,
a n d wi t h t h e c oa r s e a d j u s t me n t , mo v e
t h e b o t t o m of t h e obj e c t i ve t o a p o i n t
a b o u t one - s i xt e e nt h of a n i nc h a b o v e
t h e c o v e r gl as s . If t h e mi c r o s c o p e h a s
mo r e t h a n o n e obj e c t i ve , us e t he o n e
wi t h t h e l owe s t ma gni f yi ng p o we r .
Wh e n t h e obj e c t i ve i s pos i t i one d cl os e
t o t h e sl i de, l ook i nt o t h e e ye pi e c e . Wi t h
o n e h a n d , mo v e t he mi r r o r a b o u t unt i l
y o u s ee a br i ght , evenl y- l i t ci r cl e of
l i ght , n o t gl a r i ng, n o t di m. No w y o u
a r e r e a d y t o f ocus .
Preparing a slide for the
microscope properly will
make viewing easier.
HARVEST MITE
GNAT
BURNET
BUTTERFLY
SWALLOWTAIL
BUTTERFLY
IL
RED SPIDER
WATER MITE
WATER MITE
I
WATER MITE
kITF
CHEESE MITE
MITES
1?
ij
? |
COMMON
BLUE BUTTERFLY
EMPEROR MOTH
: i , i
CABBAGE
WHITE BUTTERFLY
INSECT SCALES
DIATOMS
AZURE BLUE
BUTTERFLY
HAIRSTREAK
BUTTERFLY
WORM
L
v
OSTRACOD
V
CYCLOPS
PROTOZOAN
GASTROTRICHAS
DAPHNIA
WATER BEAR
nDA
HYDRA
FRESH-WATER PLANKTON
COPEPOD
I
WHITING LARVA
MEDUSA JELLYFI
COPEPOD
MARINE PLANKTON

COPEPOD
Wh e n f oc us i ng, y o u mu s t always k e e p
i n m i n d t h i s r u l e :
How do you
Ar
, ,
,
(
. , Never focus down-
ward. Always focus up-
ward. If y o u f oc us d o wn wa r d , y o u wi l l
sur el y, s o o n e r o r l a t e r , p u s h t h e f r o n t
of t he obj e c t i ve t h r o u g h t h e sl i de. T h i s
will n o t o n l y b r e a k t h e sl i de, a n d pe r -
h a p s r ui n a v a l u a b l e s p e c i me n , b u t i t
ma y al s o b r e a k t h e f r ont l e ns of t h e
obj ect i ve. Mi n d f u l of t hi s , t u r n sl ow-
ly t he c o a r s e a d j u s t me n t t o wa r d your -
self, so t h a t t h e t u b e r i s es f r o m t h e sl i de.
Wh e n t h e h a i r c o me s c l e a r l y i n t o vi e w,
c h a n g e f r om t h e c o a r s e a d j u s t me n t t o
t he fine one . Al t h o u g h y o u mu s t t u r n
t he c oa r s e a d j u s t me n t o n l y i n o n e di r ec-
t i on wh e n f oc us i ng, y o u ma y t u r n t h e
fine a d j u s t me n t i n e i t he r di r e c t i on, as
long as you do not turn it more than
half a turn. T h u s , wi t h t h e fine adj us t -
me n t , y o u c a n b r i n g t h e h a i r i n t o c l e a r
f ocus . Y o u wi l l p r o b a b l y find t h a t y o u
h a v e t o a dj us t t h e mi r r o r a g a i n .
Af t e r y o u h a v e s t u d i e d t h e h a i r f or a
whi l e, y o u ma y wa n t t o ma g n i f y i t mo r e .
If t h e mi c r o s c o p e h a s o n l y o n e nos e -
pi ece, r ai s e t h e obj e c t i ve f a r a b o v e t h e
sl i de, u n s c r e w t h e obj e c t i ve t o t a k e i t
out of t h e nos e pi e c e , a n d t h e n p u t an-
ot he r , h i g h e r - p o we r , obj e c t i ve i n t o t h e
nos e pi e c e . T h e n f oc us i n t h e s a me wa y
as y o u d i d wh e n u s i n g t h e l o w- p o we r
obj ect i ve.
Illustrated on the left are other specimens which may
be viewed under the microscope. Mites belong to a
family of tiny animals related to spiders and scor-
pions. They often infest other animals, including hu-
mans, plants, and foods. Protozoa, along with other
tiny animals, as well as plants, make up the plankton,
which floats on the surface of oceans and lakes.
Plankton serves as the food for many forms of sea life.
If t h e mi c r o s c o p e h a s a n o s e p i e c e
wi t h t wo obj e c t i ve s , s i mpl y t u r n t h e
l o we r p a r t of t h e n o s e p i e c e a r o u n d s o
t h a t t h e o t h e r obj e c t i ve i s i n l i ne wi t h
t h e t u b e . If t h e mi c r o s c o p e i s wel l
ma d e , c h a n g i n g t h e obj e c t i ve s h o u l d n o t
c h a n g e t h e f oc us ve r y mu c h . Ho we v e r ,
s o me f oc us i ng wi t h t h e fine a d j u s t me n t
wi l l p r o b a b l y b e ne c e s s a r y. Al s o , y o u
wi l l h a v e t o a dj us t t h e l i ght i ng a g a i n .
If t h e mi c r o s c o p e h a s a t h i r d obj ec-
t i ve, mo v e i t i n t o p l a c e j us t a s y o u di d
t h e s e c o n d o n e . Ho we v e r , y o u c a n n o t
u s e t hi s obj e c t i ve s i mpl y b y f oc us i ng.
Th i s obj e c t i ve , u s u a l l y t h e o n e ma r k e d
97 x , i s a n oil immersion lens. I t h a s t hi s
n a me b e c a u s e t o us e i t , y o u us ua l l y
p u t t h e f o r e mo s t l e n s of t h e o b j e c -
t i ve i n t o a d r o p of oi l p l a c e d u p o n t h e
c o v e r gl as s . Ag a i n y o u wi l l h a v e t o
f ocus , a n d t hi s t i me b e v e r y car ef ul ,
b e c a u s e t h e f r o n t of t h e obj e c t i ve i s
n e a r l y t o u c h i n g t h e c o v e r gl as s . T h e oi l
y o u us e mu s t b e cedarwood oil. T h i s
oi l c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m mi c r o s c o p e
de a l e r s .
Af t e r e x a mi n i n g t h e ha i r , y o u wi l l h a v e
t o c l e a n t h e e q u i p me n t .
How do you
T u m t h e c o a r s e a d
j
u s t
.
'
x 0
me n t k n o b t o r a i s e t h e
e qui pme nt ?
o i l i m m e r s i o n l e n s
f r o m t h e sl i de. T h e n we t a s peci al k i n d
of t i s s ue, c a l l e d lens tissue, i n a l i qui d
c a l l e d xylol. Wi t h t h e we t t e d t i s s ue,
wi p e al l t h e oi l off t h e oi l i mme r s i o n
l ens . I t i s wel l t o us e t wo s e p a r a t e
pi e c e s of t i s s ue f or t wo wi pi ngs . T h e
xyl ol e v a p o r a t e s qui c kl y, b u t ma y l e a ve
a f oggy de pos i t o n t h e l ens , so wi p e
t h e l e ns wi t h a d r y pi e c e of l e ns t i s s ue.
17
%
If y o u wi s h t o k e e p t h e sl i de wi t h t h e
mo u n t e d ha i r , wi p e off wi t h xyl ol a n y
exces s b a l s a m t h a t h a s o o z e d o u t f r o m
u n d e r t h e c ove r gl as s , l a be l t h e sl i de,
a n d s t or e i t . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u
d o n o t wi s h t o k e e p t h e sl i de mo u n t ,
p l a c e a d r o p o r t wo of xyl ol a r o u n d
t h e e dge s of t h e c o v e r gl as s . Th i s wi l l
wo r k i t s wa y u n d e r t h e gl a s s a n d di s-
s ol ve t h e b a l s a m s o t h a t y o u c a n r e mo v e
t h e c ove r gl as s . N o w al l y o u h a v e t o d o
i s wi p e t h e c o v e r gl as s a n d t h e sl i de
wi t h s o me xyl ol o r l e ns t i s s ue.
If y o u wa n t t o ma k e mi c r o s c o p y y o u r
h o b b y , y o u wi l l
What equipment
wi l l you need
to become a
microscopist?
h a v e t o s t a r t wi t h
c e r t a i n b a s i c
e q u i p me n t : a mi -
c r o s c o p e ; g l a s s
sl i des ( a t l eas t a d o z e n t o be gi n wi t h ) ;
c ove r gl as s es ( a b o u t t wo d o z e n , s i nc e
t he s e b r e a k v e r y e a s i l y ) ; t we e z e r s ( o r
f o r c e p s ) ; a me d i c i n e d r o p p e r ; a p r o b e
( ma d e b y s t i c ki ng t h e e ye - e nd of a
n e e d l e i n t o a n e r a s e r r e mo v e d f r o m a
p e n c i l ) ; a s h a r p kni f e, o r s i ngl e- edge
r a z o r b l a d e ; s h a r p - p o i n t e d s ci s s or s ;
C a n a d a b a l s a m ( o r fingernail p o l i s h ) ;
a n d xyl ol ( o r a c e t o n e ) . Wh i l e a s i mpl e
mi c r o s c o p e wi l l r e ve a l ma n y wo n d e r s
of t h e wo r l d a r o u n d y o u , t hi s i ns t r u-
me n t h a s i t s l i mi t s . Y o u c a n n o t b u y o n e
t h a t wi l l gi ve t h e 3 0 0 x p o we r of v a n
Le e u we n h o e k ' s . E v e n a g o o d s i mpl e
mi c r o s c o p e wi l l n o t ma g n i f y mo r e t h a n
1 Ox, a n d t h e v e r y be s t wi l l ma g n i f y onl y
2 0 x . I n o r d e r t o r e a l l y d o i nt e r e s t i ng
wo r k i n mi c r o s c o p y , y o u n e e d a c om-
p o u n d mi c r o s c o p e .
What kind of
microscope
should you get?
A l a b o r a t o r y , o r bi ol ogi c a l , c o mp o u n d
m i c r o s c o p e i s a
v e r y e xpe ns i ve i n-
s t r u me n t t h a t cos t s
s e v e r a l h u n d r e d
dol l a r s . Ho we v e r , i t i s pos s i bl e t o pur -
c h a s e a s o- cal l ed amateur microscope
wh i c h i s mu c h l ess e xpe ns i ve . Th i s i s a
s ma l l e r mo d e l of t h e l a b o r a t o r y mi c r o-
s c ope . I t l a c ks s o me r e f i ne me nt s t h a t
o n l y a hi ghl y- t r a i ne d s ci ent i s t wo u l d
n e e d f or hi s wo r k , b u t i n y o u r mi c r os -
c opy, y o u wi l l n o t mi s s t h e m a t al l .
T h e s e a ma t e u r mi c r o s c o p e s a r e n o t t oys
t h e y a r e r e a l c o mp o u n d mi c r o s c o p e s
t h a t wi l l p r o d u c e a c l e a r i ma g e ma g n i -
fied 3 0 0 t o 5 0 0 t i me s . Y o u c a n b u y s uc h
a mi c r o s c o p e f or $ 1 1 t o $ 2 0 . T h i s ma y
s e e m l i ke q u i t e a l ot of mo n e y , b u t if
y o u b e g i n i mme d i a t e l y t o p u t a wa y
ni c ke l s a n d d i me s t h a t y o u find y o u
r e a l l y d o n o t h a v e t o s p e n d , y o u wi l l
h a v e s a ve d u p t h e n e e d e d mo n e y s o o n e r
t h a n n o w s e e ms l i kel y. Wh e n y o u a r e
r e a d y t o b u y y o u r mi c r o s c o p e , y o u wi l l
b e wi s e t o c o n s u l t a s c i e nc e t e a c h e r i n
y o u r s c hool . H e c a n gi ve y o u a dvi c e o n
h o w t o go a b o u t b u y i n g t h e mi c r o s c o p e .
On e g o o d p l a c e t o b u y a n a ma t e u r mi -
18
SNOW CRYSTALS MAGNIFIED
EEZERS
PROBING NEEDLE
c r os c ope i s f r om a ma i l - o r d e r h o u s e .
C o n s u l t i t s c a t a l o g c a r e f u l l y b e f o r e
you o r d e r . Ma k e s ur e t h e r e i s a g u a r a n -
t ee t h a t t h e mi c r o s c o p e wi l l b e r e p l a c e d
if i t is def ect i ve wh e n y o u ge t i t .
i t
T h e W o r l d o f I n v i s i b l e L i f e
B a c t e r i a a n d P r o t o z o a
Al l a r o u n d u s a r e bi l l i ons of t i ny l i vi ng
t h i n g s t h a t a r e t o o
What are the
s m a U t Q b e e e n w i t h
smallest plants , . , ,
.L 1-10 t h e u n a i d e d e y e s .
in the world?
J
A mo n g t h e s ma l l e s t
of t he s e l i vi ng t h i n g s a r e p l a n t s c a l l e d
bacteria. A s i ngl e o n e of t he s e p l a n t s i s
a bacterium. S o me b a c t e r i a a r e s o s mal l
t h a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 of t h e m c o u l d b e p l a c e d o n
t he p e r i o d a t t h e e n d of t hi s s e nt e nc e .
E a c h b a c t e r i u m i s a s i ngl e l i vi ng cel l .
Th i s me a n s t h a t i t i s a s e p a r a t e bi t of
l i vi ng ma t t e r t h a t c a n l i ve a n d g r o w b y
i t sel f. I t c a n t a k e i n t o i t sel f f o o d a n d
oxyge n. I t us e s t h e f o o d f or n o u r i s h -
me n t , a n d t h e o x y g e n t o h e l p i t n o u r i s h
i t sel f, g r o w a n d mo v e .
Where are
bacteria
found?
Ba c t e r i a ma y b e f o u n d al l a r o u n d us
i n t h e e a r t h , i n wa t e r a n d
i n t h e ai r . T h e r e a r e mi l -
l i ons of b a c t e r i a o n y o u r
s ki n, i n y o u r mo u t h , y o u r
n a s a l pa s s a ge s , a n d e l s e whe r e i ns i de
y o u r b o d y . T h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of di f-
f e r e nt k i n d s of b a c t e r i a . T h e y a r e ma n ' s
i nvi s i bl e f r i e nds a n d f oes. T h e y a r e b o t h
us ef ul a n d h a r mf u l t o ma n .
A mo n g t h e us ef ul b a c t e r i a a r e t hos e
t h a t p r o d u c e b u t t e r mi l k
a n d vi ne ga r , a g e c he e s e ,
a n d h e l p i n t h e c u r i n g of
l e a t he r . P r o b a b l y t h e mo s t
v a l u a b l e s er vi ce t h a t b a c t e r i a gi ve t o
How are
bacteria
useful?
19
n
Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria which need oxygen.
ma n i s t o c a u s e d e c a y . If d e c a y b a c t e r i a
we r e n o t c o n s t a n t l y a t wo r k , t h e e a r t h
wo u l d b e c o me l i t t e r e d wi t h t h e d e a d
b o d i e s of a n i ma l s a n d p l a n t s .
Ha r mf u l b a c t e r i a a r e t h o s e t h a t c a u s e
di s e a s e i n a n i ma l s a n d p l a n t s . A m o n g
t h e di s e a s e s c a u s e d i n ma n b y b a c t e r i a
a r e p n e u mo n i a , t y p h o i d f ever a n d t u b e r -
cul os i s . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e mo r e
h a r ml e s s b a c t e r i a t h a n h a r mf u l one s .
What do
bacteria
look like?
Ba c t e r i a ma y h a v e a n y o n e of t h r e e
s ha pe s . S o me a r e r o u n d
l i ke a ba l l . A b a c t e r i u m
of t hi s s h a p e i s c a l l e d a
coccus. An o t h e r k i n d of
b a c t e r i u m i s s h a p e d l i ke a r o d , a n d i s
c a l l e d a bacillus. T h e t h i r d k i n d of b a c -
t e r i u m h a s a s pi r a l s h a p e , a n d i s c a l l e d
a spirillum.
S o me b a c t e r i a c a n mo v e wh e n t h e y
a r e i n a l i qui d. A b a c t e r i u m of t hi s k i n d
h a s e x t r e me l y t h i n t h r e a d s of l i vi ng
ma t t e r g r o wi n g o u t f r o m i t s cel l wa l l .
T h e s e t h r e a d s , c a l l e d cilia, l a s h b a c k
a n d f o r t h r a p i d l y a n d p u s h t h e ba c t e -
r i u m t h r o u g h t h e l i qui d. S o me b a c t e r i a
h a v e ci l i a g r o wi n g o u t f r o m al l p a r t s of
t h e cel l wa l l . Ot h e r s h a v e j us t a s i ngl e
t h r e a d a t o n e o r b o t h e n d s . St i l l o t h e r s
h a v e a t uf t of ci l i a a t o n e e n d .
Si nc e b a c t e r i a a r e s o i mp o r t a n t t o ma n ,
i t i s us ef ul t o k n o w i n
Whe n do t hey
w h a t c o n d i t i o n s b a c
.
thrive best? ,. ,
t e n a l i ve a n d g r o w.
Mo s t b a c t e r i a t hr i ve be s t a t t h e t e m-
p e r a t u r e of t h e h u ma n b o d y a l i t t l e
Spirilla are threadlike and spiral-shaped
bacteria.
l ess t h a n 9 9 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t . Bo t h
l o we r a n d h i g h e r t e mp e r a t u r e s s l ow t h e
g r o wt h of b a c t e r i a . F r e e z i n g a n d boi l -
i ng wi l l ki l l mo s t b a c t e r i a . Y o u c a n n o w
s ee t h a t p u t t i n g f o o d i n t h e r e f r i ge r a t or
s l ows t h e g r o wt h of b a c t e r i a t h a t ma y
b e o n t h e f ood, a n d t h e r e b y p r e v e n t s
t h e f o o d f r o m b e c o mi n g s poi l e d. Al s o ,
20
Cocci are ball-like, or spherically-shaped, bacteria.
c o o k i n g f o o d n o t o n l y ma k e s i t e a s i e r
a n d t a s t i e r t o e a t , b u t a l s o ki l l s h a r mf u l
b a c t e r i a t h a t ma y b e o n i t .
Ba c t e r i a n e e d mu c h mo i s t u r e i n o r d e r
t o t hr i ve . T h u s , if we k e e p f o o d dr y,
we k e e p i t f r o m s poi l i ng b y t h e g r o wt h
of b a c t e r i a u p o n i t . Da r k n e s s i s a n o t h e r
c o n d i t i o n i n wh i c h b a c t e r i a t hr i ve . A
s t r ong l i ght wi l l s l ow t h e g r o wt h of ba c -
t er i a o r ki l l t h e m. N o w y o u c a n s ee
wh y a s u n n y r o o m i s a h e a l t h y r o o m.
What is the
process of
pasteurization?
I n mo s t ci vi l i zed c o u n t r i e s , t h e l a w r e-
q u i r e s t h a t b a c t e r i a
i n mi l k b e ki l l e d b y
r a i s i ng t h e t e mp e r a -
t u r e of t h e mi l k t o
145 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t a n d k e e p i n g i t
a t t hi s t e mp e r a t u r e f or t h i r t y mi n u t e s .
Th i s p r o c e s s f or ki l l i ng b a c t e r i a i s c a l l e d
pasteurization a n d wa s d i s c o v e r e d b y
t he g r e a t F r e n c h ba c t e r i ol ogi s t L o u i s
Pa s t e u r . A b a c t e r i o l o g i s t i s a s ci ent i s t
wh o s t udi e s a n d wo r k s wi t h b a c t e r i a
or t he s c i e nc e of b a c t e r i o l o g y .
Ba c t e r i a r e p r o d u c e t h e ms e l v e s v e r y r a p-
i dl y. I t t a k e s o n l y a b o u t
How fast do
t h i r t y m m u t e s
f
o r o n e
bacteria , ,
_ b a c t e r i u m t o b e c o me
reproduce? .
t wo. If al l t h e of f s pr i ng
of o n e b a c t e r i u m c o u l d g o o n r e p r o d u c -
i ng f or t we l ve h o u r s , t h e r e wo u l d b e
s e v e n t e e n mi l l i on of t h e m. If t hi s p r o c -
ess c o n t i n u e d f or five da ys , b a c t e r i a
wo u l d fill al l t h e o c e a n s t o a d e p t h of
o n e mi l e . Of c our s e , n o t h i n g l i ke t hi s
c a n t a k e pl a c e , b e c a u s e mo s t b a c t e r i a
d o n o t find t h e n o u r i s h me n t o r f avor -
Cocci may also grow in pairs, clusters or in chains.
a bl e c o n d i t i o n s i n wh i c h t o g r o w a n d
r e p r o d u c e .
O n e of t h e b e s t wa y s t o g e t h a r ml e s s
b a c t e r i a i s t o ma k e a hay
How can i
n
f
us
[
orii
pj H
a
t wo - q u a r t
. . , gl as s j a r a l mo s t ful l of wa -
bacteria?
t er . If y o u c a n ge t wa t e r
21
9:00 A.M. 9:20 A.M. 9:40 A.M.
GfiXfe
1
2
f r o m a s t r e a m o r l a ke , y o u c a n p r o c e e d
i mme d i a t e l y wi t h t h e r e s t of t h e exper i -
me n t . If y o u t a k e wa t e r f r o m a t a p ,
a l l ow t h e j a r t o s t a n d u n c o v e r e d f or
t h r e e da ys , s o t h a t e xc e s s o x y g e n t h a t i s
p r o b a b l y di s s ol ve d i n t h e wa t e r ma y
e s c a pe . P a s t e a l a be l o n t h e o u t s i d e of
t h e j a r a t t h e l evel of t h e s ur f a c e of t h e
wa t e r , s o t h a t y o u ma y a d d mo r e wa t e r
t o t h e j a r , if n e e d e d . A d d o n l y wa t e r
t h a t y o u h a v e a l l o we d t o s t a n d f or a
whi l e , l i ke t h e or i gi na l j a r .
C u t a h a n d f u l of h a y o r d r y gr a s s
i nt o s hor t l e n g t h s a n d p u t i t i n t o t h e
wa t e r i n t h e j a r . Co v e r t h e j a r a n d p l a c e
i t wh e r e da yl i ght , b u t n o t di r e c t s un-
l i ght , wi l l r e a c h i t . I n a b o u t t h r e e o r
f our da ys , y o u wi l l n o t i c e a s c u m o n
t h e s ur f a c e of t h e wa t e r a n d a n a c c o m-
p a n y i n g u n p l e a s a n t o d o r . T h e s c u m i s
f o r me d b y bi l l i ons of b a c t e r i a .
| i \ V
k
P l u n g e t h e t i p of y o u r me d i c i n e d r o p p e r
b e n e a t h t h e s c u m, a n d
d r a w u p s o me c l e a r wa -
t er . P l a c e a d r o p of t hi s
wa t e r o n a gl as s sl i de.
Us i n g y o u r p r o b e , p i c k
u p a v e r y s ma l l a mo u n t
of s c u m j us t e n o u g h t o c o v e r t h e
p o i n t of t h e n e e d l e a n d d i p t h e n e e d l e
i n t o t h e d r o p of wa t e r o n t h e sl i de.
P l a c e a c ove r gl as s ove r t h e d r o p . F o c u s
How do you
prepare
bacteria
for the
microscope?
10:00 A.M.
Many bacteria repro-
duce by splitting in two
a half hour process.
Some split in 20 min.
c a r e f ul l y a n d a dj us t t h e mi r r o r i n sev-
e r a l di f f er ent p o s i t i o n s a s y o u s eek f or
b a c t e r i a i n t h e field of y o u r mi c r o s c o p e .
If y o u s ee n o t h i n g b u t a b l u r r y b l o b
of ma t e r i a l , i t me a n s t h a t y o u h a v e
p l a c e d t o o l a r g e a n a mo u n t of s c u m o n
t h e sl i de. Ma k e a n e w sl i de, us i ng onl y
o n e - t e n t h a s mu c h s c u m. I n t r yi ng t o
find b a c t e r i a , t h e l i ght i ng i s ve r y i mp o r -
t a n t . S p e n d c o n s i d e r a b l e t i me i n ma n i p -
u l a t i n g t h e mi r r o r . I n y o u r r e p o r t , de-
s cr i be t h e s h a p e s of t h e b a c t e r i a y o u
see.
T h e r e a r e ma n y o t h e r s our c e s of ba c -
t e r i a a mo n g e v e r y d a y t hi ngs . I mi t a t e
L e e u we n h o e k b y s c r a p i n g wi t h a t oot h-
An organism continues to reproduce in a new culture.
REMOVE DROPLETS
FROM HAY INFUSION
AND PLACE ON SLIDE
\ h
t
PICK UP ORGANISM
WITH DROPPER AND
PLACE IN NEW
CULTURE MEDIUM
I
(1) Streptococci. (2) Sfaphy/occi. (3) Tetanus bacilli.
(4) Typhoid bacilli. (5) Tuberculosis bacilli. (6) Chol-
era vibrio. All are disease-causing bacteria in man.
22
pi ck a t i ny bi t of t he whi t e ma t e r i a l
f r om y o u r t e e t h, j us t a t t h e gum- l i ne .
Pl a c e t hi s wh i t e ma t e r i a l i n a d r o p of
wa t e r , o n a sl i de. Ma k e a f ew c ut s i n a
p e a c h o r a n a p p l e , a n d l et t h e f r ui t s t a n d
i n a wa r m, d a mp p l a c e f or a f e w da ys .
Pl a c e a bi t of t h e ma t e r i a l f r o m t h e c u t
i n a d r o p of wa t e r o n a sl i de, a n d e x a m-
i ne i t f or b a c t e r i a . Mi x a p i n c h of soi l
i n a l i t t l e wa t e r . P l a c e a d r o p of t hi s
mi x t u r e o n a sl i de a n d e x a mi n e i t f or
ba c t e r i a .
Pl a c i n g b a c t e r i a i n a d r o p of wa t e r
o n a sl i de ma k e s a p r e p a r a t i o n t h a t r e-
qui r e s mu c h ma n i p u l a t i o n of t h e mi r r o r
i n o r d e r t o b e a bl e t o s ee t h e b a c t e r i a
a t al l . Th i s me t h o d h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e
o f . p r e s e n t i n g f or e x a mi n a t i o n l i ve ba c -
t er i a, s o me of wh i c h ma y b e mo v i n g .
T h e r e is, h o we v e r , a n o t h e r me t h o d of
p r e p a r i n g b a c t e r i a t h a t ma k e s t h e m
mu c h e a s i e r t o see.
Y o u c a n p r e p a r e a sl i de of b a c t e r i a s o
t h a t t h e y wi l l b e eas i l y
How can
e e n
^ y
Q U sfa
^
n
^ ^
ac
_
you s a m ^ ^ Q\fa
eT r e c
j
o r
bl ue .
bacteria?
Fi r s t , of c o u r s e , y o u wi l l
n e e d t h e s t ai n. T h e b l u e s t ai n i s c a l l e d
methylene blue, a n d t h e r e d s t ai n i s
eosin. Y o u c a n b u y b o t h of t h e m f r o m
a p h a r ma c i s t . T h e y a r e c h e a p , a n d y o u
n e e d v e r y l i t t l e of e a c h . If y o u b u y t h e
s t a i ns i n d r y f or m, di s s ol ve i n hal f a
t u mb l e r f u l of wa t e r j us t a s mu c h of
e i t he r a s y o u c a n p i c k u p o n t h e e n d of
a kni f e b l a d e . T h i s wi l l gi ve y o u e n o u g h
t o l as t f or mo n t h s . I t i s wi s e t o k e e p
t h e s t a i ns i n s t o p p e r e d bot t l e s , s o t h a t
t h e wa t e r d o e s n o t e v a p o r a t e .
Many microorganisms flourish in a hay infusion. Shown are the co/poda, hay bacillus, and vo/vox, all magnified.
If y o u c a n n o t b u y t he s e t wo s t ai ns ,
y o u c a n us e i nk. F o r t h e b l u e s t ai n us e
t h e " p e r ma n e n t " k i n d of b l u e f o u n t a i n
p e n i nk, wh i c h c o n t a i n s me t h y l e n e bl ue .
F o r r e d s t ai n us e a n y k i n d of r e d i nk.
P r e p a r e t h e s t a i ne d s l i de i n t hi s ma n n e r :
Pl a c e a d r o p of wa t e r
How can you
Q n & d e a n s H d e U g
_
prepare a , , ,
s t ai ned sl i de?
m
^ y
o u r
P
r o b e
'
a d d a
s mal l a mo u n t of t h e
b a c t e r i a - c o n t a i n i n g ma t e r i a l t o t h e wa -
Picture-instructions for preparing a stained slide:
i >
1. PLACE MATERIAL ON
SMEAR OF WATER
2. HOLD HIGH ABOVE FLAME
TO EVAPORATE WATER
^ \
C M )
PASS SLIDE THROUGH FLAME
THREE TIMES TO "FIX" SMEAR
4. ADD STAIN
TO SMEAR
\
5. WASH OFF EXCESS
STAIN
fi
6. BLOT DRY
1
t er , a n d s p r e a d t h e mi x t u r e i n t o a b r o a d
s me a r . Gr a s p t h e s l i de b y t h e e dge s n e a r
o n e e n d , a n d h o l d i t s e ve r a l i nc he s
a b o v e a c a n d l e flame unt i l t h e wa t e r
e v a p o r a t e s . Ho l d t h e s l i de suf f i ci ent l y
h i g h a b o v e t h e flame s o t h a t t h e wa t e r
d o e s n o t boi l . Y o u d o n o t wa n t t o c o o k
t h e b a c t e r i a .
Wh e n al l of t h e wa t e r h a s e v a p o r a t e d
a n d t h e sl i de i s t h o r o u g h l y dr y, p a s s t h e
s l i de t h r o u g h t h e c a n d l e flame r a p i d l y
t h r e e o r f our t i me s . Th i s a c t i o n i s c a l l e d
fixing t h e s me a r .
Wh e n t h e s l i de h a s c o o l e d t hor -
o u g h l y , d r o p a s t ai n f r o m y o u r me d i c i n e
d r o p p e r o n t h e fixed s me a r . S o me ba c -
t e r i a s t ai n b e t t e r wi t h b l u e d y e a n d
o t h e r s s t ai n b e t t e r wi t h r e d dye . Yo u
wi l l h a v e t o e x p e r i me n t wi t h b o t h c ol or s
t o s ee wh i c h o n e be s t s t a i ns t h e k i n d of
b a c t e r i a y o u a r e wo r k i n g wi t h.
L e a v e t h e s t a i n o n t h e s me a r f or
a b o u t a mi n u t e . S o me b a c t e r i a wi l l n e e d
mo r e t h a n a mi n u t e t o s t ai n t h o r o u g h l y .
Ag a i n , y o u wi l l h a v e t o l e a r n t hi s b y
e xpe r i e nc e . Af t e r t h e s t a i n h a s b e e n o n
t h e s me a r f or t h e p r o p e r l e n g t h of t i me ,
wa s h i t off wi t h r u n n i n g t a p wa t e r .
T h e n , p l a c e t h e sl i de, s me a r - s i de u p , o n
a p a p e r t owe l . F o l d t h e t owe l o v e r a n d
b l o t t h e sl i de car ef ul l y. D o n o t r u b t h e
t owe l o n t h e s me a r . Th i s wi l l d e s t r o y
t h e s me a r . No w, e x a mi n e t h e s l i de u n -
d e r t h e mi c r o s c o p e .
T h e r e i s a n o t h e r wa y t o p r e p a r e a sl i de
of b a c t e r i a , s o t h a t
at is a y
O U c a n 0
b
s e r v e t
h
e r n
d e m o u n t ? al i ve. T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e
hanging drop me t h o d .
T h e r e i s a k i n d of t h i c k gl as s s l i de t h a t
h a s a l i t t l e wel l g r o u n d i n t o i t s c e nt e r .
Th i s s l i de i s u s e d t o s et u p a h a n g i n g
d r o p mo u n t . S u c h s l i des a r e e xpe n-
si ve, so y o u wo u l d p r o b a b l y d o be s t
if y o u ma k e y o u r o wn h a n g i n g d r o p
a p p a r a t u s .
How can you
make your
own hanging
drop mount?
Cu t a p i e c e of c a r d b o a r d e x a c t l y t h e
si ze of a gl a s s sl i de.
Y o u c a n d o t hi s be s t
b y t r a c i n g t h e o u t l i n e
o f t h e s l i d e o n t h e
c a r d b o a r d . No w, c u t
t he c a r d b o a r d i n t o t h r e e e q u a l l e ngt hs .
Wi t h y o u r p o i n t e d s ci s s or s , c u t a hol e ,
n o b i g g e r t h a n hal f a n i nc h, i n t h e cen-
t er of e a c h of t h e t h r e e pi e c e s of c a r d-
b o a r d . Gl u e t h e t h r e e pi e c e s t o g e t h e r ,
o n e o n t o p of t h e o t h e r , s o t h a t t h e r e i s
a s i ngl e h o l e t h r o u g h al l t hr e e . Ce me n t
t hi s c a r d b o a r d " wa s h e r " t o t h e c e n t e r
of a gl as s sl i de. Co v e r o n e of y o u r fin-
ge r s l i ght l y wi t h p e t r o l e u m j el l y l i ke
Va s e l i ne . Ho l d i n g a c o v e r gl as s i n y o u r
h a n d , s c r a p e t h e j el l y off y o u r finger,
us i ng al l t h e e d g e s of t h e c o v e r gl as s ,
unt i l t h e r e i s a r i m of j el l y al l a r o u n d
t h e e dge s of t h e c o v e r gl as s . P l a c e t h e
gl as s o n t h e t a bl e , j el l y- s i de u p . Us i n g
y o u r p r o b e , p l a c e a mi x t u r e of wa t e r
a n d a d r o p of t h e b a c t e r i a - c o n t a i n i n g
ma t e r i a l y o u wa n t t o e x a mi n e o n t h e
c e n t e r of t h e c o v e r gl as s .
Ho l d t h e gl as s sl i de s o t h a t t h e c a r d-
b o a r d wa s h e r i s u n d e r n e a t h a n d t h e
h o l e i n t h e wa s h e r i s r i g h t o v e r t h e cen-
t er of t h e c o v e r gl as s . L o we r t h e sl i de,
a n d pr e s s t h e wa s h e r firmly o n t h e j el l y
r i m of t h e c o v e r gl as s . T h e n , wi t h a
q u i c k mo t i o n , t u r n t h e s l i de ove r . A
d r o p of t h e mi x t u r e y o u a r e t o e x a mi n e
^ W ,
1. LINE RIM OF COVER
SLIP WITH VASELINE
2. ADD DROP OF CULTURE
TO CENTER
BUILD A WELL OUT OF
THREE CARDBOARD WASHERS
4. TURN UPSIDE DOWN AND
PLACE AGAINST COVER SLIP
5. TURN RIGHT SIDE UP QUICKLY
U = i ^ t = j
SIDE VIEW OF SLIDE, WELL, HANGING DROP
Picture-directions for preparing hanging drop mount.
wi l l b e h a n g i n g d o wn f r o m t h e c o v e r
gl as s . E x a mi n e t h e d r o p u n d e r t h e mi -
c r o s c o p e , f oc us i ng i t car ef ul l y.
P e r h a p s , wh e n y o u we r e l o o k i n g a t b a c -
t e r i a f r o m y o u r
h a y i nf us i on, y o u
s a w a l a r g e obj e c t
s wi m a c r os s y o u r
field of vi ew. Th i s l a r g e obj e c t wa s a
one - c e l l e d a n i ma l of t h e k i n d c a l l e d
protozoa. T h i s n a me me a n s " e a r l i e s t
What are the
smallest animals
in the world?
25
K__i
e a s i e r t o find p r o t o z o a a n d a l i t t l e
h a r d e r t o f i n d b a c t e r i a . A l s o , t h e
a mo u n t of s c u m s e e me d t o l es s en. Th i s
wa s b e c a u s e t h e p r o t o z o a we r e f e e di ng
o n t h e b a c t e r i a . T h e y i n c r e a s e d i n n u m-
b e r a s t h e y a t e u p t h e b a c t e r i a .
P r o t o z o a a r e i nt e r e s t i ng t o wa t c h
u n d e r a mi c r o s c o p e b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e
s o ma n y di f f er ent f o r ms a n d t h e y mo v e
a b o u t i n ma n y di f f er ent wa ys . Y o u c a n
s ee t h e m h u n t i n g a n d c a t c h i n g t he i r
f ood, wh i c h i s u s u a l l y b a c t e r i a , b u t ma y
The whips of flagellated bacteria
help them to swim.
Foul water teems with harm-
ful disease-causing bacteria.
f o r m of a n i ma l s " a n d r e f e r s t o t h e f act
t h a t p r o t o z o a we r e p r o b a b l y t h e first
a n i ma l s t o a p p e a r i n t h e o c e a n s of t h e
e a r t h h u n d r e d s of mi l l i ons of y e a r s a g o .
T h e y a r e st i l l wa t e r a n i ma l s , a n d a r e
f o u n d i n t h e s eas , l a ke s a n d s t r e a ms .
A s i ngl e o n e of t he s e a n i ma l s i s c a l l e d
a protozoan.
A p r o t o z o a n , l i ke a b a c t e r i u m, i s a
s e p a r a t e bi t of l i vi ng ma t t e r t h a t c a n
t a k e i n a n d us e f ood, ge t r i d of wa s t e s ,
mo v e , g r o w a n d r e p r o d u c e . T h e r e a r e
t h o u s a n d s of ki nds . Mo s t a r e h a r ml e s s ,
b u t a f e w a r e h a r mf u l t o ma n . A mo n g
t h e h a r mf u l o n e s a r e t h o s e t h a t c a u s e
s u c h di s e a s e s a s ma l a r i a , d y s e n t e r y a n d
s l e e pi ng s i cknes s .
CHRYSAMOEBA
GONYAULAX
b e j us t bi t s of onc e - l i vi ng p l a n t o r a ni
ma l ma t e r i a l floating a b o u t i n t h e wa t e r
o r i t ma y b e o t h e r p r o t o z o a .
How can you
examine
protozoa?
If y o u wo r k e d wi t h y o u r h a y i nf us i on
f or s e ve r a l d a y s , y o u
ma y h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t
i t b e c a me c o n t i n u a l l y
What do the
protozoa eat?
T h e h a n g i n g d r o p me t h o d i s o n e of t h e
be s t wa y s of p r e p a r i n g
a s l i de f or t h e e xa mi -
n a t i o n o f p r o t o z o a .
T h e ma i n d i f f i c u l t y
wi t h t hi s me t h o d i s t h a t t h e d r o p pr o-
vi de s t h e t i ny a n i ma l s wi t h s uc h a l a r ge
o c e a n t o s wi m i n t h a t t h e y s wi m e i t he r
a b o v e o r b e l o w t h e l evel o n wh i c h y o u r
mi c r o s c o p e i s f oc us e d. O n e bi g a d v a n -
t a g e of t h e h a n g i n g d r o p mo u n t f or pr o-
t o z o a i s t h a t t h e wa t e r d o e s n o t e v a p o -
r a t e eas i l y, a n d y o u c a n wa t c h t h e t i ny
a n i ma l s f or a l o n g t i me .
2 6
An o t h e r wa y t o p r e p a r e a s l i de f or
t he o b s e r v a t i o n of p r o t o z o a i s s i mpl y
t o pl a c e a d r o p of wa t e r f r o m a h a y
i nf us i on o n a gl as s sl i de a n d c o v e r i t
ge nt l y wi t h a c o v e r gl as s . Wh e n obt a i n-
i ng t h e d r o p , p o k e y o u r me d i c i n e d r o p -
p e r b e n e a t h t h e s c u m o n t h e s ur f a c e of
t he i nf us i on.
T h e c ove r gl as s flattens t h e d r o p of
wa t e r s o mu c h t h a t t h e r e i s ve r y l i t t l e
r o o m f or t h e p r o t o z o a t o s wi m u p a n d
d o wn . On c e y o u h a v e f o c u s e d o n o n e
of t h e m, i t wi l l u s u a l l y r e ma i n i n f o c u s
f or a l o n g t i me . T h e ma i n d i s a d v a n t a g e
of t hi s me t h o d of mo u n t i n g i s t h a t t h e
wa t e r e v a p o r a t e s qui t e r a pi dl y. Wh i l e
y o u a r e l o o k i n g a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y i nt er -
es t i ng p r o t o z o a n , t h e s l i de ma y d r y u p
r i ght u n d e r y o u r eyes . Y o u c a n p r e v e n t
t hi s f r o m h a p p e n i n g b y p u t t i n g a r i m
of p e t r o l e u m j el l y a r o u n d t h e e dge s of
Ciliated bacteria have fringed
hairs which vibrate.
On e wa y t o k e e p t h e p r o t o z o a i n p l a c e
i s t o t r a p t h e m i n t h e fibers of a pi e c e
of t h r e a d . F r a y a ha l f - i nc h pi e c e of
t h r e a d s o t h a t t he fibers ma k e a ma t .
F l a t t e n t hi s ma t , a n d p l a c e i t i n t h e
d r o p of wa t e r o n t h e sl i de, b e f o r e y o u
p u t o n t h e c o v e r gl as s . T h e fibers wi l l
f o r m a " n e t " t h a t wi l l e n t a n g l e a n d
hol d, o r s l ow d o wn , t h e p r o t o z o a i n t h e
wa t e r .
Y o u ma y s ee o n e o r mo r e p r o t o z o a
mo v e a r o u n d u n d e r
How do y
Q u r m
i
c r
o s c o p e , a n d ,
pr ot ozoa , .
, ._ unl e s s y o u k n o w l us t
move a bout ? , , ,
wh a t t o l o o k f or , y o u
ma y b e u n a b l e t o t el l j us t h o w t he y
mo v e . S o me p r o t o z o a mo v e t h r o u g h t he
wa t e r b y me a n s of ci l i a a l o n g t h e s i des
of t he i r bodi e s . S o me p r o t o z o a n s h a v e
a t o n e e n d a t h r e a d of l i vi ng ma t t e r
t h a t i s l o n g e r a n d t h i c k e r t h a n a ci l i um.
T h i s t h r e a d i s c a l l e d a flagellum, a La t i n
The tsetse fly
carries the par-
asite (left) of
human sleep-
ng sickness.
DIDIDIUM
STYLONICHIA
t he c ove r gl as s , after i t i s p l a c e d u p o n
t he d r o p of wa t e r .
Yo u wi l l find t h a t ma n y p r o t o z o a a r e
s i mpl y t o o a c t i ve t o en-
a b l e y o u t o ge t a g o o d
l ook a t t h e m, e s pe c i a l l y
wh e n y o u a r e us i ng t h e
h i g h - p o w e r o b j e c t i v e .
The anopheles
mosquito, which
carries the mala-
ria parasite (right),
transmits malaria.
How can
you keep
protozoa
in place?
wo r d t h a t me a n s " wh i p . " S o me p r o t o -
z o a pul l t h e ms e l v e s t h r o u g h t h e wa t e r
b y b e a t i n g t he s e wh i p s d o wn t o t he i r
si des. Ot h e r s us e t h e wh i p a s a t ai l a n d
p u s h t h e ms e l v e s t h r o u g h t h e wa t e r i n
t h e s a me wa y y o u c a n p u s h a s ma l l b o a t
a l o n g b y mo v i n g a s i ngl e o a r b a c k a n d
f o r t h i n t h e wa t e r b e h i n d t h e b o a t ' s
s t e r n.
T h e o n l y wh i p - b e a r i n g p r o t o z o a n t h a t
y o u a r e l i kel y t o find i n
Wh a t is a , . - .
_ . a h a y i nf us i on i s o n e
Peranema? *
c a l l e d Peranema. Yo u
wi l l r e c o g n i z e t hi s o n e b e c a u s e i t h a s
t wo wh i p s , a l o n g o n e a n d a s h o r t o n e ,
a t o p p o s i t e e n d s of t h e b o d y . Y o u ma y
b e p u z z l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d wh a t ma k e s
Peranema mo v e , wh e n i t s wh i p s s e e m
t o b e s t a n d i n g st i l l . If y o u l o o k cl os el y
a t t h e t i p of t h e l o n g o n e , y o u wi l l s ee
t h a t i t i s v i b r a t i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h
ve r y r a pi dl y. Al s o , Peranema i s a l wa y s
c h a n g i n g s h a p e . S o me t i me s i t l o o k s l i ke
a r a d i s h , s o me t i me s l i ke a b u l g i n g po-
t a t o . T o see Peranema wel l , y o u mu s t
us e a h i g h - p o we r obj e c t i ve a n d a r a t h e r
d i m l i ght .
If y o u s c r a p e t h e i ns i de of y o u r
mo u t h wi t h a t o o t h p i c k a n d ma k e a
sl i de of t h e ma t e r i a l o b t a i n e d , y o u ma y
b e a b l e t o s ee o t h e r wh i p - b e a r e r s . Sev-
e r a l k i n d s l i ve i n t h e h u ma n b o d y , a n d
a l mo s t al l of t h e m a r e e nt i r e l y h a r ml e s s .
Y o u r h a y i nf us i on ma y yi el d a mo r e o r
l es s s ha pe l e s s p r o t o z o a n
c a l l e d a n amoeba. T h i s
p r o t o z o a n h a s n o pa r t i c -
u l a r s h a p e . S o me t i me s i t ma y b e n e a r l y
r o u n d , a n d a t o t h e r t i me s i t ma y h a v e
What is an
amoeba?
a hal f d o z e n r a g g e d p r o j e c t i o n s st i ck-
i ng o u t f r o m t h e c e n t r a l ma s s of i t s
b o d y .
How does an
amoeba move?
Y o u mu s t wa t c h a n a mo e b a f or s o me
t i me i n o r d e r t o s ee
h o w i t mo v e s . I n t h e
first pl a c e , i t s p e n d s
a g r e a t p a r t of i t s t i me r e s t i ng, or , a t
l e a s t , n o t mo v i n g . Se c o n d l y , a n a mo e b a
mo v e s v e r y s l owl y. A s y o u wa t c h , y o u
wi l l s ee t h a t a p r o j e c t i o n of l i vi ng ma t e -
r i a l s l owl y mo v e s o u t wa r d f r o m t h e
ma i n p a r t of i t s b o d y . T h i s p r o j e c t i o n
i s c a l l e d a pseudopod, o r f al s e f oot .
T h e n , y o u wi l l s ee mo r e l i vi ng ma t e -
r i a l s t r e a mi n g i n t o t h e f al s e f oot , wh i c h
wi l l g r o w l a r ge r . Ev e n t u a l l y , al l of
t h e a mo e b a wi l l h a v e s t r e a me d i n t o
wh a t wa s a p s e u d o p o d , a n d t h e wh o l e
a mo e b a wi l l n o w b e a t t h e p l a c e t o
wh i c h t h e p s e u d o p o d first r e a c h e d o u t .
What is a
Paramecium?
O n e of t h e mo s t c o mmo n k i n d of pr o-
t o z o a i s a paramecium.
I t i s s h a p e d s o me t h i n g
l i ke a l o n g s l i pper . I t s
b o d y i s c o v e r e d wi t h ci l i a t h a t b e a t b a c k
a n d f o r t h v e r y r a p i d l y . Si nc e t h e r e a r e
h u n d r e d s of ci l i a o n t h e b o d y , a n d al l
a r e a c t i n g l i ke t i ny o a r s , t h e p a r a me -
c i u m i s mo v e d t h r o u g h t h e wa t e r ve r y
r a p i d l y . A p a r a me c i u m i s a l s o o n e of
t h e l a r ge s t of t h e p r o t o z o a . I t ma y r e a c h
a d i a me t e r of mo r e t h a n 1 / 1 0 0 of a n
i nc h. If y o u s ee o n e u n d e r y o u r mi c r o-
s c ope , i t mi g h t b e i nt e r e s t i ng t o r e mo v e
t h e s l i de f r o m t h e cl i ps a n d s ee wh e t h e r
y o u c a n s ee t h e p a r a me c i u m wi t h y o u r
n a k e d eye. T o d o t hi s p l a c e t h e sl i de o n
a b l a c k b a c k g r o u n d , a n d s hi ne a l i ght
28
di r e c t l y d o wn u p o n t h e c o v e r gl as s . T h e
p a r a me c i a wi l l b e s een a s b r i g h t mo v i n g
s pe c ks .
What is inside
a protozoan?
P r o t o z o a , s u c h a s t h e a mo e b a a n d
p a r a me c i a , a r e l a r g e
e n o u g h s o t h a t we
n o t o n l y c a n s t u d y
t hei r g e n e r a l f or m, b u t we c a n e x a mi n e
wh a t i s i ns i de t h e m.
Si nc e e a c h p r o t o z o a n i s a s i ngl e l i v-
i ng cel l , i t pos s e s s e s s o me of t h e c h a r a c -
t er i s t i cs of al l l i vi ng cel l s. I t i s s ur -
r o u n d e d b y a me mb r a n e t h a t h o l d s i t
t o g e t h e r . T h e l i vi ng ma t e r i a l t h a t i s
wi t hi n t h e cel l me mb r a n e i s c a l l e d cyto-
plasm. If y o u e x a mi n e t h e c y t o p l a s m
car ef ul l y, y o u wi l l s ee t h a t i t l o o k s
gr a i ny, a s if i t we r e ma d e u p of g r a i n s
of c ol or l e s s s a n d . I t i s t hi s g r a i n i n e s s
t h a t e n a b l e s t h e c y t o p l a s m i n t h e
a mo e b a t o s t r e a m i n t o i t s f al s e f eet ,
j us t a s s a n d i n a s a c k c a n b e ma d e t o
flow a r o u n d b y mo v i n g t h e s a c k.
Wi t h i n t h e c y t o p l a s m i s a l a r g e d a r k
dot . Th i s i s t h e cel l ' s nucleus. Al l t h e
mo v e me n t s a n d act i vi t i es of t h e p r o t o -
z o a n a r e d i r e c t e d b y i t . I t i s s o me wh a t
a s t h o u g h t h e n u c l e u s we r e t h e cel l ' s
b r a i n .
S o me wh e r e i n t h e c y t o p l a s m of a n
a mo e b a o r a Pa r a -
me c i u m, y o u wi l l
s ee o n e o r t wo ( o r
mo r e ) l a r g e c l e a r
ci r cl es . I n t h e p a r a me c i u m, y o u ma y
How do protozoa
collect wastes
and water?
Peranema changes shape by contracting, expanding.
29
s ee a c l e a r , s t a r - s h a p e d s pot . T h e s e a r e
contractile vacuoles. T h e y mo v e a b o u t
wi t h i n t h e c y t o p l a s m c ol l e c t i ng wa s t e
ma t e r i a l s a n d exces s wa t e r . Wh e n t h e y
r e a c h t h e me mb r a n e of t h e p r o t o z o a n ,
t h e y s u d d e n l y c o n t r a c t a n d e xpe l t he i r
b u r d e n o u t s i d e t h e cel l wal l . Af t e r t hi s
h a p p e n s , t h e v a c u o l e b e c o me s v e r y
s mal l , b u t a s i t mo v e s a b o u t p i c k i n g u p
wa s t e ma t e r i a l s a n d wa t e r , i t g r o ws
l a r ge r .
Al s o wi t hi n t h e c y t o p l a s m, y o u wi l l
p r o b a b l y s e e s ma l l
d a r k d o t s wi t h l i ght e r
ci r cl es a r o u n d t h e m.
Th e s e a r e bi t s of f ood t h a t t h e p r o t o -
How does the
amoeba eat?
* f t
/ ^
PSEUDOPOD
4
CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS
SSSSSk/ /
CELL
MEMBRANE
W k J k r /
'~*''irk ' " " - ^
: %
M i i i - ^
\ FOOD PARTICLE
V P CONTRACTILE VACUOLE
The amoeba is a microscopic, single-celled animal.
Its name comes from the Greek word for change.
z o a n h a s t a k e n i n t o i t sel f , a n d i t i s i nt e r -
e s t i ng t o wa t c h h o w t hi s i s d o n e . Wh e n
a n a mo e b a c o me s u p o n a bi t of f ood,
i t r e a c h e s o u t t wo p s e u d o p o d s t o sur -
r o u n d t h e f ood pa r t i c l e . Wh e n t h e ps e u-
d o p o d s h a v e c u r v e d c o mp l e t e l y a r o u n d
t h e pi e c e of f ood, t h e y me e t . T h e n t h e
me mb r a n e b e t we e n t h e m di s s ol ves , a n d
t h e f o o d pa r t i c l e i s i ns i de t h e a mo e b a .
A p a r a me c i u m h a s a t o u g h e r cel l me m-
b r a n e , a n d c a n n o t ,
How does a t he r e f or e , p u t o u t ps eu-
par ameci um , , ,
t
M
d o p o d s t o s u r r o u n d a
get its f ood? .
r
bi t of f ood. I n s t e a d , t h e
P a r a me c i u m h a s a mo u t h a n d a gul l et
i n t o wh i c h n o u r i s h me n t i s t a k e n . If y o u
l o o k cl os el y a t a p a r a me c i u m, y o u wi l l
s ee a g r o o v e a l o n g o n e si de, n e a r t he
f r ont e n d . Th i s i s t h e oral groove. F o c u s
v e r y car ef ul l y, a n d y o u ma y b e a bl e t o
s ee t h a t t h e o r a l g r o o v e i s l i ne d wi t h
ci l i a. Wh e n a p a r a me c i u m c o me s u p o n
f o o d pa r t i c l e s , u s u a l l y b a c t e r i a , t he
b e a t i n g of t h e ci l i a s h o v e t h e pa r t i c l e s
a l o n g t h e o r a l g r o o v e t o a p o i n t n e a r
t h e mi d d l e of t h e b o d y wh e r e t h e r e i s a
t u b e . T h e o p e n i n g of t hi s t u b e i s t h e
mouth, a n d t h e t u b e , i t sel f , i s t h e gullet.
Wh e n f ood pa r t i c l e s r e a c h t h e l owe r
e n d of t h e gul l et , t h e y col l ect i n t o a
bal l , a n d t hi s ba l l , a l o n g wi t h a l i t t l e
wa t e r , floats i n t o t h e c y t o p l a s m. Yo u
s ee t h e f o o d a s a d a r k d o t , a n d t h e wa t e r
a s t h e l i ght ci r cl e a r o u n d t h e dot . To -
g e t h e r , t h e y ma k e u p a food vacuole.
How can you
feed protozoa?
Si nc e t h e f e e di ng a c t i o n s of p r o t o z o a
a r e s o i n t e r e s t i n g ,
y o u m a y w a n t t o
p r o v i d e f o o d i n or -
d e r t o wa t c h t h e m t a k e i t i n t o t he i r bod-
i es. P i c k off f r o m a c a k e of ye a s t a pi e c e
a b o u t t h e si ze of t h e e ye of a ne e dl e .
Ma s h t h e s pe c k of ye a s t i n a d r o p of
wa t e r . P l a c e a l i t t l e of t hi s mi x t u r e i n
t h e c e n t e r of a d r o p of wa t e r t h a t con-
t a i ns p r o t o z o a . Pl a c e a c ove r sl i p o n t he
30
The illustrations show
how the pseudopods of
an amoeba engulf a
particle of food, until
the food is completely
inside the protozoan.
wa t e r . Di p t h e e n d of a t o o t h p i c k i n t o
r e d i n k a n d t r a ns f e r a s ma l l d r o p of i n k
t o t h e e d g e of t h e c o v e r gl as s . T h e r e d
d y e i n t h e i n k wi l l ma k e i t e a s i e r f or
y o u t o see t h e f ood- t a ki ng act i vi t i es .
Wh e n b a c t e r i a o r p r o t o z o a find t h e m-
sel ves i n c o n d i t i o n s
H o W d 0
i
b a C t e r i a t h a t a r e t o

d l
7 ,
t h e y t e m p o r a r i l y
s u s p e n d t he i r l i vi ng
pr oc e s s e s , wi t h o u t a c t u a l l y dyi ng. T o
a c c o mp l i s h t hi s , t h e y s u r r o u n d t h e m-
sel ves wi t h a v e r y t o u g h c o v e r i n g t h a t
p r o t e c t s t h e m f r o m c o mp l e t e l y d r y i n g
o u t , a n d a l s o f r o m s u d d e n c h a n g e s i n
t e mp e r a t u r e . A b a c t e r i a i n t hi s c ondi -
t i on i s c a l l e d a spore, a n d a p r o t o z o a n
i s a cyst. Sp o r e s a n d cys t s a r e ve r y l i ght
a n d c a n b e eas i l y c a r r i e d b y e v e n t h e
l i ght es t br e e z e s .
Wh e n a s p o r e o r cys t a g a i n h a p p e n s
u p o n we t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e t h i c k c o v e r i n g
di s s ol ves a n d t h e b a c t e r i u m o r t h e pr o-
t o z o a n goe s o n l i vi ng j us t a s i t d i d be-
and protozoa
suspend life?
f or e i t e n c o u n t e r e d u n f a v o r a b l e c ondi -
t i ons .
Si nc e t h e gr a s s y o u u s e d f or ma k i n g a
h a y i nf us i on wa s
Where do hay-
infusion bacteria
and protozoa
come from?
dr y, y o u ma y wo n -
de r wh e r e wa t e r -
l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s
l i ke b a c t e r i a a n d
p r o t o z o a c a me f r o m af t er t he gr a s s h a d
s o a k e d f or a f e w da ys . Ba c t e r i a a n d
p r o t o z o a t h a t h a d b e e n l i vi ng o n t he
ha y- i nf us i on gr a s s be f or e i t d r i e d f o r me d
s p o r e s a n d c y s t s w h e n d r y i n g t o o k
pl a c e . Wh e n y o u p l a c e d t h e gr a s s i n
wa t e r , t h e wa l l s of t h e s p o r e s a n d cys t s
di s s ol ve d.
A f ew d a y s af t er y o u p u t t h e d r y gr a s s
i n t o t h e wa t e r ,
a s c u m ma d e
u p of b a c t e r i a
a p p e a r e d i n
y o u r h a y i nf us i on. F o r a f ew da ys , t h e
a m o u n t of s c u m i n c r e a s e d , t h e r e b y
How do trie number
of bacteria and
protozoa increase?
31
I
The common bread mold, Rhizopus nigricans, ire-
quently grows on old bread, and is magnified above
M o l d s , M i l d e w , Y e a s t B u d d i n g
Sp r i n k l e wa t e r o n f our o r five sl i ces of
b r e a d . Wi p e t h e d a mp
s i de of t he s e sl i ces
a c r os s t h e floor, t a k-
i ng c a r e n o t t o c r u m-
bl e t h e b r e a d . P u t t h e
b r e a d i n t o a cl os et o r s o me o t h e r wa r m,
d a r k pl a c e . T w o d a y s l a t e r , e x a mi n e
t he sl i ces. Yo u wi l l p r o b a b l y find o n
t h e m p a t c h e s of a wh i t e c o t t o n y ma -
How can you
grow plants
on a slice
of bread?
t e r i a l p e p p e r e d wi t h b l a c k dot s . Th i s
ma t e r i a l i s t h e t h i c k g r o wt h of a p l a n t
c a l l e d common bread mold.
T o e x a mi n e t hi s mo l d , p l a c e a s ma l l
pi e c e of b r e a d o n t h e s t a ge of y o u r
mi c r o s c o p e . Sh i n e a b r i g h t l i ght d o wn
o n t h e mo l d . Be s ur e t h a t t h e l i ght d o e s
n o t a l s o s hi ne in, y o u r e ye s a n d h i n d e r
y o u r vi e wi ng. Us e t h e l o w- p o we r obj ec-
t i ve t o e x a mi n e t h e b r e a d mo l d .
34
What do molds
look like?
No t e t h a t t he wh i t e c o t t o n y ma t e r i a l i s
a t a n g l e d ma s s of
f i l a m e n t s . T h i s i s
c a l l e d a mycelium.
T h e t h r e a d l i k e g r o wt h s a r e ma d e of liv-
i ng ma t t e r . T r a c e o n e of t h e filaments.
Yo u wi l l s ee t h a t i t r u n s h o r i z o n t a l l y
f or a s hor t di s t a nc e , t h e n i t b r a n c h e s
i nt o s ever al ve r t i c a l f i l a me nt s . O n t he
t o p of e a c h of t he s e ve r t i c a l g r o wt h s i s
a b l a c k k n o b . T h e s e a r e sporangia, o r
spore cases. Wi t h i n e a c h o n e of t he s e
cas es a r e a l a r ge n u mb e r of s por e s .
So o n e r o r l a t e r , t h e k n o b s wi l l b u r s t
o p e n . T h e s p o r e s a r e s o l i ght t h a t t h e y
wi l l eas i l y float a wa y i n t h e ai r . Wh e n
a s por e a l i ght s o n s o me ma t e r i a l t h a t
t he mo l d c a n us e f or f ood, t h e s p o r e
wi l l g r o w i n t o a wh o l e n e w mo l d p l a n t .
I t wa s s por e s wi p e d u p f r o m t h e floor
t h a t g r e w i nt o mo l d o n y o u r b r e a d .
Di r e c t l y b e n e a t h t h e ve r t i c a l fila-
me n t s a r e o t h e r s t h a t b r a n c h d o wn wa r d
i nt o t h e b r e a d . T h e s e filaments a c t l i ke
r o o t s b y o b t a i n i n g f r o m t h e b r e a d t h e
n o u r i s h me n t t h e mo l d p l a n t n e e d s i n
o r d e r t o l i ve a n d g r o w.
How are molds
useful to man?
Mo s t mo l d s a r e h a r ml e s s t o ma n , t h o u g h
a f e w m a y c a u s e
di s eas es . On e s uc h
di s e a s e i s " a t h l e t e ' s
f oot . " S o me mo l d s a r e us ef ul , s u c h a s
t h e o n e s wh i c h gi ve flavor t o c e r t a i n
k i n d s of c he e s e . By f ar t h e mo s t i m-
p o r t a n t us e of mo l d s i s t o p r o v i d e t h e
ba s i s f or t h e d r u g s c a l l e d antibiotics.
T h e s e d r u g s h a v e h e l p e d t o c o n q u e r
c e r t a i n di s e a s e s t h a t t o o k t h o u s a n d s of
l i ves be f or e a nt i bi ot i c s we r e di s c ove r e d.
S o me a nt i bi ot i c s a r e peni ci l l i n, s t r e pt o-
my c i n , a n d a u r e o my c i n .
Ha v i n g e x a mi n e d t h e mo l d o n t h e
b r e a d b y me a n s of t h e l o w- p o we r ob-
j ect i ve, e x a mi n e i t i n a di f f er ent wa y .
Sc r a p e s o me mo l d off t h e b r e a d a n d
p l a c e i t o n a gl as s sl i de. A d d a d r o p of
wa t e r a n d a d r o p of a l c ohol . T h e n c ove r
i t wi t h a c ove r gl as s . Li g h t t h e s l i de i n
t h e u s u a l wa y ; t h a t is, b y me a n s of l i ght
r ef l ect ed u p wa r d f r o m t h e mi c r o s c o p e
mi r r o r . Fi r s t e x a mi n e t h e mo l d wi t h t h e
l o w- p o we r obj e c t i ve . T h e n us e t h e hi gh-
p o we r obj ect i ve. Y o u wi l l see t h a t e a c h
mo l d p l a n t i s ma d e of ma n y cel l s. Y o u
mi g h t e ve n b e a b l e t o see a n u c l e u s i n
o n e of t h e s e cel l s.
I t i s pos s i bl e t h a t a l o n g wi t h, o r i n-
s t e a d of , c o mmo n b r e a d mo l d , y o u wi l l
find a n o r a n g e , b l a c k , gr e e n, o r p i n k
mo l d g r o wi n g o n y o u r b r e a d . E a c h
c ol or r e p r e s e n t s a di f f er ent s peci es of
mo l d . E x a mi n e e a c h o n e a n d ma k e a
c o mp a r i s o n of t h e s h a p e s a n d c ol or s of
t h e di f f er ent p a r t s of e a c h mo l d .
What is
mildew?
Ha v e y o u e ve r s een a whi t i s h, p o wd e r y
ma t e r i a l o n s hoe s o r l e a t h e r
j a c k e t s t h a t we r e s t or e d i n
a d a mp p l a c e ? Or , pe r -
h a p s , d u r i n g a d a mp s u mme r , y o u h a v e
s een t h e s a me k i n d of whi t i s h s pot s
o n c u r t a i n s o r f a br i c f u r n i t u r e cover -
i ngs . Or , y o u ma y h a v e s een b l a c k
s t r e a k s o n s he e t s o r pi l l ow cas es t h a t
y o u r mo t h e r s t o r e d wh i l e t h e y we r e st i l l
d a mp . Bo t h t h e wh i t e s pot s a n d t h e
b l a c k s t r e a ks we r e c a u s e d b y mildew,
wh i c h i s t h e g e n e r a l n a me f or a g r o u p
of p l a n t s v e r y mu c h l i ke t r u e mo l d s .
Mi l d e ws h a v e a my c e l i u m a n d s por a n-
gi a. Mi l d e ws n o t onl y s t ai n a n d r o t
l e a t h e r a n d c l ot h, b u t t h e y a l s o de s t r oy
ma n y us ef ul pl a nt s , a mo n g t h e m r os es ,
SPORE
CASE OF
BREAD
MOLD
35
Rotifers are tiny, multi-celled marine
animals, and abound in fresh-water
ponds that have become stagnant.
>
OOLINA
GLOBIGERINA
Radiolaria are marine protozoa noted for threadlike
pseudopods. The related Foraminifera have pseudo-
pods which protrude through holes in their shells.
l i l acs a n d wi l l ow, p l u m, c h e r r y a n d
p e a c h t r ees . T h e mi l d e w c o v e r s t h e s e
p l a n t s wi t h a my c e l i u m t h r o u g h wh i c h
i t d r a ws n o u r i s h me n t f r o m t h e p l a n t ' s
cel l s. Th i s de s t r oys t he s e cel l s, a n d
t he r e f or e , ki l l s t h e p l a n t .
Ob s e r v e mi l d e w p l a n t s i n t h e s a me
wa y t h a t y o u o b s e r v e d mo l d s .
Wh e n y o u we r e f e e di ng p r o t o z o a , y o u
ma d e a mi x t u r e of
. L JJ. i yeast and wat er . Al -
yeast budding?
J
t h o u g h y o u we r e pr i -
ma r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o t o z o a , y o u
RAGWEED A
POLLEN A *Z
SPORES OF SCOURING RUSH
Pollen are the tiny spores, or microspores, in seed
plants. They are usually tiny specks of yellow dust.
ma y h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e ye a s t cel l s
h a d ma n y c u r i o u s s ha pe s . L e t u s a g a i n
o b s e r v e ye a s t . As be f or e , mi x a t i ny
s pe c k of ye a s t i n a d r o p of wa t e r . P l a c e
a c o v e r gl a s s o n t h e mi x t u r e . Ma n i p u -
l a t e t h e mi r r o r of y o u r mi c r o s c o p e s o
a s t o c u t d o wn t h e l i ght , a n d f oc us car e-
f ul l y o n t h e ye a s t .
37
Y e a s t i s a p l a n t . T h e r o u n d , o r
n e a r l y - r o u n d , cel l s t h a t y o u see a r e e a c h
a s e p a r a t e ye a s t p l a n t . T w o t h i n g s t h a t
wi l l p r o b a b l y c a t c h y o u r a t t e n t i o n i m-
me d i a t e l y a r e t h a t s o me ye a s t cel l s s e e m
t o h a v e l u mp s s t i c ki ng o u t of t h e m, a n d
t h a t ye a s t cel l s a r e s een i n c ha i ns . Th e s e
t wo f a c t s a r e cl os el y r e l a t e d.
Yeast cells reproduce by a division called "budding."
Li k e o t h e r cel l s, ye a s t p l a n t s r e pr o-
d u c e b y cel l di vi s i on. Bu t i n s t e a d of
di vi di ng i n t wo i n t h e mi d d l e , a ye a s t
cel l g r o ws a b u d . Th i s b u d i s t h e l u mp
t h a t y o u c a n s ee a t t a c h e d t o s o me cel l s.
J u s t a s i n o t h e r k i n d s of cel l di vi s i on,
t he n u c l e u s spl i t s i n t wo. On e p a r t of
t h e n u c l e u s mo v e s i n t o t h e b u d , a n d t h e
o t h e r p a r t r e ma i n s i n t h e p a r e n t cel l .
T h e b u d i s s ma l l a t first, b u t s oon g r o ws
t o b e t h e s a me si ze a s t h e cel l f r o m
wh i c h i t b u d d e d . As y o u wi l l r e me mb e r ,
t hi s i s qui t e di f f er ent f r om t h e t y p e of
cel l di vi s i on y o u h a v e o b s e r v e d . Th e r e ,
t h e cel l p i n c h e d i n t wo, f o r mi n g t wo
cel l s e a c h hal f t h e si ze of t h e cel l t h a t
di vi de d. E a c h of t h e t wo n e w cel l s t h e n
g r e w t o t h e si ze of t h e cel l f r o m wh i c h
t h e y c a me .
How else does
yeast budding
differ from
cell division?
An o t h e r wa y i n wh i c h t h e b u d d i n g of
ye a s t cel l s di ffers
f r o m mo s t cel l di vi -
s i on i s i n t h e f act
t h a t t h e n e w cel l
wh i c h g r o ws f r o m
t h e b u d d o e s n o t ne c e s s a r i l y s e p a r a t e
f r o m t h e p a r e n t cel l . Al t h o u g h t h e pa r -
e n t cel l a n d t h e b u d d e d cel l l i ve a s s epa-
r a t e p l a n t s , t h e y ma y r e ma i n a t t a c h e d
t o e a c h o t h e r . As b o t h t he s e cel l s b u d i n
t u r n , a n d t h e b u d s g r o w t o ful l si ze, a
c h a i n of f o u r cel l s i s f o r me d . Ev e n
l o n g e r c h a i n s of ye a s t cel l s ma y b e
f o r me d . Ho we v e r , t h e c o n n e c t i o n be-
t we e n t h e cel l s i s n o t ve r y s t r ong, a n d ,
e v e n t u a l l y , t h e c h a i n b r e a k s .
If y o u s e a r c h a b o u t a mo n g t h e ye a s t
cel l s o n y o u r sl i de, y o u ma y find cel l s
t h a t h a v e mo r e t h a n o n e b u d . Wh e n
t hi s k i n d of b u d d i n g t a k e s pl a c e , Y-
s h a p e d c h a i n s ma y b e f o r me d .
T h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of di f f er ent k i n d s
of yeasts. Cer t ai n
How are yeasts , . ,
, , . _ kinds are ver y use-
useful to man? ;L
ful t o ma n . Th e s e
a r e t h e o n e s u s e d i n t h e p r o c e s s of fer-
mentation. Mo s t ye a s t s l i ve a n d g r o w
o n s uga r . As t h e y o b t a i n t he i r nour i s h-
me n t f r o m s u g a r , t h e y c h a n g e i t i n t o
a l c o h o l a n d c a r b o n di oxi de gas . Th i s i s
t h e p r o c e s s c a l l e d fermentation. Al c o -
hol i s a v e r y us ef ul c he mi c a l .
Wh e n ye a s t i s mi x e d wi t h b a k i n g
d o u g h , t h e ye a s t p l a n t s g r o w o n t h e
s u g a r i n t h e d o u g h . T h a t i s, t h e ye a s t
f e r me n t s t h e s u g a r i n t h e d o u g h t o f o r m
a l c o h o l a n d c a r b o n di oxi de . Th i s ga s
f o r ms b u b b l e s i n t h e d o u g h , a n d t h e
d o u g h swel l s. Wh e n t hi s h a p p e n s we
38
'.*
s ay t h a t t h e d o u g h " r i s es . " Do u g h t h a t
r i ses b e c o me s l i ght a n d fluffy. Wh e n t h e
b r e a d i s b a k e d , t h e h e a t dr i ve s off b o t h
t h e c a r b o n di oxi de a n d t h e a l c ohol . Al l
t he hol e s a n d i n d e n t a t i o n s i n a sl i ce of
b r e a d a r e t h e r e ma i n s of b u b b l e s of car -
b o n di oxi de .
Di s s ol ve a t e a s p o o n f u l of s u g a r i n hal f
a t u m b l e r o f
How can you see , ,
, J wa t e r . Ma k e u p a
f er ment at i on?
r
f r es h mi x t u r e of
ye a s t a n d wa t e r . P l a c e a d r o p of t h e
mi x t u r e o n a c o v e r gl as s a n d a d d a d r o p
of s uga r - wa t e r . Ma k e a h a n g i n g - d r o p
p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e c ove r gl as s a n d i t s
mi x t u r e . Le a v e t h e h a n g i n g - d r o p sl i de
i n a wa r m pl a c e . A n h o u r l a t e r , p l a c e
t he sl i de u n d e r y o u r mi c r o s c o p e . D o
y o u see t h e ma n y b u b b l e s of c a r b o n
di oxi de f o r me d b y t h e ye a s t ' s f e r me nt -
i ng a c t i on o n t h e s u g a r ?
I n s e c t s
Ob t a i n a s ma l l wi d e - mo u t h b o t t l e wi t h
a l i d. Co v e r t h e i ns i de
b o t t o m wi t h b l o t t i n g
p a p e r , p a p e r t owe l s o r
a b s o r b e n t c o t t o n . T h e n
we t t h e ma t e r i a l wi t h h o u s e h o l d a mmo -
ni a . ( D o n o t h o l d y o u r f a c e c l os e t o t h e
b o t t l e wh e n y o u a r e p o u r i n g a mmo n i a ,
f or i t wi l l c a u s e y o u r e ye s a n d n o s e t o
s ma r t pa i nf ul l y. ) C a p t h e wi d e - mo u t h
bot t l e . N o w y o u h a v e a n i ns e c t col l ec-
t or ' s bot t l e . If y o u p l a c e a n i ns ect i n i t ,
t h e a mmo n i a wi l l q u i c k l y ki l l t h e s peci -
me n wi t h o u t d a ma g i n g i t a s s wa t t i n g
mi g h t d o .
Where can
you keep
insects?
Ca t c h a fly i n y o u r h a n d . Wh e n y o u
see a fly r e s t i ng o n s o me obj e c t , s l owl y
mo v e y o u r c u p p e d h a n d cl os e t o t h e
i ns ect . T h e n , wi t h a s u d d e n q u i c k move -
me n t , g r a b t h e fly. Yo u wi l l p r o b a b l y
h a v e t o t r y t hi s mo r e t h a n onc e . Ho l d
t h e fly ge nt l y i n y o u r h a n d , a n d t h e n
p o p i t i n t o t h e c ol l e c t i ng bot t l e . Af t e r
t h e fly is d e a d , us e y o u r t we e z e r s t o
r e mo v e i t f r om t he bot t l e . Pl a c e i t o n a
gl as s sl i de a n d ma n i p u l a t e i t wi t h y o u r
p r o b e s o t h a t y o u c a n o b t a i n a g o o d
vi e w of o n e of i t s eyes b e n e a t h t h e l ow-
p o we r obj e c t i ve of y o u r mi c r o s c o p e .
What does a
fly's eye
look like?
D o y o u see t h a t t h e wh o l e s ur f a c e of
t h e e ye i s c o mp o s e d
of t i n y h e x a g o n a l
( s i x - s i d e d ) s p a c e s ?
T h e s e s p a c e s a r e
c a l l e d facets. E a c h o n e gi ves t h e fly a
s e p a r a t e i mp r e s s i o n of l i ght a n d c ol or .
I n o t h e r wo r d s , e a c h f a c e t a c t s a s
t h o u g h i t we r e a s e p a r a t e eye. A n eye
ma d e u p of f a c e t s is cal l ed a c o mp o u n d
eye. Ma n y i ns e c t s h a v e s uc h eyes .
Insect eggs come in many different shapes and sizes.
39
, w
No t e h o w t h e fly's e ye b u l g e s out -
wa r d o n al l s i des of t h e h e a d . I n f act
t h e e ye s ma k e u p t h e l a r ge s t p a r t of t he
h e a d . Be c a u s e t h e e ye s b u l g e o u t s o f ar ,
t h e y e n a b l e t h e fly t o s ee i n al l di r e c t i ons
a t o n c e . Th i s i s wh y i t i s s o h a r d t o
c a t c h a fly, f or i t c a n see a s wel l b e h i n d
a s i n f r ont of i t sel f .
Orion acrylic fiber, as seen under a microscope.
How can a fly
walk upside down?
A filament of rayon yarn as seen under a microscope.
L o o k a t t h e fly's f oot . No t e t h e h a i r y
p a d s b e t we e n
t w o c u r v i n g
c l a w s . T h e
p a d s s e c r e t e a s t i c ky s u b s t a n c e t h a t en-
a bl e t h e fly t o c l i ng t o s mo o t h s ur f aces .
Th i s i s wh y a fly c a n wa l k u p s i d e d o wn
o n t h e cei l i ng. L o o k a t t h e wi n g s of a
fly. T h e " v e i n s " i n t h e wi n g a r e r e a l l y
d r i e d - u p a i r t u b e s t h a t c o n n e c t wi t h t h e
fly's b r e a t h i n g o r g a n s .
T h e r e a r e mo r e k i n d s of i ns e c t s t h a n
a n y o t h e r k i n d of a n i ma l . As i ns e c t s
h a v e a n a l mo s t i nf i ni t e v a r i e t y of f o r ms
a n d o d d l y - s h a p e d o r g a n s , a c ol l e c t i on
of s e ve r a l di f f er ent k i n d s wi l l p r o v i d e
y o u wi t h e n o u g h ma t e r i a l f or ma n y
h o u r s of i n t e r e s t i n g mi c r o s c o p i c e xa mi -
n a t i o n .
Nylon stocking weave as seen under microscope.
F a b r i c s
Y o u ma y a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t c o t t o n
t h r e a d i s ma d e f r o m
How is cot t on ., .. , rp,
. . _ t h e c o t t o n p l a n t . T h e
t hr ead ma d e r
f r u i t of t h e c o t t o n
p l a n t i s a wh i t e fluffy ma t e r i a l mu c h
l i ke a b s o r b e n t c o t t o n . T h i s i s c l e a n e d
a n d s p u n i n t o t h r e a d . Bu t j us t wh a t
g o e s o n i n t h e s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s ? Y o u
c a n find t hi s o u t b y e x a mi n i n g a p i e c e
40
HOUSEFLY
, COMPOUND EYE
<V
ANTENNA
of c o t t o n t h r e a d u n d e r y o u r mi c r o -
s c ope .
Ma k e a n o t h e r p r o b e b y s t i c ki ng t h e
e ye - e nd of a n e e d l e i n t o t h e e r a s e r f r o m
a pe nc i l . C u t a ha l f - i nc h l e n g t h of cot -
t o n t h r e a d , we t i t , a n d p l a c e i t o n a sl i de
b e n e a t h t h e l o w- p o we r obj e c t i ve of y o u r
mi c r o s c o p e . No t e t h a t t h e wh o l e l e n g t h
of t h e t h r e a d h a s a s pi r a l t wi s t .
Us i n g b o t h y o u r p r o b e s , p i c k t h e
t h r e a d a p a r t . Fi r s t u n d o t h e s pi r al , t h e n
p i c k t h e s t r a n d s a p a r t i n t o t h e s ma l l e r
fibers of wh i c h t h e y a r e ma d e . Wh e n
y o u h a v e t a k e n t h e wh o l e p i e c e of
t h r e a d a p a r t , y o u c a n eas i l y r e c o n s t r u c t
wh a t we n t o n i n t h e s pi nni ng pr oc e s s .
T h e fibers t h a t ma k e u p t h e c o t t o n a s
i t c o me s f r o m t h e p l a n t we r e p u l l e d o u t
i n t o s t r a n d s wh i c h we r e t h e n t wi s t e d
i n t o a t h r e a d .
Si nc e i t i s s o e a s y t o p i c k a p a r t a
pi e c e of c o t t o n , y o u ma y wo n d e r wh a t
41
gi ves a t h r e a d i t s s t r e ngt h. Us e a hi gh-
p o we r obj e c t i ve t o l o o k a t t h e s ma l l e s t
fibers. D o y o u see h o w c r o o k e d a n d
t wi s t e d t h e y a r e ? Wh e n a n u mb e r of
t he s e fibers a r e b r o u g h t i n c l os e c on-
t a c t wi t h o n e a n o t h e r , a s i n t h e c ot t on-
s pi nni ng pr oc e s s , t h e c r o o k e d p a r t s a n d
b e n d s of o n e fiber c a t c h i n t h e c r o o k e d
p a r t s of a n o t h e r a n d h o l d t h e s e p a r a t e
fiber t o g e t h e r .
Ob t a i n a s hor t l e n g t h of wo o l y a r n , si l k
t h r e a d a n d l i ne n
How do nat ur al
t h r
e a d . E x a m i n e
fibers differ , , ,_, ,
, . e a c h u n d e r t h e l ow-
from ma n - ma d e
(artificial) ones?
a n d
h i g h - p o we r ob-
j e c t i v e s of y o u r
mi c r o s c o p e . Us e di r e c t l i ght i ng f r o m
a b o v e . No t e t h a t t he wo o l fibers a r e
s t r a i ght , t hi c k a n d s cal y. C o mp a r e t he s e
wo o l fibers wi t h a h a i r f r om y o u r h e a d .
No t e t h a t t h e si l k fibers a r e s t r a i ght ,
b u t h a v e r o u g h s ur f aces . Li n e n fibers
h a v e v e r y j a g g e d s ur f aces . D o y o u t h i n k
t h a t t h e r e i s a n y c o n n e c t i o n b e t we e n
t h e j a g g e d s ur f a c e of l i ne n fibers a n d
t h e s t r e n g t h of l i ne n t h r e a d ?
Al l t h e fibers y o u h a v e e x a mi n e d s o
f a r a r e n a t u r a l fibers. F r o m t h e e dge s
of t h e i ns i de of a r a y o n , n y l o n , Or i o n o r
Da c r o n g a r me n t , o b t a i n a f e w t h r e a d s .
T h e s e a r e ar t i f i ci al o r ma n - ma d e fibers.
E x a mi n e t h e m u n d e r y o u r mi c r o s c o p e .
No t e h o w s mo o t h t h e y a r e wh e n c om-
p a r e d t o n a t u r a l fibers.
Y o u c a n k e e p a n i nt e r e s t i ng r e c o r d
of wh a t y o u h a v e l e a r n e d b y p l a c i n g
ha l f - i nc h l e n g t h s of t h e f o u r k i n d s of
n a t u r a l fibers o n a gl as s sl i de, car ef ul l y
c o v e r i n g t h e m wi t h a t hi n c o a t i n g of
C a n a d a b a l s a m a n d p l a c i n g a c ove r
gl a s s o n t h e b a l s a m. D o t h e s a me wi t h
t h e f our k i n d s of ma n - ma d e fibers.
How is
muslin
woven?
L o o k a t a mu s l i n s he e t o r pi l l owc a s e
wi t h t h e l o w- p o we r obj ec-
t i ve. No t e h o w e ve nl y t h e
t h r e a d s a r e wo v e n i n t o a
s q u a r e p a t t e r n . T h e we a v-
i ng i s d o n e b y s t r e t c hi ng a l a r ge n u mb e r
of t h r e a d s pa r a l l e l t o e a c h o t h e r . Th e s e
t h r e a d s ma k e t h e warp. A n e q u a l n u m-
b e r of p a r a l l e l t h r e a d s a r e wo v e n o v e r
a n d u n d e r , o v e r a n d u n d e r t h e t h r e a d s
of t h e wa r p . T h e s e c o n d g r o u p of
t h r e a d s i s c a l l e d t h e woof, o r weft.
S o me t i me s t h e o v e r - a n d - u n d e r p a t t e r n
of we a v i n g i s modi f i e d b y h a v i n g t h e
woof go o v e r t wo , t h r e e o r mo r e t h r e a d s
of t h e wa r p , b e f o r e goi ng u n d e r o n e
t h r e a d . T r y t o o b t a i n e x a mp l e s of r e p
a n d g a b a r d i n e t wi l l f a br i c s t o e x a mi n e
u n d e r y o u r mi c r o s c o p e . No t e h o w dif-
f e r e n t f r o m mu s l i n t h e we a v e of t he s e
f a br i c s i s.
How is knitted
fabric made?
E x a mi n e a j er s ey, T- s hi r t , o r wo ma n ' s
s t oc ki ng. T h e f a br i c
f r o m w h i c h t h e s e
i t e ms a r e ma d e i s
n o t wo v e n , b u t i s k n i t t e d . E x a mi n e a
pi e c e of fel t f r o m a ma n ' s h a t o r s o me
o t h e r s our c e . C a n y o u s ee a we a v i n g
p a t t e r n h e r e ? T h e r e i s n o n e , f or fel t i s
n o t a wo v e n c l ot h. I t i s ma d e f r o m a
l a r ge n u mb e r of s hor t f ur fibers t h a t
a r e mi x e d wi t h wa t e r . T h e wa t e r i s
d r a i n e d off, a n d t h e r e s ul t i ng ma t i s
p r e s s e d flat.
42
L
You can obtain a blood sample from the index
finger of your hand with a sterilized needle.
Below are three steps in making a blood
smear on a slide as indicated on page 44.
B l o o d "
On e of t h e mo s t i nt e r e s t i ng t hi ngs y o u
c a n e x a mi n e u n d e r a
Wha t does
bl ood do? m i c r o s c o p e i s y o u r
o wn b l o o d . Bl o o d i s a
mo s t r e ma r k a b l e fluid. I t h a s b e e n c a l l e d
" t h e r i ve r of l i f e, " a n d t hi s i s a n excel -
l e nt de s c r i pt i on, f or b l o o d s uppl i e s t h e
cel l s of t h e b o d y wi t h t h e ma t e r i a l s t h e y
n e e d f or n o u r i s h me n t a n d r e p a i r , a n d i t
r e mo v e s wa s t e s f r o m t h e cel l s. Al s o , t h e
b l o o d c o n t a i n s cel l s t h a t fight di s e a s e
a n d s u b s t a n c e s t h a t r e p a i r c u t o r b r u i s e d
p a r t s of t h e b o d y .
Bl o o d i s ma d e u p of b o t h l i qui d a n d
sol i d pa r t s . T h e l i q-
ui d i s c a l l e d plasma.
T h e s ol i d p a r t s a r e
red corpuscles, white corpuscles, a n d
What is blood
made of?
platelets. T h e wo r d corpuscle i s t h e
La t i n wo r d f or "l i t t l e b o d y . " Co r p u s c l e s
a r e cel l s. Mo r e t h a n ni ne - t e nt hs of t he
b l o o d c ons i s t s of r e d c or pus c l e s . Th e s e
cel l s a r e s o s mal l t h a t a l a r ge d r o p of
b l o o d c o n t a i n s mo r e t h a n 2 5 0 mi l l i on
of t h e m. T h e y a r e di s c - s ha pe d a n d con-
c a v e o n e a c h s i de, a n d c o n t a i n a s ub-
s t a n c e cal l ed hemoglobin. Wh e n h e mo -
gl obi n c o mb i n e s wi t h o x y g e n , i t t u r n s
b r i g h t r e d. Th i s i s wh y f r esh b l o o d out -
s i de t h e b o d y i s a l wa y s r e d.
43
How can you
get a sample
of your blood?
L e t u s e x a mi n e s o me r e d cel l s. Set o u t
t w o c l e a n g l a s s
sl i des, s o me a bs or -
b e n t c o t t o n , a b o t t l e
of a l c ohol , a c a n d l e ,
a n d a s h a r p ne e dl e . Li g h t t h e c a n d l e .
Be s u r e t o k e e p t h e a l c o h o l a wa y f r o m
t h e flame, a s a l c o h o l i s i n f l a mma b l e a n d
i s eas i l y set o n fire. S c r u b t h e t i p of t h e
i n d e x finger of y o u r l ef t h a n d ( i f y o u
a r e r i g h t - h a n d e d ) wi t h a s wa b of al co-
h o l - s o a k e d c o t t o n . Be t h o r o u g h a b o u t
t hi s , s o a s t o ki l l al l b a c t e r i a o n y o u r
finger t i p. Ho l d t hi s finger firmly be-
t we e n t h e t h u mb a n d mi d d l e finger of
t h e s a me h a n d . St er i l i ze t h e p o i n t of t h e
n e e d l e b y p a s s i n g i t b a c k a n d f o r t h
t h r o u g h t h e c a n d l e flame a f e w t i me s .
Wh e n t h e n e e d l e h a s c ool e d, g r a s p i t
n e a r , b u t n o t a t , t h e p o i n t . Qu i c k l y j a b
t h e n e e d l e i nt o t h e i n d e x finger of y o u r
l eft h a n d t h e o n e y o u h a v e c l e a n e d .
T h i s wi l l h u r t n o mo r e t h a n a mo s q u i t o
bi t e. Sq u e e z e y o u r finger i n o r d e r t o
f o r m a l a r g e d r o p of b l o o d a b o v e t h e
p u n c t u r e . Be f o r e y o u g o a b o u t t a k i n g
a d r o p of y o u r o wn b l o o d , h o we v e r , b e
s ur e t o ge t p e r mi s s i o n f r o m y o u r p a r e n t
o r g u a r d i a n . I t i s a l s o r e c o mme n d e d
t h a t a n a d u l t s upe r vi s e t h e e n t i r e pr o-
c e d u r e .
Wi t h y o u r r i g h t h a n d , p i c k u p o n e of
t h e c l e a n sl i des
How do you ma ke , , . .
. . . _ a n d t o u c h i t ,
a bl ood s mear ?
n e a r o n e e nd, t o
t h e d r o p of b l o o d . P l a c e t hi s s l i de o n a
t a bl e , wi t h t h e d r o p of b l o o d u p p e r -
mo s t . Ho l d t hi s sl i de firmly b e t we e n t h e
t h u mb a n d mi d d l e finger of y o u r l eft
h a n d . P i c k u p t h e o t h e r s l i de i n y o u r
r i ght h a n d . Ho l d i t n e a r l y ve r t i c a l a n d
t o u c h i t s b o t t o m e d g e t o t h e d r o p of
b l o o d o n t h e first sl i de. Ra p i d l y a n d
s mo o t h l y mo v e t h e ne a r l y- ve r t i c a l sl i de
a l o n g t h e s ur f a c e of t h e o t h e r sl i de,
44
A microscopic view of red and white
blood cells are shown (left). The red
corpuscles outnumber the white ones.
A white corpuscle (a phagocyte) de-
stroys a germ by engulfing it (above).
pul l i ng t h e b l o o d i n a n e ve n s me a r a l o n g
b e h i n d t h e mo v i n g sl i de. S t u d y t h e il-
l u s t r a t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d c l e a r l y h o w t o
d o t hi s . Y o u mu s t d o al l t hi s qui c kl y,
s o t h a t t h e d r o p of b l o o d o n t h e sl i de
d o e s n o t c l ot b e f o r e y o u s p r e a d i t o u t
i nt o a s me a r .
Wh e n y o u h a v e finished ma k i n g t h e
b l o o d s me a r , s wa b off y o u r l eft i n d e x
finger wi t h a l c o h o l - s o a k e d c o t t o n .
cel l s s t a n d i n g o n e d g e a n d r e s e mb l i n g
d u mb b e l l s . T h e r e ma y b e s e ve r a l r e d
cel l s s t a c k e d o n e o n t o p of a n o t h e r l i ke
a pi l e of coi ns .
He r e a n d t h e r e a mo n g t h e r e d cel l s,
y o u wi l l s ee a mu c h l a r ge r , c ol or l e s s
cel l . T h e s e a r e wh i t e c or pus c l e s . T h e r e
i s o n l y o n e wh i t e c o r p u s c l e f or a p p r o x i -
ma t e l y e ve r y 8 0 0 r e d c or pus c l e s . Mo s t
of t h e s e cel l s h a v e a g e n e r a l l y r o u n d
s ha pe , b u t t h e y ma y b e i n a l mo s t a n y
s h a p e , l o o k i n g v e r y m u c h l i k e a n
a mo e b a . I n f act , t h e y a r e a bl e t o mo v e
t h r o u g h t h e b o d y ' s t i s s ues i n mu c h t h e
s a me m a n n e r a s a n a m o e b a mo v e s .
Wh i t e cel l s a r e t h e b o d y ' s di s e a s e fight-
er s , a n d di s e a s e i s c a u s e d b y a n over -
a b u n d a n c e of h a r mf u l b a c t e r i a wi t h i n
One red blood cell, or corpuscle, shown magnified.
What do blood
cells look like?
E x a mi n e t h e b l o o d s me a r u n d e r t h e
l o w- p o we r obj e c t i ve .
T h e r e d cel l s wi l l
l o o k b a r e l y p i n k .
Mo v e t h e sl i de b a c k a n d f o r t h i n o r d e r
t o ge t a n i d e a of h o w ma n y t h o u s a n d s
of r e d cel l s a r e i n t h e s ma l l d r o p of
b l o o d y o u p u t o n t h e sl i de.
No w, us e t h e h i g h - p o we r obj e c t i ve .
Y o u c a n eas i l y see t h a t r e d cel l s a r e ci r-
c u l a r wi t h a c o n c a v e d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e
mi d d l e of e a c h si de. Y o u ma y s ee s o me
t h e b o d y . I t i s t h e t a s k of wh i t e cor -
pus c l e s t o d e s t r o y b a c t e r i a . T o d e s t r o y
a b a c t e r i u m, a wh i t e cel l e ngul f s i t , j us t
a s a n a mo e b a e ngul f s a b i t of f ood.
I n s i d e t h e wh i t e cel l , t h e b a c t e r i u m i s
di ge s t e d.
A s peci al k i n d of s t a i n i s n e e d e d t o
p r o p e r l y s t a i n a wh i t e cel l , b u t y o u c a n
d o a f ai r l y g o o d j o b b y us i ng " p e r ma -
n e n t " b l u e f o u n t a i n p e n i nk. Wh e n y o u
h a v e fixed a n d s t a i ne d y o u r b l o o d s me a r ,
y o u wi l l s ee t h a t wh i t e c or pus c l e s h a v e
45
v e r y i r r e g u l a r l y - s h a p e d n u c l e i . T h e
n u c l e u s ma y b e r o u n d , s o me wh a t hor s e -
s hoe - s ha pe d, o r ma d e u p of s ever al
s ma l l bi t s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y t h r e a d s of
n u c l e a r ma t e r i a l . I t i s b e c a u s e of t h e
s h a p e of t h e nuc l e us , t h a t a wh i t e cel l
i s c a l l e d a polymorphonuclear leuco-
cyte. Poly me a n s " ma n y " i n Gr e e k ;
morphos me a n s " f o r m" ; leuco me a n s
" wh i t e " ; a n d cytos me a n s " cel l . " Th u s ,
t he bi g wo r d me a n s " wh i t e cel l wi t h
ma n y - f o r me d n u c l e u s . "
Ge t a pi e c e of t hi n wo o d a b o u t t h r e e
i n c h e s l ong a n d t wo
i n c h e s wi de . A pi e c e
of p l y wo o d wi l l do, o r
a s hi ngl e. Ne a r o n e
e nd, dr i l l a hol e a b o u t a ha l f - i nc h i n
d i a me t e r . Ma k e a p a d of we t c l o t h o r
How can you
see blood in
circulation?
HEART
a b s o r b e n t c o t t o n a b o u t f i ve b y t e n
i nc he s . Ge n t l y wr a p a l i ve gol df i s h i n
t hi s p a d , s o t h a t o n l y i t s t ai l s t i cks out .
P u t t h e fish o n t h e b o a r d i n s u c h a pos i -
t i on t h a t t h e t ai l -fi n i s di r e c t l y ove r t h e
hol e . Pl a c e a h a n d k e r c h i e f ove r t h e up-
p e r p a r t of t h e fish a n d fix t h e h a n d k e r -
chi ef t o t h e b o a r d wi t h t h u mb t a c k s .
P l a c e t wo o t h e r t h u mb t a c k s a t t h e e dge s
of t h e h o l e s o t h a t t h e e dge s of t h e t a c k s
pr e s s o n t h e t wo o u t e r p o i n t s of t h e
fish's t ai l . Be c a r e f ul n o t t o s t i ck t h e
t a c k s t h r o u g h t h e t ai l .
P l a c e t h e b o a r d o n t h e s t a ge of y o u r
mi c r o s c o p e , wi t h t h e t ai l di r e c t l y u n d e r
t h e obj e c t i ve . F o c u s wi t h l o w p o we r .
As y o u e x a mi n e t h e t ai l , we t i t f r o m
t i me t o t i me wi t h a l i t t l e wa t e r f r o m
y o u r fingers.
Y o u wi l l s ee l a r g e b l o o d ves s el s t h a t
r u n pa r a l l e l t o t h e r a y s of t h e t ai l . No t e
h o w t h e s e l a r g e v e s s e l s d i v i d e i n t o
s ma l l e r b r a n c h e s , a n d t he s e b r a n c h e s
i n t o t i ny one s , c a l l e d capillaries. If you
f ol l ow t h e flow of b l o o d cel l s f r o m t h e
l a r ge b l o o d ves s el s t o t h e capi l l ar i es ,
y o u wi l l see t h a t f r o m t h e capi l l ar i es ,
t h e b l o o d flows i n t o l a r ge r b r a n c h e s t h a t
j oi n st i l l l a r ge r b l o o d vessel s, a s t h e
b l o o d flows b a c k t o t h e fish's h e a r t .
D o n o t k e e p t h e fish o u t of wa t e r f or
mo r e t h a n t e n mi n u t e s . If, wh e n y o u
r e t u r n t h e fish t o wa t e r , i t s e e ms sl ug-
gi s h a n d u n a b l e t o s wi m wel l , p i c k i t u p
b y t h e t ai l a n d d i p i t i n a n d o u t of t h e
wa t e r a f ew t i me s . Th i s s h o u l d h e l p t h e
fish t o be gi n b r e a t h i n g p r o p e r l y a ga i n.
The flow of blood may be viewed in a frog's foot as
it travels from the heart, through the arteries and
capillaries and back to the heart through the veins.
How can you
observe the
insides of
living things?
Su p p o s e y o u a r e i nt e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g
a b o u t t h e h e a r t of a
f r og, t h e s t e m of a
flower, o r t h e e gg of
a n i ns ect . Af t e r y o u
h a v e e x a mi n e d t he s e
obj ect s wi t h t he l ow- a n d h i g h - p o we r
obj ect i ves of y o u r mi c r o s c o p e , y o u c a n
still l e a r n mu c h mo r e a b o u t t h e m b y
s t udyi ng t he i r i ns i des . Wh a t i s t h e be s t
wa y t o d o t hi s ?
Ob t a i n a b o l t t h a t i s a t l e a s t one -
q u a r t e r i n c h i n d i a me t e r , a n d a n u t t o
fit t h e bol t . Sc r e w t h e b o l t a b o u t one-
q u a r t e r wa y i n t o t h e n u t . P r o p t h e bol t
i n a ve r t i c a l pos i t i on, so t h a t t h e ope n-
i ng i n t h e b o l t i s u p p e r mo s t . P l a c e t h e
obj e c t y o u wi s h t o s t u d y i ns i de t hi s
o p e n i n g . Me l t s o me par af f i n t h e ma -
t er i al u s e d t o seal j a m a n d j el l y j a r s
i n a s p o o n , us i ng a c a n d l e flame f or a
s o u r c e of h e a t . P o u r t h e me l t e d par af f i n
i nt o t h e h o l e i n t h e bol t .
Wh e n t h e par af f i n h a s c o o l e d a n d
h a r d e n e d , s l owl y s c r e w t h e b o l t f a r t h e r
i n t o t h e n u t , t h e r e b y p u s h i n g o u t s o me
par af f i n. Wh e n a b o u t 1 / 6 4 of a n i n c h
( o r l e s s ) of par af f i n h a s b e e n p u s h e d
out , mo v e a r a z o r b l a d e d o wn a l o n g t h e
f ace of t h e bol t , s o a s t o c u t off a t hi n
You can obtain several
cross sections of a leaf
by cutting slices of the
specimen after it has
been sealed in paraffin.
sl i ce of par af f i n. If t hi s sl i ce c o n t a i n s a
p o r t i o n of y o u r s p e c i me n , p l a c e t h e
sl i ce o n a sl i de a n d e x a mi n e i t u n d e r
t h e mi c r o s c o p e . If n o t , t h e n p u s h o u t
a n o t h e r 1 / 6 4 of a n i n c h of par af f i n.
Co n t i n u e t hi s unt i l o n e of t h e sl i ces c on-
t a i ns a pi e c e of t h e s pe c i me n. T h e n , go
o n ma k i n g mo r e sl i ces unt i l y o u h a v e
p a s s e d f r o m o n e e n d t o t h e o t h e r of t h e
s p e c i me n . E a c h sl i ce s hows y o u a c r os s
s e c t i on, r e ve a l i ng wh a t i s i ns i de t h e ob-
j e c t u n d e r s t udy.
If y o u r s p e c i me n i s t o o l a r g e t o b e
p u t i n t o t h e hol e i n a bol t , us e s o me
o t h e r s mal l c o n t a i n e r , s u c h a s a ma t c h
b o x .
T h e E l e c t r o n M i c r o s c o p e
Bo t h t h e s i mpl e a n d c o mp o u n d mi c r o-
s c ope s a r e c a l l e d opti-
cal mi c r o s c o p e s . T h e y
b o t h us e l i ght t o pr e-
s e n t a n e n l a r g e d
i ma g e t o t h e eye. Bu t
n o ma t t e r h o w p o we r f u l o p t i c a l mi c r o-
What are the
limitations
of optical
microscopes?
s c ope s a r e ma d e , t h e r e i s a l i mi t t o t h e
s ma l l ne s s of t h e obj e c t t h a t t h e y c a n
ma gni f y. We l e a r n e d t h a t l i ght mu s t b e
r ef l ect ed f r o m a n obj e c t i n o r d e r f or i t
t o b e s een. Ob j e c t s a l s o c a n b e s een
wh e n t h e y s t o p t h e p a s s a g e of l i ght , a s
wh e n t h e y ma k e a s h a d o w; a n d a l s o
47
wh e n t h e y pa r t i a l l y s t o p t h e p a s s a g e s of
l i ght , a s wh e n l i ght pa s s e s u p f r o m a
mi c r o s c o p e ' s mi r r o r t h r o u g h t h e b o d y
of a p r o t o z o a n . Li g h t r a y s h a v e a c e r t a i n
def i ni t e si ze, a n d t h e y c a n n o t b e r e-
flected f r o m o r s t o p p e d b y obj e c t s t h a t
a r e s ma l l e r t h a n t h e r a y s t he ms e l ve s . T o
t r y t o see obj e c t s t h a t a r e s ma l l e r t h a n
t h e l i ght r a y s i s l i ke t r yi ng t o c a t c h mi n -
n o ws wi t h a ma c k e r e l ne t .
What is an
electron
microscope?
If we c o u l d h a v e s o me k i n d of r a y, o r
b e a m, t h a t c o u l d b e r e-
f l e c t e d f r o m o b j e c t s
t o o s ma l l t o r e f l e c t
l i g h t , w e c o u l d s e e
t he s e obj e c t s . T h e r e a r e t i ny pa r t i c l e s ,
c a l l e d electrons, t h a t a r e suf f i ci ent l y
s ma l l f or o u r p u r p o s e . Sc i e nt i s t s h a v e
wo r k e d o u t a wa y t o us e a b e a m of el ec-
t r o n s i n a mi c r o s c o p e . Th i s mi c r o s c o p e
i s c a l l e d a n electron microscope.
By h e a t i n g a c e r t a i n k i n d of wi r e , a
l a r g e n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s m a y b e
o b t a i n e d . E l e c t r o n s a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y
c h a r g e d pa r t i c l e s . By us i ng ma g n e t s i n
e x a c t l y t h e s a me wa y a n opt i c a l mi c r o-
s c ope us e s l ens es , t h e e l e c t r o n s o b t a i n e d
f r o m t h e wi r e c a n b e f o r me d i n t o a
b e a m, t o b e d i r e c t e d a n d ma gni f i e d.
Si nc e e ye s i ght r e q u i r e s l i ght , we c a n-
n o t l o o k i n t o a n e l e c t r o n mi c r o s c o p e a s
we d o a n opt i c a l o n e . Bu t t h e b e a m of
e l e c t r ons c a n f o r m a n i ma g e o n p h o t o -
g r a p h i c film. Wh e n t h e film i s devel -
o p e d , we see wh a t wa s b e n e a t h t h e el ec-
t r o n mi c r o s c o p e ' s obj ect i ve.
Wi t h t hi s i n s t r u me n t , we c a n g e t
ma gni f i c a t i ons of mo r e t h a n 2 0 0 t h o u -
s a n d t i me s , b u t b e c a u s e a n e l e c t r o n mi -
c r o s c o p e cos t s s e ve r a l t h o u s a n d dol l a r s ,
A scientist operates a powerful electron microscope.
i t i s u s u a l l y f o u n d o n l y i n uni ve r s i t y
a n d i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s .
How does this
O n e of t h e g r e a t t r i u mp h s of t h e el ec-
t r o n mi c r o s c o p e h a s
b e e n t o r e ve a l vi-
mi croscope ,
. . _ r us es , t h e s ma l l e s t
hel p ma n ?
l i vi ng t hi ngs . Vi r u s e s
c a u s e ma n y di s eas es , a mo n g wh i c h a r e
me a s l e s , mu mp s , c h i c k e n p o x , s ma l l p o x ,
r a b i e s a n d pol i o. T h e e l e c t r o n mi c r o-
s c o p e ma y h e l p us t o c o n q u e r di s e a s e
b y e n a b l i n g u s t o wo r k wi t h vi r us es .
Y o u h a v e l e a r n e d s o me t h i n g a b o u t
t h e wo r l d of v e r y s ma l l t hi ngs t h a t exi st
al l a r o u n d us . Y o u h a v e l e a r n e d a b o u t
a wo n d e r f u l i n s t r u me n t , t h e mi c r o -
s c ope , t h a t h a s e n a b l e d ma n t o e n t e r
t hi s t i ny wo r l d . Y o u h a v e l e a r n e d h o w
t o us e a mi c r o s c o p e a n d h o w t o o b t a i n
a n d p r e p a r e v e r y s ma l l s p e c i me n s s o
t h a t y o u c a n o b s e r v e t h e m wi t h t hi s i m-
p o r t a n t i n s t r u me n t .
Bu t if wh a t y o u h a v e l e a r n e d h a s
a r o u s e d a n i nt e r e s t i n t h e " u n s e e n
wo r l d , " t h e n a h e a d of y o u a r e endl es s ,
i n v a l u a b l e h o u r s of f un a n d l e a r n i n g .
48
* >#
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