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What is fallacy?
A "fallacy" is a mistake, and a "logical" fallacy is a mistake in reasoning.
Type of fallacies:
There are two types of fallacies
1) Formal fallacies
2) Informal fallacies
Formal fallacies:
Whenever a mistake is committed in the forms and the structure of the argument, formal
fallacies has been committed. The formal fallacies deal only with structure.
Example; if it rains the road will be wet.
Informal fallacies:
Informal fallacies in committed whenever mistakes take place in the content and not in the
structure of argument. Such fallacies are usually committed every day in ordinary language.
Content: the words which is use in argument that are the content of argument.
Classification of Informal Fallacies:
(a) Fallacies of the Relevance
(b) Fallacies of Defective Induction
Fallacies of the Relevance:
The premises are irrelevant with the conclusion. Whoever they look relevant because of
physiological and emotional content.
Types of Relevance Fallacies:
1) Argument Ad populum (Appeal to Emotion)
2) Red Herring Fallacy
3) Straw man Fallacy
4) Argument Ad Hominem
5) Argument Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force)

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Argument Ad populum (Appeal to Emotion):
Fallacy of appeal to emotion is committed whenever the person feels that his argument is weak
and he defends it by using premises which is full of emotion rather than rational terms.
Examples:
i. Such as politicians are used in his speeches.
ii. The Hitler was used in his speeches.
Type of Argument Ad populum (Appeal to Emotion):
a) Band Wagon Fallacy
b) Argument Ad misericordiam (Appeal to Pity)
Band Wagon Fallacy:
The bandwagon fallacy is committed by arguments that appeal to the growing popularity of an
idea as a reason for accepting it as true. OR if the majority of the people are acting in a way so
why should I be left behind the person also join them.
Example:
i. 70% of Pakistani using the Arial, why are you not using the Arial.
Argument Ad misericordiam (Appeal to Pity):
An appeal to pity attempts to persuade using emotionspecifically, sympathyrather than
evidence.
Examples:
i. Nestle company using a charity through a product.
ii. Arial company also using charity through their product, you can donate the money
through buy our products; the money will be go to the charity.
Red Herring Fallacy:
A Red Herring fallacy is committed whenever my opponents argument is strong and I know
that I cannot defeat him on rational grounds (reason). I start diverting audience attention from
the main argument by presenting an irrelevant issue.
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Example:
Mike: It is morally wrong to cheat on your spouse, why on earth would you have done that?
Ken: But what is morality exactly?
Mike: Its a code of conduct shared by cultures.
Ken: But who creates this code?
Straw man Fallacy:
The straw man Fallacy is committed whenever my opponents argument is strong and I know
that I cannot reject it through reason I do two things.
i. I misrepresent the original argument.
ii. I reject the misrepresent argument and claim to have original argument.
Example:
After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded
by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it
defenseless by cutting military spending.
Argument Ad Hominem:
Argument Ad Hominem is committed whenever rather than criticizing my opponents argument
through reason I do that by referring to and attacking his personality, character or special
circumstances.
In case of attacking on his character directly we call it Ad Hominem Abusive while in case of
attacking his argument by referring to his special situation is called Argument Ad Hominem
Circumstantial.
Examples:
i. Imran Khan says about the Asife Zardari that he is corrupted. That is on his
personality of Asife Zardari.
ii. Prof. Smith says to Prof. White, "You are much too hard on your students," and Prof.
White replies, "But certainly you are not the one to say so. Just last week I heard
several of your students complaining."
Type of Argument Ad Hominem Circumstantial:
a) Tu Tuoque
b) Poisoning the well
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Tu Quoque:
Look whos talking. OR The tu Quoque fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because
someone else has done a thing there is nothing wrong with doing it.
Example:
The Salman is smoking himself and he tells Irfan that dont smoke. Irfan will say look whos
talking that Salman himself is smoking and says to me that dont smoke.
Poisoning the well:
During the discussion if one person becomes angry and leaves the discussion so he interrupted
the discussion he will be committed the poisoning the well fallacy.
Example:
I hope I presented my argument clearly. Now, my opponent will attempt to refute my
argument by his own fallacious, incoherent, illogical version of history.
Argument Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force):
The fallacy appeal to force is committed whenever I depend upon force or threat of force rather
than reason to win consent or argument.
Examples:
i. America calls to Musharaf and says that either you are with us or against us..
ii. If Pakistan does not open the NATO supplies they will be in serious problems.
Fallacies of Defective Induction:
There are two types of the Fallacies of Defective Induction.
Types of Fallacies of Defective Induction:
a) Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)
b) Argument Ad verecundiam ( Appeal to in appropriate authority)
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance):
A fallacy is committed when an argument depends upon an ignorance about an issue it is
committed in two ways.
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i. Something is true because it has not yet been proven false.
ii. Something is false because it has not yet been proven true.
Examples:
i. Nobody has proved that palmistry is wrong therefore palmistry is a true science.
ii. Nobody has proved that smoking cigarettes will necessarily cause lung cancer,
therefore this in no harm in smoking.
Argument Ad verecundiam (Appeal to in appropriate authority):
Argument Ad verecundiam (Appeal to in appropriate authority) is committed whenever my
argument depends upon and appeal to in appropriate authority of a person who has no
expertise regarding the issue.
Example:
Foreign policy matter Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan gives suggestions so this inappropriate authority
because this is not his field diplomats is appropriate.