Elementary Functions

Chapter 1, Functions
c Ken W. Smith, 2013
Version 1.3, January 8, 2014
These notes were developed by professor Ken W. Smith for MATH 1410 sections at Sam Houston State
University, Huntsville, TX. This material was covered in six 80-minute class lectures at Sam Houston in
Summer 2013. (Sections 1.0 and 1.1 were combined in one lecture since 1.0 is a brief review.)
In addition to these class notes, there is a slide presentation version of these notes and a set of
Worksheets. All of these are available on Blackboard.
Contents
1 Functions and Polynomials 3
1.0 Algebra excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.0.1 Exponential notation merely an abbreviation! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.0.2 Kilobytes and powers of ten (an application to computer science) . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.0.3 Polynomial arithmetic: a review of A
2
B
2
and other basic factoring . . . . . . . 5
1.0.4 Simplifying complicated fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.0.5 Other resources for algebra review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 An introduction to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.1 The function machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.2 Functions as ordered pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.3 Functions dened by equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.4 The domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.5 Other resources for functions and function notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 Graphs of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.1 Using ordered pairs to draw functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.2 Intercepts of the graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.3 Intervals in which the function rises or falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.4 The vertical line test denition of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.5 Piecewise functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.6 Other resources for graphing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3 Transformations of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.1 Vertical shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.2 Horizontal shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.3 Vertical expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.4 Horizontal expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.5 Combining these expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.6 Resources for function transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4 Symmetries of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.1 Even and odd functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.2 Periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4.3 The greatest integer function and other interesting examples . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.4 Resources for function symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.5 Function composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.1 The algebra of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.2 Composing two functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.3 Order is important! (f g ,= g f!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.5.4 Chaining functions together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5.5 Resources for the composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1
1.6 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.6.1 The concept of inverse function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.6.2 Changing the domain in order to create an inverse function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.6.3 Finding the inverse of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.6.4 The geometric meaning of inverse (and the horizontal line test) . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.5 The mathematical meaning of inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.6 Requirements for the existence of an inverse function* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6.7 Resources for inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2
1 Functions and Polynomials
1.0 Algebra excellence
Before we study the elementary functions of science and calculus, we need some comfort with algebra.
In this brief lecture we review two important ideas: (1) computations using exponential notation and
(2) operations of polynomial arithmetic. These are two major algebra computations we will do throughout
this class (and scientists will use throughout their careers!)
This review is brief and is not intended to be comprehensive. Our precalculus class will assume that
students are comfortable with most of the major concepts of elementary and intermediate algebra and
we will not, in general, review those concepts in this class.
1.0.1 Exponential notation merely an abbreviation!
We abbreviate x x x by x
3
. This notation (merely an abbreviation!) quickly leads to some rules on how
one should treat exponents. For example, since
x
3
x
2
= (x x x) (x x) = x
5
then when we multiply objects with the same base (x) we should add the exponents:
x
m
x
n
= x
m+n
. (1)
Similarly,
x
3
x
2
=
x x x
x x
=
x
1
x
x
x
x
= x,
so when we divide objects with the same base (x) we should subtract the exponents:
x
m
x
n
= x
mn
. (2)
What if we use exponents in sequence, that is, we raise x to a power and then raise that result to a
second power? For example,
(x
3
)
2
= (x x x)
2
= (x x x)(x x x) = x x x x x x = x
6
.
Here our abbreviation leads us to multiplying exponents. We may generalize from this that
(x
m
)
n
= x
mn
. (3)
Repeated exponentiation leads to multiplying exponents.
Our understanding of the exponent abbreviation has quickly led us to three natural rules about
manipulating exponents. These algebra rules are merely the eects of the algebraic symbolism.
There are other eects of our algebraic symbolism. Once we get used to the impact of this notation,
we see that since multiplying by 1 leaves a number unchanged and since multiplication by x
0
also leaves
a number unchanged (x
n
x
0
= x
n+0
= x
n
) then 1 and x
0
must be the same:
x
0
= 1. (4)
3
We can extend our exponent notation to rational exponents. Since
(x
1
2
)
2
= x
1
2
2
= x
1
= x
and since
(

x)
2
= x
then x
1
2
must represent

x. More generally, denominators in exponents represent roots:
x
1
q
=
q

x. (5)
Some examples. First we practice our understanding of exponentiation:
1. Simplify 8
2
3
.
We solve this by recognizing that the fractional exponent
2
3
represents (
1
3
)(2), so we will take a
cube root (that is the meaning of the exponent
1
3
) and then we will square the result.
Solution.
8
2
3
= (8
1/3
)
2
= (
3

8)
2
= 2
2
= 4.
Here is another, similar example.
2. Simplify 4
3
2
.
Solution.
4
3
2
= (4
1/2
)
3
= (

4)
3
= 2
3
= 8
1.0.2 Kilobytes and powers of ten (an application to computer science)
Here is an application appearing in a number of computer science computations. We note that 2
10
= 1024
while 1000 = 10
3
. The computer scientist works with computer registers which use bits (zeroes and ones)
and so storage and memory are measured in powers of two. (We say that computer science computations
are done in base two.) Yet the language of computer science is often based on our traditional powers
of ten, where Greek prexes such as kilo- represent a thousand, mega- represents a million and giga- a
billion.
However, to a computer scientist, the prex kilo- really represents 2
10
, not 10
3
. A kilobyte is 2
10
= 1024
bytes; a gigabyte is 2
30
bytes.
Let us approximate 2
30
as a power of ten: Since 2
30
= (2
10
)
3
and since we approximate 2
10
or 10
3
then
2
30
= (2
10
)
3
(10
3
)
3
= 10
9
.
Exercise. How many digits are there in 2
300
?
Solution. Write 2
300
= (2
10
)
30
(10
3
)
30
= 10
90
. Now 10
90
= 1 10
90
is 1 followed by 90 zeroes so
10
90
has 91 digits. Therefore 2
300
should have 91 digits.
(A detour to WolframAlpha and a quick computation indeed gives
2
300
= 2037035976334486086268445688409378161051468393665936250636140449354381299763336706183397376
You can check that this has 91 digits! But since 2
10
> 10
3
, it turns out that 2
300
is more closely
approximated by 2 10
90
than 1 10
90
.)
4
Practice. Here are some sample problems from an old precalculus quiz.
Simplify the following expressions:
1.
3

x
6

x
2
2.
(x
6
)
1
3
x
2
x
4
Solutions.
1. We follow the meaning of the exponent, rewriting expressions such as
3

x
6
as x
2
since (x
2
)
3
= x
6
.
So
3

x
6

x
2
=
x
2
x
= x.
2. We rst simplify the numerator, noting that (x
6
)
1
3
= x
2
and x
2
x
2
=
x
2
x
2
= 1. So
(x
6
)
1
3
x
2
x
4
=
x
2
x
2
x
4
=
1
x
4
or x
4
1.0.3 Polynomial arithmetic: a review of A
2
B
2
and other basic factoring
There are some basic polynomial expansion concepts that will appear throughout precalculus, calculus,
and computations in the sciences. For example, at one point we learned to use the distributive law to
expand (FOIL) expressions like:
(x + 5)(x 3) = x
2
3x + 5x 15 = x
2
+ 2x 15
and then to factor expressions like x
2
+ 2x 15 by reversing this process.
If we expand the expression (A + B)
2
= (A + B)(A + B) we discover, in addition to the obvious
squares A
2
and B
2
the cross term 2AB. However, if instead we expand (A + B)(A B) we obtain
A
2
B
2
; the cross term involved both AB and AB and these cancelled out. We will use these basic
patterns repeatedly in this course:
(A + B)
2
= A
2
+ 2AB + B
2
(6)
and
(A + B)(AB) = A
2
B
2
(7)
In the rst case (equation 6), notice the existence of a middle term caused by our polynomial expansion.
Dont make the freshman mistake of thinking that (A+B)
2
is just the sum of the squares of A and B!
In the second case (equation 7), we see that the dierence of two squares nicely factors into the
product of the sum and dierence of the elements.
Examples. Here are some other simplication problems. Each involves factoring of some type. Notice
that the expression we are factoring in problems 2 and 3 have the same pattern as problem 1; recognizing
that pattern leads us to our solution.
Simplify:
5
1.
x
2
9
x + 3
2.
x
4
9
x
2
+ 3
3.
x 9

x + 3
Solutions.
1.
x
2
9
x + 3
=
(x 3)(x + 3)
x + 3
= x 3.
2.
x
4
9
x
2
+ 3
=
(x
2
3)(x
2
+ 3)
x
2
+ 3
= x
2
3.
3.
x 9

x + 3
=
(

x) 3)(

x + 3)

x + 3
=

x 3.
1.0.4 Simplifying complicated fractions
Once we learn these abbreviations that we call exponentiation, we can often use polynomial arithmetic
(factoring polynomials) to simplify an expression.
For example, we may need to simplify a complex fraction such as
2x
3
+ x
2
x
4

1
x
2
=
2x
3
+ x
2
x
4
1
x
2
.
Recall that dividing by
1
x
2
is the same as multiplying by x
2
so
2x
3
+x
2
x
4
1
x
2
= (
2x
3
+ x
2
x
4
)(x
2
) =
2x
3
+ x
2
x
2
We factor the numerator and simplify.
x
2
(2x + 1)
x
2
= (
x
2
x
2
)(2x + 1) = 1(2x + 1) = 2x + 1.
A Worked Problem. Simplify
2x
3
+ x
2
x
4
Solution. Factor the numerator: 2x
3
+ x
2
= x
2
(2x + 1). Then simplify
x
2
x
4
=
1
x
2
. So
2x
3
+ x
2
x
4
=
x
2
(2x + 1)
x
4
=
2x + 1
x
2
.
To succeed in calculus, we need comfort with these algebra techniques. Practice these techniques through-
out the semester, so that you can indeed be comfortable with your algebra!
6
1.0.5 Other resources for algebra review
The material in this section is review material in a precalculus class and is usually not explicitly covered
in a textbook.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in appendices A.1, A.3, A.4. In the textbook by Stewart,
Precalculus, Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears
in sections 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second
textbook was $136 at Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for reviewing algebra. Here are additional sets of resources, in
addition to the class notes and class presentations.
1. Dr. Pauls Dawkins webpage of algebra notes (Dr. Dawkins is a professor at Lamar University.)
There is good review material at
(a) integer exponents and
(b) rational exponents and
(c) radicals.
2. There are some nice algebra videos from Khan Academy. Khan Academy is a good place to review
your algebra!
3. The textbook at Understanding Algebra by James Brennan is free and available online.
Homework.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.0A, Algebra Excellence, available through the
class webpage or Blackboard.
7
1.1 An introduction to functions
We study the most fundamental concept in mathematics, that of a function.
In this lecture we rst dene a function and then examine the domain of functions dened as equations
involving real numbers.
1.1.1 The function machine
Functions are the most important concepts in mathematics. In this class we will study the so-called
elementary functions. To understand the elementary (most common) functions in mathematics, we
need to rst understand functions and function notation.
Denition of a function and function notation.
A function f from a set X to a set Y assigns to each element of X an element of Y . We could write
f : a b
to indicate that f sends a to b. But the most common notation (and the notation we will use) is
f(a) = b.
This notation means that when the input a is inserted into the function f, the output is b.
Some people picture a function as a machine, dropping x-values into one end of the machine and
picking up y-values at the other end. Here is a picture from Wikipedia:
Figure 1. The function machine
(from Wikipedia, author Wybailey, available under the Creative Commons license.)
The set X of inputs is called the domain of the function f. The set Y of all conceivable outputs is
the codomain of the function f. The set of all outputs is the range of f. The range is a subset of Y .
The most important criteria for a function is this:
A function must assign to each input a unique output.
We cannot allow several dierent outputs to correspond to an input.
8
Here (from Wikipedia) is an example of a function from a set X to the set Y . The function maps 1
to D, 2 to C and 3 to C. Note that each element of X has a unique output in Y . (The function is not
named here.)
Figure 2. A function
However the map below is not a function. Some items in X are not mapped anywhere; worse, the
item 2 has two outputs, both B and C.
Figure 3. Not a function
(Figures 2 and 3 are from Wikipedia, author Bin im Garten, available under the Creative Commons license.)
Functions occur naturally in our world. When we pull out an attribute of an object, we are essentially
creating a function. (We can maps elements to elements, they do not need to be numbers!) For example,
the set X below has polygons with various colors. The question, What is the color of a polygon? could
be viewed as a function that maps to polygons to colors.
9
Figure 4. The function color
(from Wikipedia, author Wybailey, available under the Creative Commons license.)
In this example, the function from the set X to the set Y maps the four polygonal shapes in X to their
color. We might name this function color, so, for example,
color(yellow rectangle) = yellow
Functions occur throughout our modern technological society. Every US citizen is assigned a social
security number. The social security number could be viewed as a function SSN mapping US citizens
to nine digit numbers. If this is to truly be a function then for each input (a US citizen) there must be
a unique output. We dont want anyone to have two (or more) social security numbers or there will be
confusion about their identity (and worse from the governments point of view confusion about their
wages and taxes!)
In a similar way, at Sam Houston State University, all students and sta (current and past) are
assigned a Sam ID. This is (as of 2013) a nine-digit number which begins with three zeroes. We can view
this as a function SamID, mapping students/sta to nine digit numbers. For example,
SamID(Ken W Smith) = 000354765.
This function exists so that data about students/sta (classes, grades, salary, etc.) can be kept in a
computer database, tracked by a single number.
1.1.2 Functions as ordered pairs
A function maps elements of a domain D into a codomain C. Although functions in science are often
dened by equations, they do not have to be. (The SamID function is not dened by an equation.)
In the most general form, a function is a collection of ordered pairs satisfying certain requirements.
For example, we might consider the sets D := 1, a, b, z, orange and C := r, s, t, u, v, 1000. We could
create a function f by assigning to each member of D a member of C. For example:
input output
1 r
a s
b r
z 1000
orange 1000
This is a function: the domain is clearly the elements of D and each element of D has a unique output!
10
Notice that not all elements of the codomain appear as outputs and that some of them occur as
outputs more than once. That is ne; the restrictions in the denition of function focus primarily on the
domain D.
If the domain is nite, we may dene a function by a table (as above) or by a list of ordered pairs (the
entries in the table.) For example, we can restate the function f above by writing f as a set of ordered
pairs:
f = (1, r), (a, s), (b, r), (z, 1000), (orange, 1000)
The range of a function is the collection of outputs of the function. This is a subset of the codomain.
Although the codomain of the function above is the set C = r, s, t, u, v, 1000, the range of the function
f dened above is r, s, 1000. (Think of the codomain as the collection of potential outputs and the
range as the collection of true outputs.)
Worked Exercise. Consider the function with domain D = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, codomain the real numbers
R, dened by the formula g(x) = x
2
.
1. Display the function g in tabular form,
and
2. Display the function g as a set of ordered pairs.
3. Give the range of the function g.
Solution.
1. As a table, we can write out the function g as
x g(x)
2 4
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 4
2. As a set of order pairs,
g = (2, 4), (1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4)
3. The range of the function g is 0, 1, 4.
Another example.
Consider the function dened in gure 2, earlier.
11
Write this function in both tabular form and as a set of ordered pairs.
Solution. In tabular form we have:
X Y
1 D
2 C
3 C
As ordered pairs, the function is the set
(1, D), (2, C), (3, C).
1.1.3 Functions dened by equations
Most of the functions that we will explore in mathematics and science are dened by some equation. For
example, consider the function f : R R dened by mapping a real number to the number that is one
more than its square, that is
f(x) = x
2
+ 1.
This function maps real numbers (the set R) to real numbers and so the domain of f is R and the
codomain of f is R. However, the range of f is the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to 1.
In interval notation,the domain of f is (, ) and the range is [1, .).
We can often dene a function implicitly in an equation involving two variables. Traditionally we use
the letter x for the input variable and the letter y for the output variable. The equation x
2
y = 1
denes the function f(x) = x
2
+ 1 discussed above.
As another example, consider the linear equation
2x + 3y 4 = 0.
This equation can be viewed as dening a function with inputs x and outputs y. From this viewpoint,
we can solve for y and get
3y = 4 2x
and so
y =
1
3
(4 2x).
We might then explicitly dene the function
f(x) =
1
3
(4 2x).
Note that our choice of x as input and y as output was somewhat arbitrary. We could have decided
(contrary to custom!) that y is the input and x is the output. Then, solving for x, we have
2x = 4 3y
so
x =
1
2
(4 3y)
and so we can create the function x = g(y) (with input y and output x!)
g(y) =
1
2
(4 3y).
12
Some worked exercises.
1. Does the equation x
2
y = 4 dene y as a function of x? (If it does, give the domain of the implied
function.)
Solution. We attempt to solve for y. We may multiply both sides of the equation by
1
x
2
as long
as x is not zero. This gives us y =
4
x
2
. Is there a problem with x = 0? No, x = 0 does not allow
x
2
y = 4, so x will never be zero in this equation.
YES; y =
4
x
2
.
The domain of this function is all real numbers except zero. In interval notation this is (, 0)
(0, ).
2. Does the equation xy
2
= 4 dene y as a function of x?
Solution. If we attempt to solve for y, we multiply both sides of the equation by
1
x
(as long as
x ,= 0) and so we have y
2
=
4
x
. But now, what is y? y could be positive or negative there will
generally be two choices here.
NO; for example, if x = 1 then we dont know if y = 2 or y = 2.
3. Does the equation x
2
y = 0 dene y as a function of x? (Why/why not?)
Solution. Although it might be tempting to solve for y, rst notice that if x is zero then y could
be 0 or 1 or 2.71828 or anything! So the input x = 0 does not give a unique output. This is not a
function.
NO; if x = 0 then y could be anything.
(Note how this is dierent than problem 1. In problem 1, x = 0 is not a possible input in the
equation. But here x = 0 is a possibility for a solution to the equation!)
More examples.
Let us practice the function notation, f(x). A formula for f(x) tells us how the input x leads to the
output f(x). For example, suppose f(x) = x
2
9. Compute:
1. f(0),
2. f(1),
3. f(1),
4. f(5),
5. f(x)
6. f(x + h),
7. f(

x),
8. f(2a + 1),
9. f(x) + 2
Solutions. If f(x) = x
2
9 then
13
1. f(0) = 0
2
9 = 9 .
2. f(1) = (1)
2
9 = 1 9 = 8 .
3. f(1) = (1)
2
9 = 1 9 = 8 .
4. f(5) = (5)
2
9 = 25 9 = 16 .
5. f(x) = (x)
2
9 = x
2
9 .
6. f(x + h) = (x + h)
2
9 = (x
2
+ 2xh + h
2
) 9 = x
2
+ 2xh + h
2
9 ,
7. f(

x) = x 9 ,
8. f(2a + 1) = (2a + 1)
2
9 = (4a
2
+ 4a + 1) 9 = 4a
2
+ 4a 8 ,
9. f(x) + 2 = (x
2
9) + 2 = x
2
+ 11 .
1.1.4 The domain of a function
The domain of a function is generally viewed as the largest possible set of inputs into the function.
For example, the domain of the function f(x) =

x is all real numbers greater than or equal to
zero. In interval notation we write [0, ). Note that we cannot evaluate f(x) at negative numbers (if we
assume we are always working with real numbers.)
We often need to nd the domain of a function and if the inputs are real numbers, express the domain
in interval notation. When we do this, it is often easier to ask the question, What is not in the domain?.
For example, in the square root function, f(x) =

x we might ask the question, Which numbers do not
have a square root? Since the square of a real number cannot be negative, then our answer is We cannot
take the square root of negative numbers. So the domain must be numbers which are not negative, that
is, zero and positive real numbers. So the domain of f(x) =

x is [0, ). (We can indeed take the square
root of 0 so we want to include 0 in the domain.)
Example. Find the domain of the function g(x) =
1
x + 2
+
2x 3
2x + 1
+ x 5.
Solution. What numbers cannot serve as input to g(x)? Since we cannot have denominators equal to
zero then x = 2 cannot be an input; neither can x =
1
2
. So the domain of this function g is all real
numbers except x = 2 and x =
1
2
.
There are several ways to write the domain of g. Using set notation, we could write the domain as
x R : x ,= 2,
1
2
.
This is a precise symbolic way to say, All real numbers except 2 and
1
2
.
We could also write the domain in interval notation:
(, 2) (2,
1
2
) (
1
2
, ).
This notation says that the domain includes all the real numbers smaller than 2, along with all the real
numbers between 2 and
1
2
, along with (in addition) the real numbers larger than
1
2
.
14
Some worked exercises.
1. Find the domain of the function f(x) =

2 x
Solution. Since the square root function requires nonnegative inputs, we must have 2 x 0.
Add x to both sides of the inequality to get 2 x. In interval notation this is (, 2].
Answer: The domain is (, 2].
2. Find the domain of the function f(x) =

x 1
Solution. Since the square root function requires nonnegative inputs, we must have x 1 0. If
we add 1 to both sides of the inequality we have x 1.
Answer: The domain is [1, ).
3. Find the domain of the function f(x) =

x 1
x 3
Solution. Again, as in the previous problem, we must have x 1 but we must also prevent the
denominator from being zero, so x cannot be 3, either.
Answer: The domain is [1, 3) (3, ).
4. Find the domain of the function f(x) =

x 1
x
2
6x + 8
Solution. We must have x 1 and we must prevent the denominator from being zero. The
denominator factors as x
2
6x + 8 = (x 2)(x 4), so x cannot be 2 or 4. So our answer is
all real numbers at least as big as 1 and not equal to 2 or 4. In interval notation, our answer is:
The domain is [1, 2) (2, 4) (4, .)
1.1.5 Other resources for functions and function notation
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
this material is covered in sections 1.3-1.5. Other textbook resources on function denitions are:
1. In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen
(Edition 1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) this material is covered in sections 1.1-1.2.
2. In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.3. In the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus,
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears in section
2.1. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136
at Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for studying the basic function concepts. Here are some I recommend.
1. Khan Academy videos on functions
2. Dr. Paul Dawkins notes on the denition of a function
3. Wikipedias explanation of functions.
4. This video at Education Portal
5. A Math Insight video about the function machine is here; check out Meat-a-morphosis, here.
15
Homework.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.1A, Denition of a function, available through
the class webpage or on Blackboard.
16
1.2 Graphs of functions
1.2.1 Using ordered pairs to draw functions
If we describe our function using an equation y = f(x) with inputs x and outputs y, then we may view
the inputs, x, as elements of a horizontal line in the plane and record outputs y on a vertical line. The
graph of a function in the Cartesian plane is the set of values (x, f(x)).
Combining functions with the geometry of the plane gives us a nice visual way to see and understand
a function. This idea was rst introduced in the 17th century by (among others) Rene Descartes and so
the plane in which we draw our graph is called the Cartesian plane.
We graph the function f with x values increasing along a horizontal axis and y values increasing along
a vertical axis. It is customary to draw the x-axis along the horizontal line where y = 0 and draw the
y-axis along the vertical line where x = 0.
Most graphs of functions y = f(x) can be sketched by creating a table of values (x, y) and then
making some reasonable assumptions as to how these points should be connected. For example, consider
the function f(x) = x
2
. We can create a table of values. (Notice that we input some values which are not
integers!)
x f(x)
2 4
1 1
0.5 0.25
0 0
0.5 0.25
1 1
2 4
We can then plot the points (2, 4), (1, 1), (0.5, 0.25), ... on the Cartesian plane and use these points
to guide us on lling in the rest of the curve. Of course modern software (and graphing calculators) can
do this for us, plotting hundreds of points and connecting the dots....
Figure 5. The graph of the function f(x) = x
2
(created by the author, using Sage.)
17
Some worked examples.
For each function, create a table of values (with at least 5 points, where at least one of which does
not have integer value for x) and then graph the function.
1. f(x) = x
3
x
2. f(x) = [x[.
3. f(x) =
3

x
Solutions. (The graphs in this section were generated by the author using Sage.)
1. Here is a table of a few values for the function f(x) = x
3
x
x f(x) = x
3
x
2 6
1 0
0.5 0.625
0 0
1 0
2 6
If we connect the dots, we should get something like this:
2. Here is a table of values for the function f(x) = |x|.
x f(x) = |x|
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
1 1
2 2
If we connect the dots, we should get something like this:
18
3. Here is a table of values for the function f(x) =
3

x
x f(x) =
3

x
8 2
1 1

1
8

1
2
0 0
1 1
8 2
If we connect the dots, we should get something like this:
1.2.2 Intercepts of the graph of a function
An x-intercept is a place where the graph touches the x-axis, that is, where y = 0. A y-intercept is a
place where x = 0 so that the function has a point on the y-axis. Given an equation for a function f(x),
it is easy to determine the y-intercept: simply compute f(0).
It can be harder to nd the x-intercepts of the function since we are seeking to solve the equation
f(x) = 0 for x-values. Here are some examples of how one might approach this problem.
19
Examples.
Find the intercepts of the following functions
1. f(x) = x
2
2x 3.
2. g(x) =
(x + 1)(x
2
6x + 8)
x + 2
.
3. h(x) =
1
x + 2
+
2x 3
2x + 1
+ x 5.
Solutions.
1. f(x) = x
2
2x3 has y-intercept (0, 3) since f(0) = 3. To nd the x-intercepts of the function,
we need to solve the equation 0 = x
2
2x 3. We may factor x
2
2x 3 = (x 3)(x + 1) and
solve 0 = (x3)(x+1). The product of two expressions is zero if and only if one of the expressions
is zero so either 0 = x 3 or 0 = x +1. Thus the x-intercepts occur where x = 3 or x = 1. So the
x-intercepts are (1, 0) and (3, 0).
2. The function g(x) is a rational function, that is, a ratio of two polynomials. We should take a
moment and consider the denominator of this function. The denominator is zero when x = 2 and
so the function g(x) is undened at x = 2. x = 2 cannot then give us any point on the graph,
much less an intercept.
To nd the y-intercept of g(x) =
(x + 1)(x
2
6x + 8)
x + 2
, merely plug in 0: g(0) =
(1)(8)
2
= 4 so the
y-intercept is (0, 4).
To nd the x-intercept of g(x) =
(x + 1)(x
2
6x + 8)
x + 2
, we set the function equal to zero and solve:
0 =
(x + 1)(x
2
6x + 8)
x + 2
.
Multiply both sides by the numerator x + 2
0 = (x + 1)(x
2
6x + 8)
and factor the expression on the right:
0 = (x + 1)(x 2)(x 4)
The expression on the right is zero whenever any of its terms are zero, so the x-intercepts are
(1, 0), (2, 0) and (4, 0).
3. The y intercepts of the function h(x) =
1
x+2
+
2x3
2x+1
+ x 5 occur where x = 0 so
y =
1
0 + 2
+
0 3
0 + 1
+ 0 5 =
1
2
3 5 =
15
2
.
Thus the y-intercept is (0,
15
2
).
The x-intercept is where y = 0 so we examine the equation
0 =
1
x + 2
+
2x 3
2x + 1
+ x 5
and solve for x.
20
Multiply both sides by the denominators x + 2 and 2x + 1 to clear denominators and we have
0 = (2x + 1) + (x + 2)(2x 3) + (x + 2)(2x + 1)(x 5).
Expanding this out and simplifying, we have
0 = (2x + 1) + (2x
2
+ x 6) + (2x
3
5x
2
23x 10)
so
0 = 2x
3
3x
2
20x 15.
A graphing calculator helps us nd that x = 1 is one of the solutions to this equation; there are
two more solutions which are a bit more complicated, involving the quadratic formula; these are
1
4
(5 3

5). We will look more at this problem later.

1.2.3 Intervals in which the function rises or falls
A variety of applications in science require that we understand the intervals where a function is rising
or falling and that we be able to compute the local minimums and locals maximums of a function. We
will want to know the x values for which f(x) is as large as possible (in some specic region) or where
f(x) is as small as possible. Later, in calculus, we will nd a universal approach to this very important
problem, but at this stage, we are content to draw graphs and nd minimums and maximums visually.
Example.
Consider the function f(x) = x
4
8x
2
with graph given below:
Figure 6. The graph of the quartic polynomial f(x) = x
4
8x
2
.
Where is this function increasing? Where is it decreasing? What are the low points on the curve (local
minimums)? What are the high points on the curve (local maximums)?
From the picture we can see that the function drops to the point (2, 16), rises to the origin (0, 0),
drops again to the point (2, 16) and then rises after that. So the function is decreasing for x-values in
the region (, 2) (0, 2), and rising in the region (2, 0) (2, ).
The local minimums are (2, 16) and (2, 16); a local maximum occurs at the point (0, 0).
21
1.2.4 The vertical line test denition of a function
In the denition of function, we require that a function have a unique output for each input. The
geometric version of this requirement is the vertical line test. The points in the plane corresponding to
a xed x-value form a vertical line. For example, the line x = 3 is a vertical line consisting of all points
of the form (3, y) for any value of y.
If our graph is the graph of a function then each vertical line will touch the graph in exactly one
point, at the y value y = f(x). So to see if our graph is the graph of a function, draw vertical lines and
see if these lines intersect the graph exactly once.
In the image below (gure 7), a vertical line (in yellow) corresponding to a particular x-value hits the
curve at exactly one point. This should be true for all the elements in the domain of the function.
Figure 7. The vertical line test
(from Wikipedia, author Wybailey, available under the Creative Commons license.)
1.2.5 Piecewise functions
Functions need not be described by an equation. Some, like the function color described in section 1.1,
will not involve equations at all.
Other functions can be described, not by a single formula, but by a collection of them. Many functions
involve jumps of some type, or dierent formulas depending upon various subsets of the domain. A
piecewise function is a function which is described for pieces of the real line. It will obey one rule in
one region and another rule in another region.
One of the simplest such functions might be described by the question, How much does it cost to
mail a letter? Let us assume that we are mailing a letter that weights less than 4 ounces. The US Postal
Service oers a price chart which is copied below.
22
Figure 8. Cost of mailing a letter (December 2012.)
The leftmost column describes an input variable, the weight of the letter in ounces. The second
column gives the cost if the rst-class mail is an ordinary letter. One should interpret this information
as follows:
If the letter is between 0 and 1 ounce in weight, the cost is 45 cents.
If the letter is more than 1 ounce in weight, but no more than 2 ounces, the cost is 65 cents.
If the letter is more than 2 ounces in weight, but no more than 3 ounces, the cost is 85 cents.
If the letter is more than 3 ounces in weight, but no more than 3.5 ounces, the cost is $1.05. (105
cents)
If the letter is more than 3.5 ounces in weight (but less than 4 ounces), then one should use a large
envelope and the cost is $1.50.
(Although the USPS chart described mail costs for mail up to 13 ounces, for convenience, I have assumed
that we are not mailing anything heavier than 4 ounces.)
We can describe this cost of rst-class function as follows. Here the input x, is weight in ounces, and
the output f(x) is cost in cents. The cost of a letter of weight x is then f(x) =

45, if 0 x 1
65, if 1 < x 2
85, if 2 < x 3
105, if 3 < x 3.5
150, if 3.5 < x 4
Below is the graph of this function. Note the use of open circles to describe points not part of the
function graph and closed dark circles to describe points that are on the function graph, at the end of a
curve.
23
Figure 9. Graph of the piecewise function dened by postal rates.
Three worked examples.
Consider the function dened in pieces as follows:
f(x) =

2x + 1, if x 0
x
2
+ 1, if x > 0
Compute f(2), f(0), f(2) and graph this function.
Solution.
Here, if x 0 then the function obeys the rule f(x) = 2x + 1. Thus f(2) = 2(2) + 1 = 3 and
f(0) = 2(0) +1 = 1. But if x > 0 then f(x) = x
2
+1 and so f(2) = 2
2
+1 = 5. The graph of the function
appears in gure 10. Notice how the two pieces are glued together; we can see the line y = 2x + 1 in
the region where x 0 and the parabola y = x
2
+ 1 in the region to the right of the y-axis.
Figure 10. A piecewise dened function.
24
Example 2. Another example: graph the function
f(x) =

2x + 2, if x 1
4, if x > 1

Then compute f(0), f(1), f(2) and f(100).

Solution. Since x = 0 and x = 1 both fall in the region where x 1, we have that f(0) = 2(0) + 2 = 2
and f(1) = 2(1) + 2 = 4. Since x = 2 and x = 100 both fall in the region where x > 1 then f(2) = 4 and
f(100) = 4.
Here is the graph:
Figure 11. A function dened in two pieces
Example 3. Graph the function below and compute f(1), f(0.5), f(1.5), f(2.5), f(3.5).
f(x) =

x
2
, if x 0
0, if 0 x < 1
1, if 1 x < 2
2, if 2 x < 3
x, if x 3
Solution. f(1) = (1)
2
= 1 since x = 1 0. But f(0.5) = 0 since 0 0.5 < 1 Similarly
f(1.5) = 1, f(2.5) = 2 and f(3.5) = 3.5. The graph is:
Figure 12. A function dened in ve pieces
25
Note in Figure 12 the use of closed dark circle to indicate that the point (such as (1, 1)) is on the graph
and the use of light, open circles to indicate that a point (such as (1, 0) or (2, 1)) is not on the graph.)
1.2.6 Other resources for graphing functions
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
this material is covered in section 1.6.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen (Edition
1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) this material is covered in section 1.3.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.4. In the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus,
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears in sections 2.2
and 2.3. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136 at
Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for learning about graph of elementary functions. Here are some I
recommend.
1. Dr. Pauls online notes on graphing functions
2. A Khan Academy video on graphing functions
Homework.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.2A, Functions and their graphs, available
through the class webpage.
26
1.3 Transformations of functions
In this course we learn to identify a variety of functions: linear functions, quadratic and cubic functions,
general polynomial and rational functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions
and inverse trig functions. Many of these functions can be identied by their shape, by general prop-
erties of their graph. Instead of trying to remember the shapes of millions of dierent functions, we will
identify some basic functions and then recognize transformations of the functions that give (essentially)
the same shape.
For example, the graphs of the functions f(x) = x
2
and f(x) = 3(x 5)
2
+ 7 are the same shape.
Indeed, if one plots them on the x-interval [1000, 1000] one gets the following pictures (below, in gure
15.) The graph of y = x
2
is on the left; the graph of y = 3(x 5)
2
+ 7 is on the right. If one looks
carefully, one can see that the labels on the y-axis have changed, otherwise the graphs are the same.
Figure 13. Graphs of y = x
2
and y = 3(x 5)
2
+ 7
(Generated by the author using Sage.)
There are four types of transformations we will study in this section. In the rst two types, we
simply shift the graph by a xed amount, either vertically or horizontally. In the last two types of
transformations, we expand/shrink the graph by a xed ratio, either vertically or horizontally.
1.3.1 Vertical shifts
It is easy to shift the graph y = f(x) up by a xed positive amount c. Just add c to the y-value, that is,
create the graph of y = f(x) + c.
If we can shift up by a xed amount then shifting down is also easy just make c negative. If c is
negative then the graph of y = f(x) + c shifts the graph down by [c[. (For example, y = f(x) 2 will
shift the graph down by 2.)
Consider the graph of y = x
2
. The graph of y = x
2
+ 1 shifts the graph of y = x
2
up one unit. The
graph of y = x
2
+ 3 shifts the graph of y = x
2
up three units. The graph of y = x
2
2 shifts the graph
down by two units. Lets graph these all on one plane (see gure 14) to show the eect of the shifting.
27
Figure 14. Graphs of y = x
2
(thick black curve), y = x
2
+1 (green), y = x
2
+3 (blue), y = x
2
2 (red),
(Generated by the author using Sage.)
1.3.2 Horizontal shifts
Horizontal shifts are very similar, but their is a subtlety here. Because the horizontal x-axis represents
inputs to the function, if we want to shift the curve to the right (in the positive x-direction) by a positive
amount c then we need to prepare the input by subtracting the amount c from x before it is inserted
into the function. This may be the opposite of what one expects, but by subtracting c from x, we make
an input x c on the left of x act like the input x and this shift, moving x c to x is a shift to the right.
Below in gure 15, as an example, are the graphs of y = x
2
, y = (x1)
2
and y = (x3)
2
. Notice that
by replacing x by x3, we have shifted the graph of y = x
2
three to the right, in the positive x-direction.
If we want to shift the graph left by a positive amount c then we add c to x before inserting it into
the function. For example, the graph of y = (x + 2)
2
will shift the parabola of y = x
2
to the left by 2.
Figure 15. Graphs of y = x
2
(thick black curve), y = (x 1)
2
(green), y = (x 3)
2
(blue),
y = (x + 2)
2
(red),
(Generated by the author using Sage.)
28
1.3.3 Vertical expansions
What if we want to expand or shrink the image of our graph? We can do this in the vertical (y-direction)
simply by multiplying our function by a constant. For example, if we have the graph y = f(x) then the
graph of y = 3f(x) will stretch (expand) the graph by a factor of 3 in the y-direction. The graph of
y =
1
3
f(x) will contract (shrink) the graph by a factor of 3.
Multiplying f(x) by 1 will ip the graph over, reecting it across the x-axis, replacing positive
y-values by negative ones and conversely, replacing negative y-values by positive ones. This is our rst
example of a reection. The graph of y = f(x) is a reection of y = f(x) across the x-axis.
1.3.4 Horizontal expansions
We can also expand or contract a graph in the horizontal direction, along the x-axis. But, just like
horizontal shifts, because the horizontal axis represents the input variable, the action may be the reverse
of what one might expect. To expand the graph horizontally by a factor of 2, we must divide x by 2
before inserting it into the function.
For example, here in thick black ink is the graph of y = x
2
. In lighter blue ink is the graph of y = (
x
2
)
2
.
By dividing by two, we have stretched the graph in the horizontal direction by a factor of 2.
Figure 16. Graphs of y = x
2
(thick black curve), y = (
x
2
)
2
(thin blue),
If instead we multiply the input variable x by a constant, we will contract (shrink) the graph in the
horizontal direction. In the picture below, the graph of y = x
2
is again a thick black curve; the graph
of y = (2x)
2
is the thinner green curve and if we graph y = (5x)
2
we get the curve in red, shrunk even
more in the horizontal direction.
If we replace x by x, we interchange the role of positive and negative x-values and so we reect the
graph across the y-axis. This is our second example of a reection.
29
Figure 17. Graphs of y = x
2
(thick black curve), y = (2x)
2
(thin green) and y = (5x)
2
(thin red)
1.3.5 Combining these expansions
In summary,
1. To shift a function up by c units, replace y = f(x) by y = f(x) + c.
2. To shift a function to the right by c units, replace y = f(x) by y = f(x c).
3. To expand a function vertically by a factor of c, replace y = f(x) by y = cf(x).
4. To expand a function horizontally by a factor of c, replace y = f(x) by y = f(
x
c
).
We can combine these various transformations by creating a sequence of transformations. For example,
we could translate a function in a diagonal direction, over to the right by 2 and then up by 2 by replacing
f(x) by f(x 2) + 2. Notice that replacing x by x 2 moves the graph 2 units to the right; adding 2 to
the entire function moves the graph up two units.
A sequence of transformations then combine into a single form, changing y = f(x) into the expression
y = af(b(x c)) + d
where rst subtracting c translates everything to the right by c units, then multiplying by b inside
the function shrinks the graph in the horizontal direction about the point (c, 0) by a factor of b while
multiplying by a on the outside of the function expands the graph vertically by a factor of a. Finally,
adding d to the entire piece raises the graph d units up.
When in doubt about the type of transformation involved, it is always easy to pick several nice points
in the new graph and ask where they came from in the old graph. For example, in the expression
y = af(b(x c)) +d, the new x values x = c and x = c +1 lead to the computation of f(0) and f(b) and
so correspond to old points where x was zero and where x was equal to b.
30
Some worked examples.
1. Consider the two graphs below. The rst is the graph of f(x) = [x[. The second is a graph in which
the original graph has been contracted horizontally by a factor of two and then shifted 2 units to
the right and up 1 unit. What is the function graphed in the graph at the right?
Figure 18. A transformation of the graph of the absolute value function.
Solutions. We rst contract the graph horizontally by a factor of 2, replacing x by 2x. Then
we shift the graph to the right by 2, replacing x by x 2. Lastly we add 1 to the result. So the
expression [x[ becomes [2(x 2)[ + 1. Therefore the graph in question is f(x) = [2(x 2)[ + 1.
2. What transformations (in order) must be done to the graph of y = f(x) to create the graph of
y = 2f(
x 5
3
) 7 ?
Solutions. Do the following steps, in this order:
(a) Shift right by 5,
(b) Expand horizontally by a factor of 3 about the point (5, 0),
(c) Expand vertically by a factor of 2,
(d) Shift down 7.
3. The graph of y = f(x) is drawn in red below.
Figure 19. A particular graph, waiting to be transformed.
31
For each of the graphs, below (drawn in blue) rst describe the transformation that turns the above
graph into the new graph and then express this transformation algebraically in terms of the original
function f(x). (For example, the answer to problem (a) is The graph is shifted up 3 units and
y = f(x) + 3)
(a)
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Solutions.
(b) The graph is shifted right 2 units and up 4 units; y = f(x 2) + 4
(c) The graph is shifted left 4 units and up 2 units; y = f(x + 4) + 2
(d) The graph is reected across the x-axis; y = f(x).
(e) The graph is stretched horizontally by a factor of 2; y = f(
x
2
).
One more example.
Here is an example that shows up in engineering applications. The sinc function is dened in terms
of the sine function as
sinc(x) :=
sin x
x
.
But sometimes it is more natural to normalize it by replacing x by x so that
sinc(x) :=
sin x
x
.
What is the eect of this normalization?
Replacing x by x creates a horizontal contraction by a factor of . Here, below (from Wikipedia),
are the two functions graphed together.
32
Figure 20. The sinc function and its normalization
(from Wikipedia, author Georg-Johann, available under the Creative Commons license.)
1.3.6 Resources for function transformations
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
this material is covered in section 1.7.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen (Edition
1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) this material is covered in section 1.5.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.5. In the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus,
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears in section
2.5. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136 at
Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for studying the transformations of functions. Here are some I
recommend.
1. This Youtube video describes all four types of transformations in a function in one basic formula
(y = af(b(x c)) + d) with nice animations showing the transformations.
2. This applet at the Wolfram site allows one to experiment with changing the values of the af(b(x
c)) + d to see how they move the graph.
3. A webpage at Purplemath forums has a tutorial and nice examples.
4. The webpage at Mathisfun is another webpage with a nice introduction to the topic of transforma-
tions.
Worksheet to go with these notes.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.3A, Transformations of functions, available
through the class webpage.
33
1.4 Symmetries of functions
1.4.1 Even and odd functions
A symmetry of a function is a transformation of the function that leaves the graph unchanged. For
example, consider the functions f(x) = x
2
and g(x) = [x[. Their graphs are drawn in gure 21. Both of
these functions have the property that their graphs allow us to view the y-axis as a mirror. A reection
across the y-axis leaves the function unchanged. This reection is an example of a symmetry.
Figure 21. Symmetry about the x-axis.
In most cases, a symmetry of a function can be represented by an algebra statement. Here, reection
across the y-axis interchanges positive x-values with negative x-values, swapping x and x. Therefore
f(x) = f(x).
The statement,
For all x R, f(x) = f(x)
is equivalent to the statement
The graph of the function is unchanged by reection across the x-axis.
What other symmetries might functions have?
We can reect a graph about the x-axis by replacing f(x) by f(x). However, it is unlikely that a
graph is xed by this reection since whenever a number is equal to its negative, then the number is zero.
(x = x = 2x = 0 = x = 0.) So if f(x) = f(x) then f(x) = 0.
However, it is possible for us to reect a graph across rst one axis and then the other. Reecting a
graph across the y-axis and then across the x-axis is equivalent to rotating the graph 180

around the
origin. When this happens, f(x) = f(x).
If f(x) = f(x) then we have rotational symmetry about the origin. In this case, we may multiply
both sides of the equation by 1 and write f(x) = f(x).
So far, we have discussed two types of symmetry for graphs of functions:
1. Reection symmetry about the y-axis, in which case f(x) = f(x).
2. Rotation symmetry about the origin, in which case f(x) = f(x).
We note that functions like f(x) = x
2
and f(x) = x
4
, where the exponent on x is even will have
the property that f(x) = f(x) since 1 to an even integer power is equal to 1. Similarly, functions
like f(x) = x, f(x) = x
3
and f(x) = x
5
, where the exponent on x is odd will have the property that
f(x) = f(x) since 1 to an odd power is equal to 1. This motivates the following denitions.
34
Denition. A function f(x) is even if f(x) = f(x). The function is odd if f(x) = f(x).
An even function has reection symmetry about the y-axis; an odd function has rotational symmetry
about the origin.
We can decide algebraically if a function is even, odd or neither by replacing x by x and computing
f(x). If f(x) = f(x), the function is even. If f(x) = f(x), the function is odd.
Examples. The graphs of a variety of functions are given below (on this page and the next). Consider
the symmetries of the graph y = f(x) and decide, from the graph drawings, if f(x) is odd, even or neither.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
35
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
Solutions. Graphs (a), (c), (g) and (j) are even functions since a reection across the y-axis preserves
symmetry. All the other graphs represent odd functions since a rotation of 180

about the origin preserves

the graph.
Three worked exercises.
1. Graph the function f(x) = x
3
4x and then decide if the function is even, odd, or neither.
Solution. This function is odd since it is symmetric about the origin.
Here is the graph:
36
We can check this algebraically:
f(x) = (x)
3
4(x) = x
3
+ 4x = (x
3
4x) = f(x).
2. Decide algebraically if the function f(x) =
x
1 + x
2
is even, odd, or neither.
Solution.
If f(x) =
x
1 + x
2
then f(x) =
x
1 + (x)
2
. Since (x)
2
= x
2
we can simplify this to
f(x) =
x
1 + (x)
2
=
x
1 + x
2
= f(x).
So f(x) is odd.
3. Decide algebraically if the function f(x) = x
5
+ 7x
2
3x + 5 is even, odd, or neither.
Solution.
If f(x) = x
5
+ 7x
2
3x + 5 then
f(x) = (x)
5
+ 7(x)
2
3(x) + 5 = x
5
+ 7x
2
+ 3x + 5.
Since f(x) = x
5
+7x
2
+3x +5 is neither equal to f(x) nor equal to f(x) then f(x) is neither
even nor odd.
Testing the concepts.
There is a function which is both even and odd! What is it?
1.4.2 Periodic functions
Some graphs have translation symmetry, that is, we may shift the graph along the x-axis a certain
amount and leave the graph unchanged. In this case the function is periodic; there is a real number c so
that if we shift the graph to the right by c units, then the graph is unchanged. Algebraically, we write
f(x c) = f(x). The smallest positive real number c such that f(x c) = f(x) is called the period of
the function f.
We will see this phenomenon (periodic functions and translation symmetry) throughout our study of
trigonometry.
For example, if we look at graphs (a), (c), (d) and (e) in the previous collection of graphs, we see
graphs that appear to represent periodic functions.
(a) (c)
37
(d) (e)
The functions with graphs (a) and (d) have period 2, slightly more than 6. Graph (c) represents a
function with period 2 and graph (e) represents a function with period , slightly larger than 3.
We will look more closely at periodic functions several times in this course.
1.4.3 The greatest integer function and other interesting examples
We digress to introduce a function common in mathematics and computer science. The greatest-integer
function, f(x) = x|, takes as input a real number and rounds the number down to the greatest integer
less than or equal to it. For example, it rounds 3.1 to 3, so 3.1| = 3. If the input is already an integer,
the output is unchanged. For example, 5| = 5.
If the number x is positive, x| is essentially the value of x with everything to the right of the decimal
place stripped away. So it is easy to compute x| when x 0. One has to be careful if x is negative we
always round down here, so 1.1| = 2
Here is a graph of the greatest-integer function.
Figure 22. The greatest-integer function
The greatest-integer function is also called the oor function since is rounds down to the integer
on the oor, below x. Notice a certain symmetry of this function: if we translate the graph up and
38
to the right (at an angle of 45

) then we get the same graph back. In other words, if f(x) = x| then
f(x) = f(x 1) + 1.
A function related to the greatest-integer function is the fractional-part function. The oor function
throws away the decimal part of a positive real number. What if, instead, we keep only the decimal part?
The fractional-part function g(x) = x x| keeps just the remainder, after we remove the integer part.
The fractional-part function is an example of a sawtooth function it is periodic with very sharp
edges!
Figure 23. A graph of the fractional part function.
1.4.4 Resources for function symmetries
Function symmetries are often covered in a section or chapter on function transformations. Here are
some textbook resources on function symmetries.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
even and odd functions are covered in section 1.6, the section on function tranformations. (See page 95.)
Periodic functions are covered in section 10.5, in the study of trigonometric functions.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen (Edition
1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) even and odd functions are covered in section 1.5, the
section on function transformations (see page 71.) Periodic functions are covered in chapter 6 (beginning
at page 353) as that textbook moves from triangle trigonometry to circular functions.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.5, along with the material on transformations. In
the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus, Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com)
this material appears in in section 2.5, along with the material on transformations. (In July 2013 the rst
textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136 at Amazon.com They are even
more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for studying function symmetry. Here are some I recommend.
1. Wikipedia on function parity
2. Pauls online notes on function symmetry
39
3. Applet and exercises at Khan Academy
Worksheet to go with these notes.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.4A, Symmetries of functions, available through
the class webpage.
40
1.5 Function composition
1.5.1 The algebra of functions
Given two functions, say f(x) = x
2
and g(x) = x + 1, we can, in obvious ways, add, subtract, multiply
and divide these functions. For example, the function f + g is dened simply by
(f + g)(x) = x
2
+ (x + 1);
the function f g is dened simply by
(f + g)(x) = x
2
(x + 1).
Similarly
(f g)(x) = (x
2
) (x + 1)
and
(
f
g
)(x) =
x
2
x + 1
.
In the last case we should note that the function (
f
g
)(x) is not dened wherever g(x) is zero and so, in
this case, 1 is not in the domain of (
f
g
)(x) =
x
2
x + 1
.
The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are easily and naturally dened on
functions. But a more important operation between functions is the operation of function composition.
1.5.2 Composing two functions
In an earlier lecture, a function was dened as a map from one set to another, taking each input to
a unique output. If we have a second function acting on the outputs of another, we can combine the
functions, creating the composition of the two functions. If f is a function from the set X into the set Y
and if g is a function from the set Y into the set Z then g f is a function from the set X into the set Z
dened by rst allowing f to map elements of X into Y and then allowing elements of Y to be mapped
by g into Z
Here is a picture of this composition of two functions (copied from the Wikipedia article on function composition):
Figure 24. The function machine
(from Wikipedia, author Tlep, available under the Creative Commons license.)
Notice that in g f, f is the rst function involved while g is the second! We read function notation
(g f)(x) from right to left. (This right-to-left method of creating function composition is due to our
basic function notation, f(x), since we want (g f)(x) to be the same as g(f(x)), inserting x rst into
f and then inserting f(x) into g. In the example above in gure 24, g f maps the elements of X as
follows:
a @
41
b @
c #
d !!
Some dene a function as a machine, taking inputs and generating outputs.
When viewed that way, the composition of two functions will be a sequence of function machines:
Figure 25. The composition g f
(This diagram and the previous were created by Wvbailey and available under the Creative Commons License)
We may take the Wikipedia example and suppose that f(x) = x
2
and that f maps the set R into the
set R. Suppose also, that g(x) = x + 1 and that g maps R to R. Then the function (g f) maps real
numbers to real numbers. The function (g f) maps 3 to 10 since f maps 3 to 3
2
= 9 and g maps 9 to
10.
If f and g are described by an equation then often (g f) can be described by an equation. In this
case (g f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x
2
) = x
2
+ 1. So the composition function can be completely described by
(g f)(x) = x
2
+ 1.
42
1.5.3 Order is important! (f g ,= g f!)
If the codomain of the function f is the same as the domain of the function g, then we can compose rst
f then g to create (g f). Or we can compose rst g then f to create (f g). But here, with the operation
of function composition, the order of composition is important! The function (f g) is probably not the
same function as (g f)!
For example, if f(x) = x
2
and g(x) = x + 1 then (as done above) we have
(g f)(x) = x
2
+ 1.
But on the other hand (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x + 1) = (x + 1)
2
. So
(g f)(x) = x
2
+ 1 but (f g)(x) = (x + 1)
2
.
In elementary algebra we learned the importance of parentheses, for example, that1 + x
2
is quite
dierent from (1 +x)
2
. The use of parentheses and the order of operations is especially important in the
composition of functions. Here squaring and then adding one (g f) is dierent from adding one and
then squaring (f g).
Some worked examples.
Given the functions f and g, below, nd the composition functions f g and g f. The function
(f g)(x) is the same as f(g(x)); (gf)(x) is the same as g(f(x)). Please distinguish between your answer
for f g and g f.
1. f(x) = x
2
1 and g(x) = x + 2
2. f(x) = x
2
+ 1 and g(x) =

3.
3. f(x) = x
2
+ 9 and g(x) =

x.
4. f(x) = x
2
+ 5 and g(x) =

x 5.
Solution.
1. (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x + 2) = (x + 2)
2
1 = x
2
+ 4x + 4 1 = x
2
+ 4x + 3.
(g f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x
2
1) = (x
2
1) + 2 = x
2
+ 1.
(f g)(x) = x
2
+ 4x + 3 and (g f)(x) = x
2
+ 1.
2. f(x) = x
2
+ 1 and g(x) =

3.
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(

3) =

3
2
+ 1 = 3 + 1 = 4.
(g f)(x) = g(f(x)). But g(anything) =

3, so the answer is

3.
(f g)(x) = 4 and (g f)(x) =

3.
3. f(x) = x
2
+ 9 and g(x) =

x.
(f g)(x) = (

x)
2
+ 9 = x + 9.
(g f)(x) =

x
2
+ 9.
(f g)(x) = x + 9 and (g f)(x) =

x
2
+ 9.
43
4. f(x) = x
2
+ 5 and g(x) =

x 5.
(f g)(x) = (

x 5)
2
+ 5 = (x 5) + 5 = x.
(g f)(x) =

x
2
+ 5 5 =

x
2
= [x[.
(f g)(x) = x and (g f)(x) = [x[.
It is convenient at times to break a function down into pieces, so that we may view the function itself
as a composition of two or more functions.
For example, suppose h(x) =

3x + 4. If we input an x-value into h, we rst compute 3x + 4 and

then take the square root. So we may view the function h as a composition of a function g(x) = 3x + 4
and f(x) =

x.
Some more worked examples.
1. For each of the functions f(x) and h(x) below, nd a function g(x) such that h(x) = (f g)(x).
(a) f(x) = 10
x
, h(x) = 10
(x
2
17)
.
(b) f(x) =

x, h(x) =

x
2
+ 4.
Solution.
(a) h(x) = 10
(x
2
17)
= (f g)(x) if g(x) = x
2
17.
(b) h(x) =

x
2
+ 4 = (f g)(x) if g(x) = x
2
+ 4.
2. For each function h given below, decompose h into the composition of two functions f and g so
that h = f g.
(a) h(x) = (x + 5)
2
(b) h(x) =
3

5x
2
+ 1
(c) h(x) = 2
cos x
Solutions.
(a) h(x) = (x + 5)
2
is the composition of g(x) = x + 5 and f(x) = x
2
.
(b) h(x) =
3

5x
2
+ 1 is the composition of g(x) = 5x
2
+ 1 and f(x) =
3

x.
(c) h(x) = 2
cos x
is the composition of g(x) = cos x and f(x) = 2
x
. (We can nd the functions g
and f, even if we have not yet studied the function cos x the notation leads us to the answer!)
1.5.4 Chaining functions together
Once we understand function composition, there is no reason to stop at composing just two functions!
We can compose a chain of functions, running an input x through one function after another.
44
For example, suppose that f(x) = x
2
, g(x) = 3x + 5 and h(x) =

x. If we run x through f, g and h
in that order we get
(h g f)(x) = h(g(f(x))) = h(g(x
2
)) = h(3x
2
+ 5) =

3x
2
+ 5.
There is no limit to the number of functions we can chain together. For example, suppose that
f(x) = x
2
, g(x) = 3x + 5, h(x) =

x and j(x) = cos(x). If we run x through f, g, h and j in that order
we get
(j h g f)(x) = j(h(g(f(x)))) = j(h(g(x
2
))) = j(h(3x
2
+ 5)) = j(

3x
2
+ 5) = cos(

3x
2
+ 5).
(We can do this even if we have not yet studied the cosine function cos(x) we just follow our notation!)
In calculus, after we study the derivative of a function, we will learn to take the derivative of a chain
of functions composed together in this manner. The method we develop there is called the Chain Rule
for derivatives.
1.5.5 Resources for the composition of functions
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
this material is covered in section 5.1.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen (Edition
1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) this material is covered in section 1.4.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.6. In the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus,
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears in section
2.6. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136 at
Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for studying the composition of functions. Here are some I recom-
mend.
In addition to the Wikipedia webpage on function composition there are also
1. Pauls online math notes on function composition.
2. See these Khan Academy videos.
Worksheet to go with these notes.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.5A, Function composition, available through
the class webpage.
45
1.6 Inverse functions
In an earlier lesson, we introduced functions by assigning US citizens a social security number (SSN) or
by assigning students and sta at Sam Houston State University a student ID (SamID)
The function SamID assigns to each student or sta a nine digit number that begins with three
zeroes. (The Sam ID of the author of these notes is 000354765, so SamID(Ken W. Smith) = 000354765.
In practice, it is important not only that SamID be a function, but that the function process can be
reversed. Computer databases at Sam Houston allow a sta member to type in the Sam ID and pull up
information about the student/sta member. Each Sam ID number is linked to a unique student/sta
member!
This is the concept of an inverse function. If SamID maps student/sta to numbers, the inverse
function, SamID
1
maps numbers to student/sta. (So SamID
1
(000354765) = Ken W. Smith.)
1.6.1 The concept of inverse function
In many applications, we need to reverse the function process, asking for the input x associated with an
output y = f(x). We take the old output y and restore the original input x to create x = f
1
(y).
Figure 26. The concept of an inverse function.
(From Wikipedia, released into the public domain by its author Jim.belk at the wikipedia project.)
In the picture above, we have a function f from the set X (the domain) to Y (the codomain.) We
would like to create an inverse function with domain Y that maps back to X. We write f
1
for the new
function that reverses the process of function f.
Suppose f : a, b, c 1, 2, 3 is described by the rst picture below (from the Wikipedia article on
inverse functions.) Then f
1
is described by the second picture. Notice how f
1
reverses the inputs and
outputs.
Figure 27. The concept of an inverse function.
(From Wikipedia, released into the public domain by its author Jim.belk at the wikipedia project.)
46
Warning! The superscript 1 indicates the inverse function. f
1
is not the same as
1
f
.
Not every function has an inverse. Here are some examples. In the rst case, we can reverse the
process; in the second case we cannot.
Examples.
1. Consider the function f(x) = 3x + 5. If we use the letter y for outputs, then we can write this
function in the form y = 3x + 5.
Suppose we are given a particular output y. Can we recover x?
Yes. Lets take the equation y = 3x + 5 and solve for x:
y = 3x + 5 = y 5 = 3x =
y 5
3
= x.
We have discovered that if we are given y then x =
y 5
3
.
This gives x as a function of y! We have a new function, the inverse of the old. We could call this
function g and write
g(y) =
y 5
3
.
The function g is the inverse function of the function f. But it is customary to use x to represent
inputs to a function and to use y for outputs, so in practice we will write
g(x) =
x 5
3
.
(Notice how, at the last moment, merely because of our custom, we have switched the letters x and
y.) It is also customary to write f
1
for the inverse function of f so our nal solution is
f
1
(x) =
x 5
3
.
2. Consider the function f(x) = x
2
with domain R and codomain R.
If we write y = x
2
, and we are given a particular value of y, say y = 25, can we reverse the process
and nd x?
No, not in this case, for both x = 5 and x = 5 are mapped to y = 25 by this function. There are
two dierent inputs that are both mapped to 25 so we cannot reverse our process in a unique way.
The function f(x) = x
2
, with domain R, does not have an inverse function.
1.6.2 Changing the domain in order to create an inverse function.
Occasionally, if a function does not have an inverse, we may be able to alter the domain of a function
so that, on the new domain, the function is invertible. We can do that in this last example. We could
change our function f(x) = x
2
so that the domain is the interval [0, ) instead of (, ). If we agree
that no negative numbers are input into this function, then the ambiguity about x goes away. If y = 25
then x must be equal to 5, not 5.
In this case, if f : [0, ) (, ) is dened by f(x) = x
2
then the inverse function is f
1
(x) =

x.
When does a function f have an inverse? It turns out that there are two critical properties necessary
for a function f to be invertible. The function needs to be one-to-one and onto.
47
1.6.3 Finding the inverse of a function
A function f : D C has an inverse f
1
: D C if and only if f is both a one-to-one function and an
onto function.
If the function f is onto then every element of C has at least one preimage back in D. If the function
f is one-to-one then every element of C which has a preimage has a unique preimage. (Recall that this
uniqueness is the critical part of the denition of a function!)
(We will examine the concepts one-to-one and onto in more detail in a later section.)
Finding an inverse function by reversing the operations
Sometimes it is obvious that function has an inverse. Sometimes a function may be dened in terms of
a sequence of operations and each of them is reversible. For example, consider the function f(x) = x+4.
What does f do to an input? Easy it adds 4 to every input. How would one reverse that? By subtracting
4 from every input. So f
1
(x) = x 4.
Consider the function f(x) = 3x. What does f do to every input? It multiplies each input x by 3.
How would one reverse multiplication by 3. By dividing by 3. So the inverse function must divide each
input by 3. With this simple logic, we see that f
1
(x) =
x
3
.
One more example, the more complicated invertible function seen earlier: suppose f(x) = 3x + 5.
What is the inverse function? The function f(x) = 3x+5 rst multiplies the input by 3 and then adds 5.
So to reverse this function process we should rst subtract 5 and then divide by 3. So the inverse function
should be f
1
(x) =
x 5
3
. (Notice that when we reverse the processes here, we also reversed the order
of the operations. The function f multiplies and then adds so f
1
must rst subtract and then divide.)
Finding an inverse function algebraically
If the function f(x) is dened by an equation then we can also nd the inverse algebraically. One way
to do this is to write out the equation y = f(x) and solve for x, getting a function x = g(y).
Once this is done, we bow to custom and swap the letters x and y so that x represents the input for
our new function and y represents the output. Thus our nal answer will be y = g(x).
Here are some worked exercises.
Some worked exercises. Use algebra to nd the inverse function of each function given below.
1. f(x) = x + 4
2. f(x) = 3x
3. f(x) = 3x + 5.
4. f(x) =

x
3
+ 9
5. f(x) =
1
x + 1
Solutions. Notice that the rst three functions have already been solved before! Now we will do them
algebraically. (Hopefully we will get the same answer!) The last two are a little more complicated.
1. To nd the inverse of f(x) = x + 4 we write y = x + 4 and then solve for x by subtracting 4 from
both sides: y 4 = x. Now that we have solved for x, we swap letters x and y and write x 4 = y.
So our answer is
f
1
(x) = x 4.
2. To nd the inverse of f(x) = 3x we write y = 3x and then solve for x by dividing both sides by 3:
y/3 = x. Now that we have solved for x, we swap letters x and y and write x/3 = y. So our answer
is
48
f
1
(x) = x/3.
3. To nd the inverse of f(x) = 3x+5 we write y = 3x+5 and then solve for x by subtracting 5 from
both sides and then dividing both sides by 3, to get
y 5
3
= x. Now that we have solved for x, we
swap letters x and y and write
x 5
3
= y. So our answer is
f
1
(x) =
x 5
3
.
4. To nd the inverse of f(x) =

x
3
+ 9 we write y =

x
3
+ 9 and then solve for x by squaring both
sides:
y
2
= x
3
+ 9,
then subtracting 9 from both sides,
y
2
9 = x
3
,
and then taking the cube root of both sides,
3

y
2
9 = x.
Now that we have solved for x, we swap letters x and y and write
y =
3

x
2
9.
So our answer is
f
1
(x) =
3

x
2
9.
5. To nd the inverse of f(x) =
1
x + 1
we write y =
1
x + 1
and solve for x by rst multiplying both
sides by the denominator x + 1. So
y(x + 1) = 1.
Now, to solve for x , we need to isolate x. Lets multiply out:
yx + y = 1
and subtract y from both sides,
yx = 1 y.
Finally we can solve for x by dividing both sides by y:
x =
1 y
y
.
We have done all the important algebra. The last step is to swap variables:
y =
1 x
x
and so we have our answer
f
1
(x) =
1 x
x
.
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1.6.4 The geometric meaning of inverse (and the horizontal line test)
When we create the inverse function, we interchange the inputs and outputs, creating a new function
whose inputs are the old outputs and whose outputs are the old inputs. Geometrically, on the Cartesian
plane, this has the eect of interchanging x and y and so swapping the x-axis with the y-axis.
We can swap the x-axis with the y-axis if we reect our graph across the line y = x. Here (from the
Wikipedia article on inverse functions) is a picture displaying that eect. The graph of y = f(x) (in red)
is reected across the line y = x to become the graph of y = f
1
(x) in blue.
Figure 28. The graph of a function (in red) and its inverse (in blue)
(From Wikipedia, released into the public domain by its author Jim.belk.)
1.6.5 The mathematical meaning of inverse
In mathematics, the inverse of an operation is something that undoes, reverses the operation. If our
operation is addition then the inverse of 4 is 4. (4 is called the additive inverse of 4.) If our
operation is multiplication then the inverse of 4 is
1
4
. (
1
4
is called the multiplicative inverse of 4.) If
we are composing functions then the inverse of f is the inverse function f
1
. These types of inverses are
dierent; dont confuse them!
If we compose f and f
1
we get the function which merely maps x to x. This is the identity
function. For example, if f(x) = x+4 then the function f adds four to the input x. The inverse function
g(x) = x 4 subtracts four from the input. If we apply f and then g we will rst add four to x and then
subtract four, returning to the original input. In functional notation,
g(f(x)) = g(x + 4) = (x + 4) 4 = x.
A worked exercise.
1. Verify, by function composition, that f(x) =

x
3
+ 9 and g(x) =
3

x
2
9 are inverse functions.
Solution. We compute
(g f)(x) = g(

x
3
+ 9) =
3

x
3
+ 9)
2
9 =
3

(x
3
+ 9) 9 =
3

(x
3
= x.
So
(g f)(x) = x.
Similarly, we can compute
(f g)(x) = f(
3

x
2
9) =

(
3

x
2
9)
3
+ 9 =

(x
2
9) + 9 =

x
2
= x.
(Here we need to assume that x is not negative.) So
(f g)(x) = x.
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Since the composition of f and g (in either order) return x to x, f and g are inverse functions.
1.6.6 Requirements for the existence of an inverse function*
A function f : D C has an inverse f
1
: D C if and only if f is both a one-to-one function and an
onto function.
If the function f is onto then every element of C has at least one preimage back in D. If the function
f is one-to-one then every element of C which has a preimage has a unique preimage.
One-to-one functions.
A function like f(x) = x
2
maps two dierent inputs, x = 5 and x = 5, to the same output, y = 25.
But with a one-to-one function no pair of inputs give the same output.
Here is a function we saw earlier. This function is not one-to-one since both the inputs x = 2 and
x = 3 give the output y = C.
Figure 2, from section 1.1 (From Wikipedia)
We can dene one-to-one function more formally, as a mathematical implication:
A function f is one-to-one if f(a) = f(b) = a = b.
One can think of this implication this way: A function is one-to-one if whenever it appears that two
inputs a and b give the same output then in fact a and b were the same.
Lets show that the function f(x) = 3x+5 dened earlier is one-to-one. We do this is a series of steps:
1. Suppose that f(a) = f(b).
2. Then 3a + 5 = 3b + 5.
3. Subtract 5 from both sides to get 3a = 3b.
4. Divide both sides by 3 to get a = b.
Since we have shown that f(a) = f(b) implies a = b, then the function f(x) is one-to-one.
Other common terms for one-to-one functions.
A one-to-one function is sometimes called an injection or an injective function. Wikipedia uses
the term injective function in their article here.
Onto functions
A function f : D C is onto if every possible output in C is truly an output, that is, if the range of
f is equal to the entire codomain C.
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Figure 2, again.
In gure 2, above, the function is not onto because the element B is the codomain is not an output. (The
element A is also not an output of the function.) In gure 2, the codomain is Y = A, B, C, D but the
range is just C, D.
If f(x) = y then we say that y is the image of x and that x is the preimage of y. If a function
f : D C is onto then every element of the codomain has a preimage.
Other common terms for onto functions.
An onto function is sometimes called a surjection or a surjective function. Wikipedia uses the
term surjective function in their article here.
1.6.7 Resources for inverse functions
In the free textbook, Precalculus, by Stitz and Zeager (version 3, July 2011, available at stitz-zeager.com)
this material is covered in section 5.2.
In the free textbook, Precalculus, An Investigation of Functions, by Lippman and Rassmussen (Edition
1.3, available at www.opentextbookstore.com) this material is covered in section 1.6.
In the textbook by Ratti & McWaters, Precalculus, A Unit Circle Approach, 2nd ed., c. 2014,
here at Amazon.com this material appears in section 1.7. In the textbook by Stewart, Precalculus,
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th ed., c. 2012, (here at Amazon.com) this material appears in section
2.7. (In July 2013 the rst textbook was $147 at Amazon.com and the second textbook was $136 at
Amazon.com They are even more expensive in campus bookstores.)
There are lots of online resources for studying function inverses. Here are some I recommend.
1. The Wikipedia article on inverse functions is excellent. It includes links to the articles on injective functions
and surjective functions.
2. Pauls online notes on on inverse functions.
3. Khan Academy video and examples on inverse functions.
Worksheet to go with these notes.
As class homework, please complete Worksheet 1.6A, Inverse functions, available through the
class webpage.
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