Definition

Online advertising, also called online marketing or Internet advertising, is a form of marketing
and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. It
includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types
of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising. Like other
advertising media, online advertising frequently involves both a publisher, who integrates
advertisements into its online content, and an advertiser, who provides the advertisements to be
displayed on the publisher's content. Other potential participants include advertising agencies who
help generate and place the ad copy, an ad server who technologically delivers the ad and tracks
statistics, and advertising affiliates who do independent promotional work for the advertiser.
Online advertising is a large business and is growing rapidly. In 2011, Internet advertising revenues
in the United States surpassed those of cable television and nearly exceeded those of broadcast
television. In 2012, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $36.57 billion, a 15.2%
increase over the $31.74 billion in revenues in 2011. U.S. internet ad revenue hit a historic high of
$20.1 billion for the first half of 2013, up 18% over the same period in 2012. Online advertising is
widely used across virtually all industry sectors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_advertising
Online advertising is a marketing strategy that involves the use of the Internet as a medium to obtain
website traffic and target and deliver marketing messages to the right customers. Online advertising
is geared toward defining markets through unique and useful applications.
Since the early 1990s there has been an exponential increase in the growth of online advertising,
which has evolved into a standard for small and large organizations. Online advertising is also
known as Internet advertising.
http://www.techopedia.com/definition/26362/online-advertising




Advantage of online advertising
A major advantage of online advertising is the quick promotion of product information without
geographical boundary limits. A major challenge is the evolving field of interactive advertising, which
poses new challenges for online advertisers.

Online advertisements are purchased through one of the following common vehicles:
Cost per Thousand (CPM): Advertisers pay when their messages are exposed to specific
audiences.
Cost per Click (CPC): Advertisers pay every time a user clicks on their ads.
Cost per Action (CPA): Advertisers only pay when a specific action (generally a purchase) is
performed.
Examples of online advertising include banner ads, search engine results pages, social networking
ads, email spam, online classified ads, pop-ups, contextual ads and spyware.

http://www.techopedia.com/definition/26362/online-advertising
Benefits of online advertising
Online advertising, however, is much less expensive and reaches a much more wider audience and will
probably give you more profit than traditional advertising. It has a lot of advantages that traditional
advertising havent even dreamed about. This new form of advertising gives such wide possibilities, that
it makes your head spin: video advertising, advertising on social networks, mobile advertising, e-mail
advertising, banner advertising, Google Search advertising and a lot more. These are the benefits of
online advertising:
Less expensive. A main benefit of online advertising is that it has a much affordable price when
compared with the traditional advertising costs. On the internet, you can advertise at a way more
inexpensive cost for a much wider audience.
Wider geographical reach. Online advertising gives your campaigns global coverage, which helps your
online campaigns reach more audiences. This will definitely help you achieve superior results via your
online advertising strategy.
No rigorous payment. This is another appealing benefit of online advertising. In traditional advertising
you have to pay the full amount of money to the advertising agency, no matter the results. In online
advertising however, you have to pay only for the qualified clicks, leads or impressions.
Easy result measurement. The fact that its so easy to measure makes online advertising more appealing
than the traditional advertising methods. You can find a lot of effective analytics tools in order to
measure online advertising results, which helps you know what to do and what not to do in your
following campaigns.
More targeted audiences. In comparison with traditional advertising, online advertising helps you to
easily reach the targeted audience, which leads to your campaigns success.
http://www.onbile.com/info/advantages-of-online-advertising/
The disadvantages of online advertising are less, but they exist:
Intrusive ads. The nature of a lot of online advertising ads and campaigns is intrusive, thats why
browsers pop-up blockers can frequently prevent ads from being presented. Almost all browsers now
block pop-ups. There are also extensions available for the Chrome, Opera and Firefox browsers, which
will block ads on websites. More and more consumers use these methods to avoid seeing so much the
advertising.
Copyright problem. Your advertising materials are automatically available for everyone in the world.
They can copy it, regardless of the legal limitations. Trademarks, pictures and logos can be copied and
used for commercial purposes. In traditional advertising, such as TV, radio and newspaper advertising,
where pictures must be replicated, copying the content is much more difficult.
Advantage of online advertising
The number of internet users is on a rapid rise worldwide and the internet is being used
by people of all age and types. Internet has become one of the major medium for
communication, entertainment and is indeed in the process of replacing traditional
entertainment, promo products, and informative medias. Some businesses are finding
that handing out a promo product such as pens, business cards, and mugs are too
costly and yield little results. Likewise, traditional marketing forms such as television,
radio, newspaper, magazines, etc., are becoming a thing of the past.
Internet has also undoubtedly become a major and effective medium for advertising and
it can clearly be predicted that the online advertising and marketing is very soon going
to replace the advertising through traditional medias such as television, radio,
newspaper and magazines. Most of the companies and organizations are relying on
digital advertising and marketing techniques to improve their overall sales and revenue.
The advantages of online advertising are many when compared with the traditional
advertising and marketing techniques. The online advertising and marketing scenario
is drastically entering a wider area and in the coming years one cannot even think of a
business promotion without the help of internet advertising. Here I have picked around
10 advantages of online advertising (not in that order) when compared with the
traditional offline advertising.

1) Wider Coverage
The online advertising gives your ads a much wider global coverage and this helps in
making your online advertisements reach more audiences, which may ultimately help
you in getting better results through your online advertising campaign. With internet
advertising, you can also specify the range of your advertisement coverage which helps
you to enjoy a better advertisement campaign.
2) Targeted Audiences
When compared with offline advertising, online advertising always helps you to reach
the targeted audience and this helps in making your campaign more profitable and
getting more relevant leads.
3) Affordable
Another main advantage of online advertising or marketing is the much affordable price
when compared with the traditional advertising costs. With a much lesser cost you can
advertise on the net for a wider range of audience and geographical locations.
4) Easy to Track and Measure Conversion
Measurability and easiness to track the conversion makes online advertising miles
ahead on the traditional advertising methods. A lot of effective analytics tools are
available to measure online advertising campaigns which helps in more improvisation of
the ads.
5) Speed
Online advertising is faster than any of the offline advertising activities and you can
start sending out your online ads to a wider audience, the moment you start your
advertising campaign. So if you have a large targeted audience online at the time of
triggering your online advertisements, then your ad will be served to majority of the
audience in no time.
6) Informative
In online advertising, the advertiser is able to convey more details about the
advertisement to the audience and that too at relatively low cost. Most of the online
advertising campaigns are composed of a click-able link to a specific landing page,
where users get more information about the product mentioned in the ad.
7) Flexible Payment
Payment flexibility is another added advantage of online advertising and marketing. In
offline advertising you need to pay the full amount to the advertising agency irrespective
of the results. But in online advertising there is the flexibility of paying for only qualified
leads, clicks or impressions.
8) Better ROI
Since online advertising is mainly focused on performance based payment, you ROI is
sure to be far better when compared with offline advertising. You can also easily track
and analyze the performance of your online advertisements and adjust them so as to
improve your ROI.
9) Easy Audience Engagement
Most of the online advertisement platform makes is easy for the audience to engage
with your ads or products. As an advertiser we would be able to get more feedback from
the audience and thereby improve the quality of our ads going forward.
10) Better Branding
Any form of advertising helps in improving the branding and online advertising stands a
notch high in improving the branding of your company, service or product. If your digital
advertising campaign is well planned, you have the chances of getting your brand name
spread virally over a larger audience.
As the benefits of advantages of digital marketing are not confined to the above points,
you might be able to come up with more valuable points. But to make the post short and
less boring, I have limited the list of online advertising advantages to 10. Hope you
enjoyed the read.
http://www.georgescifo.com/
Disadvantages of Online Advertising
Since many consumers spend time shopping online for everything from groceries and clothing
to electronics and cleaning supplies, many businesses include online advertising in their
marketing strategies. While the benefits of advertising online include the potential to reach a
large market and the ability to measure results, online advertising also presents some
disadvantages.
Customers Ignore Ads
Consumers are so used to seeing advertising on television, hearing radio commercials and
flipping through advertisements in magazines, they've developed an aversion to all forms of
advertising. This is also the case with online advertising, where consumers can avoid clicking
banner advertisements, bypass ads in online videos they watch and close pop-up
advertisements as soon as they come up on their screens. Customers are in control of which
advertising messages they want to click and respond to.
Viewing Problems
Website downtime, lags in website or video loading and browser complications can reduce the
number of times consumers see online advertisements and how well they see them. When
technical issues occur, companies lose the opportunity to broadcast advertisements for their
products and services and may lose potential sales. Viewing problems can occur because of
problems with a website or if a consumer is using a smart phone or other mobile device to view
a website, has a slow connection speed or does not have the correct applications and programs
installed on his computers for proper viewing.

Expensive Ad Prices
Pricing for advertising online can range from inexpensive -- $20-a-month placements on local
parenting blogs -- to thousands of dollars on popular sites such as the New York Times. The cost
for banner, text and video ads vary depending on the amount of traffic and the type of
readership a website or blog receives. Online advertising through pay-per-click campaigns and
social media sites can also wreak havoc on a company's marketing budget, potentially yielding
little to no return on investment.
Consumers Get Distracted
When customers visit a website, they typically have a goal in mind, whether it's to catch up on
the latest celebrity gossip, read the news, chat with friends, download music or shop for a
specific item. Websites present customers with various options that can easily distract them
and pull their attention from your online advertisements.
Too Many Options
The Internet offers a wide range of websites on which companies can place advertisements.
This can be overwhelming, especially for small business owners. With so many options, it's
difficult to narrow down the choices to the websites that will attract the most potential
customers and sales. Once a company selects a website, it is then presented with a variety of
ways it can advertise its products or services on the site, such as through banner
advertisements, video marketing or by sponsoring a post. Companies have to determine which
type of advertisement yields the best response from their target markets.
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/
The importance of internet advertising
If you are a business owner or CEO, it is vital that you recognise the importance of online
advertising in todays modern times. It is indeed a rat-race and with the scramble for
customers on the rise, businesses all over the world have constantly tried over the past few
decades to come up with new and effective means of getting their brand recognised and into
the main stream. With the advent of the internet, these very same businesses saw a much
quicker and easier solution to traditional advertising i.e. e-marketing. The internet is only going
to get bigger and internet advertising allows businesses to trace what works and what doesnt
and this provides the advertiser with a greater return on investment. Remember, if youre not
doing it, then your competitor probably is.
Online advertising and profile listing has far surpassed traditional mediums such as print and
broadcasting and is indeed the staple within any industry today. With the vast amount of web
users and online traffic present in todays global village, it seems fairly obvious that there can
be no better way of exposing a company to the public and indeed the world. As an example,
there are over a billion web users in the world right now! The numbers are indeed staggering
and any company not listing their products or services online are going to be disappointed and
left lagging behind. In order to keep their customer base healthy, businesses need to be
consistently finding new mediums such as Snupit, to keep their name fresh, exposed and
visible.
The cost factor always plays a vital role in advertising and by marketing your company online,
your business can always be assured of the most reliable, cheapest rates possible. It is a rather
inexpensive form of marketing compared to traditional methods, where companies have to fork
out millions unnecessarily. Sites such aswww.snupit.co.za and others, provide the opportunity
to list business profiles that contain links to the company website for example, and increased
web traffic is always a good thing for any company. Detailed maps to your establishment are
also a feature on these sites. Online corporate videos are far cheaper than television adverts
and promoting your business online can be achieved with virtually a shoe-string budget.
If your business is not marketed via the World Wide Web then you are virtually non-existent.
With most procurement sites, you have the option of being listed for free. Listing a company is
highly beneficial as it relies on keywords that people use to search for services and products
and is hence target specific. It is affordable, traceable and tailored specifically to your target
audience. If a company for example advertises offline, such as putting up a billboard down a
side street, its rather difficult to know how effective that billboard was at driving traffic to that
business. Snupit and similar sites allow you to choose between various packages that suit your
budget and you are guaranteed to reach markets never reached before. Try it today.
http://www.snupit.co.za/
Types of Research
Problem-Identification Research
By conducting new market research projects in your company, you might discover a potential
dilemma or opportunity that you have not considered before. You could discover any of the
following factors through problem-identification research:
Brand Image: your customers perceptions of your brand. Its extremely important to be aware
of how customers view your company. Determining which strategies you want to use to
positively influence your brand image can be done through researching your consumers
current perceptions and what they want from your company.
Market Characteristics: the characteristics of your target market. You need to consider all
aspects that drive your different customers to purchase. Your customers on the west coast are
going to have different purchasing behaviors than those from the east coast. Recognizing these
differences between subcultures, and meeting the needs of those differences, will help your
business marketing strategies succeed.
Market Potential: an estimate of your products potential profit. If you research how
consumers might react to advertising or price changes in your product before you take action,
you will be better prepared and market to your consumers more accurately.
Market Share: percent of total product sales compared to your competitors. Market share gives
you an estimate of the amount of market your company holds and can give you an idea of how
you compare to your competitors. It also can reveal some of your competitors' capabilities and
strengths, so you can develop an appropriate strategy.
Problem-Solving Research
Once you identify your marketing problem, you need to research how to solve it. The following
research options will help you solve potential problems or capitalize on opportunities identified
by your company:
Distribution Research: determining where your product should be sold and how to get it there.
Distribution Research helps you plan the best way to get your product from the manufacturer
to the retail shelf. In addition to deciding which retailers should carry your product, you should
determine where your inventory will be held.
Market Segmentation: Grouping customers by similar backgrounds or similar purchase
behaviors. Utilizing problem-solving research can determine how to most accurately accomplish
this and even how to design advertisements to attract those groups. You will need to collect
both qualitative and quantitative data to accurately understand your market segments.
Pricing Research: determining the ideal price for your product. Setting the price for your
product is one of the most important marketing steps. You need to keep the customer in mind
as well as remember that the main goal is to maximize your profits. Consider whether or not
customers can be gained through lower prices. Can you maximize profit through increasing
price? How sensitive will your customers be if you begin slightly increasing price? All aspects
need to be well thought-out. Researching customers reactions to price sensitivity is essential.
Product Research: testing your new or revised products or completing test marketing.
Researching secondary data or observing how your products will be used can allow you to
effectively compete in the market. Testing different components can identify new products or
discover ways to modify existing products, for example, updating a product to compete with
newer products.
Promotional Research: following up with the effectiveness of your advertising strategies. If
your company is using advertisements, there are factors you need to be checking up on. Unless
you are evaluating your advertising budget, if your ads are useful in both retaining and gaining
customers and researching what type of ads (online, commercial or print) are most effective,
you truly cannot know whether youre wasting your companys money.
Primary data
Primary data is collected from a first-hand experience and is reliable and authentic. Primary
data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has
not been changed or altered by human beings, therefore its validity is greater than secondary
data. Primary data is the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables
that is collected by the investigator conducting the research. Secondary data on the other hand
is reprocessing and reusing collected information. Both methods have their advantages and
disadvantages and depending on the nature of the research, one has to be keen on which of
these is most applicable.




Secondary data
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary
data. The review of literature in nay research is based on secondary data. Secondary data is
data that is not collected by the person who is doing research. An example of secondary data is
a community assessment done by another organization but used to substantiate




http://www.datacollectionservices.net/our-data-collection-services/primary-and-secondary-
data-collection/
Survey method
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in
psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information
about individuals, or it may aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers. A survey can be administered in a couple
of different ways. In one method known as a structured interview, the researcher asks each participant the questions.
In the other method known as a questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on his or her own. Surveys are
generally standardized to ensure that they have reliability and validity. Standardization is also important so that the
results can be generalized to the larger population.



Mail Surveys
Mail surveys are sent to a preselected sample of people, with instructions on how to fill out the survey and return it
enclosed.
[1]
It has historically been one of the cheapest and most efficient methods of survey distribution. Because the
survey is not administered by a researcher, there is no problem of interviewer bias, and because the survey is taken
in private with the assurance of anonymity, there is likely to be less social desirability bias and discomfort talking
about private subjects. However it is not without drawbacks: because the survey is self-administered, participants
cannot ask for clarification, and there is no way to definitely control the order the questions are answered in. Also,
many participants will not fill out the survey, either because they have poor literacy or vision, or simply cant be
bothered. In addition, this group of people is not an equal distribution of the sample, so the sample may become less
representative than it was intended to be. To guard against sample bias, many institutions try to use personal touches
Survey
method
Telephone
Personal
Mail
Internet
such as addressing materials to the participants name rather than "To Resident," and by making the surveys easy
and interesting.

Personal Interviews
Personal interviews are conducted by an associate of the researcher or the actual researcher. These usually take
place either at a research facility, their home, or a neutral, public place
[1]
These interviews have more flexibility than a
paper survey, because, for instance, the interviewer can skip irrelevant questions, and both the interviewer and
respondent can ask for clarification. The interviewer can also control the order of the questions if that is important.
There also tends to be a higher response rate than with mail surveys because people are less likely to say no to a
person than to throw away a paper. However, meeting and interviewing all participants in person is both expensive
and time consuming. There is also the problem of interviewer bias: that either the interviewer will write down only part
of the answer or change it to fit their interpretation, or that they will ask leading questions. Its important to train
interviewers not to do this.
Telephone Interviews
Interviews can also be administered by telephone. This reduces both cost and time from doing them in person, and
means a wider population can be reached for sampling, including people far from the research base and people who
work during the day
[1]
There can be problems with the breadth of population available by phone. In 2000, it was
reported that 97% of all United States households have a telephone, so in many countries, the unavailable population
is tiny. Also, with random-digit dialing, unlisted number are available to be sampled. There are a few problems:
people of a higher socioeconomic status may have multiple phone numbers and therefore be overrepresented in a
random-digit survey. People also have the ability to screen calls, and participants who answer a cell phone in the
middle of the workday may be less likely to answer a long survey.

Internet Surveys
Since the popularity of the internet, using it to distribute surveys cheaply and easily has become more and more
common
[1]
Its easy to get many responses from a wide variety of demographic, and thanks to special-interest chat
sites and message boards, its easy to poll people that fit a certain profile, such as cancer survivors or comic book
fans. Unfortunately, there are still sample bias problems as not everyone has access to the internet. There is no way
at the moment to take a random sample of all internet users. Another problem is that because researchers cannot
control the survey environment, its impossible to tell whether participants are taking the survey seriously or
frivolously, answer the questions of confused participants, or be sure that a single individual isnt taking the survey
multiple times.






Sample size design
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population . It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample . Sample
design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample, i.e. , the size of sample.
SAMPLE UNIT- A decision has to be taken concerning a sample unit before selecting sample. Sampling
unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc.TYPE OF UNIVERSE The universe can
be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items are finite.















Sampling technique

Nonprobability


Probability
Convenience sampling

Judgmental Sampling

Quota sampling

Snowball Sampling
Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster sampling

Others sampling
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING In this , the researcher according to his convenience selects various
sampling units . Often those elements are selected in the sample , which happen to be in right place and
at right time .
JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING In judgmental sampling the judgment or opinion of same experts from the
basis of sample method it is expected this samples would be suppose to know the population .

PROBABILITY SAMPLING- 1 Each and every unit of the population as the equal chance for selection as
a sample unit. 2 Also called formal sampling or random sampling . 3 Probability sample allow us to
estimate the accuracy of the sample.
QUOTA SAMPLING 1 The population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant control
characteristics . 2 A quota of sample units is established for each cell . 3 A convenience sample is
drawn for each cell until the quota is met . 4 It is entirely non random and it is normally use for
interview surveys .

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
SAMPLE RANDON SAMPLING There are 2 type simple random sample : - 1 WITH REPLACEMENT
Simple random sample the unit once selected has the chance for again selection. 2 WITH OUT
REPLACEMENT Simple random sample the unit one selected can not be selected again.
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE - 1 Order or unit in the sample frame based on some variables and
then every Nnth number on the list is selected. 2 Gaps between elements are equal and constant. 3
N = SAMPLING INTERVAL
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING Population is divided into 2 or more groups called strata according
to some criteria such as - geographical location , great level , age and income and sub samples are
randomly selected from each strata . Elements with in each strata are homogeneous but are
heterogeneous across strata.
CLUSTER SAMPLING The population is divided into sub groups like families a simple random sample is
taken to the sub groups and then all members of the cluster selected are survey.
There are many point which are following as :- NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING The probability of each
case being selected from the total population is not known units of the sample are chosen on the basis
of personal judgment or convenience there are no statical technique for measuring random sampling
error in a non probability sample .
Data analysis technique

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe
and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various
analytic procedures provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the
signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data..
While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times analysis
becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and analyzed almost
simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in observations through the entire
data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of the analysis is determined by the specific
qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral history,
biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape,
videotape).
An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of research
findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual readers (Shepard, 2002),
and may negatively influence the public perception of research. Integrity issues are just as relevant to
analysis of non-statistical data as well.
Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data analysis.
These include:
Having the necessary skills to analyze
Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
Drawing unbiased inference
Inappropriate subgroup analysis
Following acceptable norms for disciplines
Determining statistical significance
Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
Providing honest and accurate analysis
Manner of presenting data
Environmental/contextual issues
Data recording method
Partitioning text when analyzing qualitative data
Training of staff conducting analyses
Reliability and Validity
Extent of analysis
Having necessary skills to analyze

A tacit assumption of investigators is that they have received training sufficient to demonstrate a high
standard of research practice. Unintentional scientific misconduct' is likely the result of poor instruction
and follow-up. A number of studies suggest this may be the case more often than believed (Nowak,
1994; Silverman, Manson, 2003). For example, Sica found that adequate training of physicians in medical
schools in the proper design, implementation and evaluation of clinical trials is abysmally small (Sica,
cited in Nowak, 1994). Indeed, a single course in biostatistics is the most that is usually offered
(Christopher Williams, cited in Nowak, 1994).
A common practice of investigators is to defer the selection of analytic procedure to a research team
statistician. Ideally, investigators should have substantially more than a basic understanding of the
rationale for selecting one method of analysis over another. This can allow investigators to better
supervise staff who conduct the data analyses process and make informed decisions

Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis

While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for determining
appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process and should not be an afterthought.
According to Smeeton and Goda (2003), Statistical advice should be obtained at the stage of initial
planning of an investigation so that, for example, the method of sampling and design of questionnaire
are appropriate.

Drawing unbiased inference

The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring as either reflecting a true effect
versus a false one. Any bias occurring in the collection of the data, or selection of method of analysis,
will increase the likelihood of drawing a biased inference. Bias can occur when recruitment of study
participants falls below minimum number required to demonstrate statistical power or failure to
maintain a sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate an effect (Altman, 2001).

Inappropriate subgroup analysis

When failing to demonstrate statistically different levels between treatment groups, investigators may
resort to breaking down the analysis to smaller and smaller subgroups in order to find a difference.
Although this practice may not inherently be unethical, these analyses should be proposed before
beginning the study even if the intent is exploratory in nature. If it the study is exploratory in nature, the
investigator should make this explicit so that readers understand that the research is more of a hunting
expedition rather than being primarily theory driven. Although a researcher may not have a theory-
based hypothesis for testing relationships between previously untested variables, a theory will have to
be developed to explain an unanticipated finding. Indeed, in exploratory science, there are no a priori
hypotheses therefore there are no hypothetical tests. Although theories can often drive the processes
used in the investigation of qualitative studies, many times patterns of behavior or occurrences derived
from analyzed data can result in developing new theoretical frameworks rather than determined a
priori (Savenye, Robinson, 2004).

It is conceivable that multiple statistical tests could yield a significant finding by chance alone rather
than reflecting a true effect. Integrity is compromised if the investigator only reports tests with
significant findings, and neglects to mention a large number of tests failing to reach significance. While
access to computer-based statistical packages can facilitate application of increasingly complex analytic
procedures, inappropriate uses of these packages can result in abuses as well.

Following acceptable norms for disciplines

Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. Resnik (2000) states that it is
prudent for investigators to follow these accepted norms. Resnik further states that the norms are
based on two factors:
(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),
(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random distribution,
independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is
being done, and to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as
well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable
(2003) juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed to count
data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied
methods.

If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this
new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other more
traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of
new and powerful data analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk
with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.

Determining significance

While the conventional practice is to establish a standard of acceptability for statistical significance, with
certain disciplines, it may also be appropriate to discuss whether attaining statistical significance has a
true practical meaning, i.e., clinical significance. Jeans (1992) defines clinical significance as the
potential for research findings to make a real and important difference to clients or clinical practice, to
health status or to any other problem identified as a relevant priority for the discipline.
Kendall and Grove (1988) define clinical significance in terms of what happens when troubled and
disordered clients are now, after treatment, not distinguishable from a meaningful and representative
non-disturbed reference group. Thompson and Noferi (2002) suggest that readers of counseling
literature should expect authors to report either practical or clinical significance indices, or both, within
their research reports. Shepard (2003) questions why some authors fail to point out that the magnitude
of observed changes may too small to have any clinical or practical significance, sometimes, a supposed
change may be described in some detail, but the investigator fails to disclose that the trend is not
statistically significant .

Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements

No amount of statistical analysis, regardless of the level of the sophistication, will correct poorly defined
objective outcome measurements. Whether done unintentionally or by design, this practice increases
the likelihood of clouding the interpretation of findings, thus potentially misleading readers.

Provide honest and accurate analysis

The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error. Common challenges
include the exclusion of outliers, filling in missing data, altering or otherwise changing data, data mining,
and developing graphical representations of the data (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003).

Manner of presenting data

At times investigators may enhance the impression of a significant finding by determining how to
present derived data (as opposed to data in its raw form), which portion of the data is shown, why, how
and to whom (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003). Nowak (1994) notes that even experts do not agree in
distinguishing between analyzing and massaging data. Shamoo (1989) recommends that investigators
maintain a sufficient and accurate paper trail of how data was manipulated for future review.
Environmental/contextual issues

The integrity of data analysis can be compromised by the environment or context in which data was
collected i.e., face-to face interviews vs. focused group. The interaction occurring within a dyadic
relationship (interviewer-interviewee) differs from the group dynamic occurring within a focus group
because of the number of participants, and how they react to each others responses. Since the data
collection process could be influenced by the environment/context, researchers should take this into
account when conducting data analysis.
Data recording method

Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was recorded. For example, research
events could be documented by:
a. recording audio and/or video and transcribing later
b. either a researcher or self-administered survey
c. either closed ended survey or open ended survey
d. preparing ethnographic field notes from a participant/observer
e. requesting that participants themselves take notes, compile and submit them to researchers.
While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of objectivity and subjectivity
may be raised when data is analyzed.
Partitioning the text

During content analysis, staff researchers or raters may use inconsistent strategies in analyzing text
material. Some raters may analyze comments as a whole while others may prefer to dissect text
material by separating words, phrases, clauses, sentences or groups of sentences. Every effort should be
made to reduce or eliminate inconsistencies between raters so that data integrity is not compromised.
Training of Staff conducting analyses

A major challenge to data integrity could occur with the unmonitored supervision of inductive
techniques. Content analysis requires raters to assign topics to text material (comments). The threat to
integrity may arise when raters have received inconsistent training, or may have received previous
training experience(s). Previous experience may affect how raters perceive the material or even
perceive the nature of the analyses to be conducted. Thus one rater could assign topics or codes to
material that is significantly different from another rater. Strategies to address this would include clearly
stating a list of analyses procedures in the protocol manual, consistent training, and routine monitoring
of raters.
Reliability and Validity

Researchers performing analysis on either quantitative or qualitative analyses should be aware of
challenges to reliability and validity. For example, in the area of content analysis, Gottschalk (1995)
identifies three factors that can affect the reliability of analyzed data:
stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a
period of time
reproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same
way
accuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm
statistically
The potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot consistently demonstrate
stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysis
According Gottschalk, (1995), the validity of a content analysis study refers to the correspondence of the
categories (the classification that raters assigned to text content) to the conclusions, and the
generalizability of results to a theory (did the categories support the studys conclusion, and was the
finding adequately robust to support or be applied to a selected theoretical rationale?).
Extent of analysis

Upon coding text material for content analysis, raters must classify each code into an appropriate
category of a cross-reference matrix. Relying on computer software to determine a frequency or word
count can lead to inaccuracies. One may obtain an accurate count of that word's occurrence and
frequency, but not have an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage
(Gottschalk, 1995). Further analyses might be appropriate to discover the dimensionality of the data set
or identity new meaningful underlying variables.
Whether statistical or non-statistical methods of analyses are used, researchers should be aware of the
potential for compromising data integrity. While statistical analysis is typically performed on
quantitative data, there are numerous analytic procedures specifically designed for qualitative material
including content, thematic, and ethnographic analysis. Regardless of whether one studies quantitative
or qualitative phenomena, researchers use a variety of tools to analyze data in order to test hypotheses,
discern patterns of behavior, and ultimately answer research questions. Failure to understand or
acknowledge data analysis issues presented can compromise data integrity.