ElectricalMachines

An Electrical machine is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice
versa,andchangesACvoltagefromoneleveltoanotherlevel.
Electricalmachinesaredividedintothreeparts:
A generator is the device that converts mechanical energy at its prime mover to produce
constantelectricalenergyatitsoutput.Inmoretechnicalwordsitisadynamicelectricalenergy
machine.Generatorisclassifiedintotwotypes:ACgeneratorandDCgenerator.
The basic requirements for a dynamically induced emf to exist are the following: (1) A steady
magnetic field (2) A conductor capable of carrying current (3) The conductor to move in the
magneticfield
ACGenerator
AC generator is the generator that converts mechanical energy at its prime mover into AC
electricity.
ACgeneratorisclassifiedintoseveraltypes:
Asynchronous AC generator or induction AC generator, an AC generator whose field
currentissuppliedbymagneticinductionintothefieldwindings.
SynchronousACgenerator,anACgeneratorwhosemagneticfieldcurrentisprovidedby
aseparateDCcurrentsource,eitherexternalDCsourceormountedDCsource.
DCGenerator
DC generator is the generator that produces DC power i.e.,constant power P=V*Iby taking
mechanicalenergyasinput.ExampleofaDCgeneratorisdynamo.
Motor
Motor is the device that converts electrical energy at its input to produce mechanical energy.
Motorisclassifiedintotwotypes:ACmotorandDCmotor.
ACMotor
ACmotoristhemotorthatconvertsACelectricalenergyatitsinputintomechanicalenergy.
ACmotorisclassifiedintoseveraltypes:
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AsynchronousmotororinductionACmotor
Synchronousmotor
DCMotor
DC motor is the motor that converts DC electricity into mechanical energy. Its main
components are stator, rotor, windings (field windings and armature windings) and
commutator.
DCmotorisclassifiedintofivetypes:
CompoundedDCmotor
PermanentmagnetDCmotor
Separately excited DC motor, a DC motor whose field circuit receives power from a
separateconstantvoltagesupply.
Series DC motor, a DC motor whose field windings consist of relatively few turns and
connectedinserieswiththearmaturecircuit.
Shunt DC motor, a DC motor whose field circuit receives power directly across the
armatureterminals.
LossesinDCmotorarebrushdroplosses,corelosses,mechanicallossesandstraylosses.
Transformer
Transformer is the device that converts AC voltage from one level to another level higher or
lower, or even to the same level without changing the frequency. It works based on the
principle of mutual induction, so its power remains approximately constant, where as
frequencyalsoremainsthesame.
Inductionmotor
An induction motor (or asynchronous motor) is a type of alternating current motor where
powerissuppliedtotherotorbymeansofelectromagneticinduction.
An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part).
Thereareseveralwaystosupplypowertotherotor.InaDCmotorthispowerissuppliedtothe
armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the
rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the
stator(stationarypart)isessentiallytheprimarysideofthetransformerandtherotor(rotating
part)isthesecondaryside.Theprimaryside'scurrentsevokesamagneticfieldwhichinteracts
withthesecondarysidesemftoproducearesultanttorque,henceforthservingthepurposeof
producingmechanicalenergy.Inductionmotorsarewidelyused,especiallypolyphaseinduction
motors,whicharefrequentlyusedinindustrialdrives.
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Fromthisrelationship:

where
n=Revolutionsperminute(rpm)
f=ACpowerfrequency(hertz)
p=Numberofpolesperphase(anevennumber)
Therotorspeedis:

wheresistheslip.

Slipiscalculatedusing:

Asynchronousmotoralwaysrunsatsynchronousspeedwith0%slip.

Noteontheuseofp:Sometextsrefertonumberofpolepairsperphaseinsteadofnumberof
poles per phase. For example a 6 pole motor would have 3 pole pairs. The equation of
synchronousspeedthenbecomes:

wherepisthenumberofpolepairsperphase.
Construction
The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field
that penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of
the stator (a salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the
distributionofthemagneticfield,thewindingsaredistributedinmanyslotslocatedaroundthe
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stator, but the magnetic field still has the same number of northsouth alternations. The
number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6,
etc.).
Induction motors are most commonly built to run on singlephase or threephase power, but
twophasemotorsalsoexist.Intheory,twophaseandmorethanthreephaseinductionmotors
are possible; many singlephase motors having two windings and requiring a capacitor can
actually be viewed as twophase motors, since the capacitor generates a second power phase
90degreesfromthesinglephasesupplyandfeedsittoaseparatemotorwinding.Singlephase
power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in
the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so singlephase induction motors must
incorporatesomekindofstartingmechanismtoproducearotatingfield.Theywould,usingthe
simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a fourpole motor
would have four salient poles. Threephase motors have three salient poles per pole number,
so a fourpole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce a
rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more efficiently
thanasimilarsinglephasemotor.
Therearethreetypesofrotor:
Squirrelcagerotor
The most common rotor is a squirrelcage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper
(most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and those solid copper or
aluminiumstripscanbeshortedorconnectedbyaringorsometimesnot,i.etherotorcanbe
closedorsemiclosedtype.Therotorbarsinsquirrelcageinductionmotorsarenotstraight,but
havesomeskewtoreducenoiseandharmonics.
Slipringrotor
Aslipringrotorreplacesthebarsofthesquirrelcagerotorwithwindingsthatareconnectedto
sliprings.Whentheseslipringsareshorted,therotorbehavessimilarlytoasquirrelcagerotor;
theycanalsobeconnectedtoresistorstoproduceahighresistancerotorcircuit,whichcanbe
beneficialinstarting
Solidcorerotor
Arotorcanbemadefromasolidmildsteel.Theinducedcurrentcausestherotation.
Speedcontrol
Thesynchronousrotationalspeedoftherotor(i.e.thetheoreticalunloadedspeedwithnoslip)
is controlled by the number of pole pairs (number of windings in the stator) and by the
frequency of the supply voltage. Before the development of cheap power electronics, it was
difficult to vary the frequency to the motor and therefore the uses for the induction motor
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werelimited.rhasnobrushesandiseasytocontrol,manyolderDCmotorsarebeingreplaced
withinductionmotorsandaccompanyinginvertersinindustrialapplications.
Startingofinductionmotors
ThreePhase
Directonlinestarting
Thesimplestwaytostartathreephaseinductionmotoristoconnectitsterminalstotheline.
Thismethodisoftencalled"directonline"andabbreviatedDOL.
Inaninductionmotor,themagnitudeoftheinducedemfintherotorcircuitisproportionalto
the stator field and the slip speed (the difference between synchronous and rotor speeds) of
the motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf. When the motor is started, the rotor
speed is zero. The synchronous speed is constant, based on the frequency of the supplied AC
voltage.Sotheslipspeedisequaltothesynchronousspeed,theslipratiois1,andtheinduced
emfintherotorislarge.Asaresult,averyhighcurrentflowsthroughtherotor.Thisissimilar
toatransformerwiththesecondarycoilshortcircuited,whichcausestheprimarycoiltodraw
ahighcurrentfromthemains.
WhenaninductionmotorstartsDOL,averyhighcurrentisdrawnbythestator,intheorderof
5to9timesthefullloadcurrent.Thishighcurrentcan,insomemotors,damagethewindings;
inaddition,becauseitcausesheavylinevoltagedrop,otherappliancesconnectedtothesame
line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. To avoid such effects, several other strategies
areemployedforstartingmotors.
Stardeltastarters
Aninductionmotor'swindingscanbeconnectedtoa3phaseAClineintwodifferentways:
wye (star in Europe), where the windings are connected from phases of the supply to
theneutral;
delta(sometimesmeshinEurope),wherethewindingsareconnectedbetweenphases
ofthesupply.
A delta connection results in a lower voltage to the windings than a wye connection (the
voltage is multiplied by ). A stardelta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which
produces a lower starting current than delta, then switches to delta when the motor has
reachedasetspeed.DisadvantagesofthismethodoverDOLstartingare:
Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with
significantbreakawaytorque
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Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are
needed
Twoshockstothemotor(onefortheinitialstartandanotherwhenthemotorswitches
fromwyetodelta)
Variablefrequencydrives
Variablefrequency drives (VFD) can be of considerable use in starting as well as running
motors.AVFDcaneasilystartamotoratalowerfrequencythantheACline,aswellasalower
voltage,sothatthemotorstartswithfullratedtorqueandwithnoinrushofcurrent.Therotor
circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency, which is equal to supply frequency for a
stationaryrotor,sorunningatalowerfrequencyactuallyincreasestorque.
Resistancestarters

Aresistancestarterandits4MW/11kVinductionmotor,drivingaballmill.
Thismethodisusedwithslipringmotorswheretherotorpolescanbeaccessedbywayofthe
sliprings.Usingbrushes,variablepowerresistorsareconnectedinserieswiththepoles.During
startuptheresistanceislargeandthenreducedtozeroatfullspeed.
Atstartuptheresistanceresultsinthestator'sfieldstrengthbeingweakenedless.Asaresult,
the inrush current is reduced. Another important advantage is higher startup torque. As well,
the resistors generate a phase shift in the field resulting in the magnetic force acting on the
rotorhavingafavorableangle
[

Autotransformerstarters
suchstartersarecalledasautostartersorcompensators,consistsofanautotransformer.
SeriesReactorstarters
In series reactor starter technology, an impedance in the form of a reactor is introduced in
serieswiththemotorterminals,whichasaresultreducesthemotorterminalvoltageresulting
in a reduction of the starting current; the impedance of the reactor, a function of the current
passingthroughit,graduallyreducesasthemotoraccelerates,andat95%speedthereactors
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are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run at full voltage and
full speed. Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is the most common
and recommended method for fixed speed motor starting. The applicable standards are [IEC
289]AND[IS5553(PART3)]
SinglePhase
Inasinglephaseinductionmotor,itisnecessarytoprovideastartingcircuittostartrotationof
therotor.Ifthisisnotdone,rotationmaybecommencedbymanuallygivingaslightturntothe
rotor.Thesinglephaseinductionmotormayrotateineitherdirectionanditisonlythestarting
circuitwhichdeterminesrotationaldirection.
For small motors of a few watts the start rotation is done by means of a single turn of heavy
copper wire around one corner of the pole. The current induced in the single turn is out of
phasewiththesupplycurrentandsocausesanoutofphasecomponentinthemagneticfield,
which imparts to the field sufficient rotational character to start the motor. Starting torque is
very low and efficiency is also reduced. Such shadedpole motors are typically used in low
powerapplicationswithloworzerostartingtorquerequirements,suchasdeskfansandrecord
players.
Larger motors are provided with a second stator winding which is fed with an outofphase
currenttocreatearotatingmagneticfield.Theoutofphasecurrentmaybederivedbyfeeding
the winding through a capacitor, or it may derive from the winding having different values of
inductanceandresistancefromthemainwinding.
In some designs the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually
eitherbymeansofaswitchoperatedbycentrifugalforceactingonweightsonthemotorshaft,
or by a positive temperature coefficient thermistor which after a few seconds of operation
heatsupandincreasesitsresistancetoahigh value,reducingthecurrentthroughthesecond
windingtoaninsignificantlevel.Otherdesignskeepthesecondwindingcontinuouslyenergised
duringrunning,whichimprovestorque.controlofspeedininductionmotorcanbeobtainedin
3ways1.scalarcontrol2.vectorcontrol3.directtorquecontrol
Phasordiagram
"Phasor"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seePhasor(disambiguation).
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Anexam
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Asindica
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In electronics, would represent an impedance, which is independent of time. In
particular itis not the shorthand notation for another phasor. Multiplying a phasor current by
an impedance produces a phasor voltage. But the product of two phasors (or squaring a
phasor) would represent the product of two sine waves, which is a nonlinear operation that
produces new frequency components. Phasor notation can only represent systems with one
frequency,suchasalinearsystemstimulatedbyasinusoid.
Differentiationandintegration
Thetimederivativeorintegralofaphasorproducesanotherphasor.Forexample:

Therefore, in phasor representation, the time derivative of a sinusoid becomes just

multiplicationbytheconstant, Similarly,integratingaphasorcorresponds
to multiplication by The timedependent factor, , is unaffected. When
we solve a linear differential equation with phasor arithmetic, we are merely
factoring outofalltermsoftheequation,andreinsertingitintotheanswer.Forexample,
considerthefollowingdifferentialequationforthevoltageacrossthecapacitorinanRCcircuit:

Whenthevoltagesourceinthiscircuitissinusoidal:

wemaysubstitute:

wherephasor andphasor istheunknownquantitytobedetermined.

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Intheph
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Thesumofphasorsasadditionofrotatingvectors
The sum of multiple phasors produces another phasor. That is because the sum of sine waves
withthesamefrequencyisalsoasinewavewiththatfrequency:

where:

or, via the law of cosines on the complex plane (or the trigonometric identity for angle
differences):

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2
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inserted into the outcome as long as the only operations used in between are ones that
produceanotherphasor.Inanglenotation,theoperationshownaboveiswritten:

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cos(t+
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coordinates[A
3
cos(t+
3
),A
3
sin(t+
3
)].(seeanimation)
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