Physics (Worked Answers)

Part A
Worked solutions

Jacaranda Physics 1, 3rd edition, Teacher Support Kit 2 John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2009
Unit
1

Area of study 1:
Nuclear physics and
radioactivity
Jacaranda Physics 1, 3rd edition, Teacher Support Kit
Part A WORKED SOLUTIONS

Chapter 1
Radiation from
the nucleus
1. (a) 30 protons, 36 neutrons
(b) 90, 140
(c) 20, 25
(d) 14, 17
2. (a)
4
2
He
(b)
13
7
N
(c)
234
91
Pa
3. (a) Gold: 79 protons, 118 neutrons
(b) Bismuth: 83 protons, 127 neutrons
(c) Lead: 82 protons, 128 neutrons
4. The number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) does not
determine the element a particular atom may be. It is the
number of protons that determines an element.
5. (a) A radioisotope is an unstable isotope of an atom that
can become more stable by emitting radiation from
its nucleus.
6. and particles and -rays are emitted from the nucleus.
7. (a) ,
, (b) ,
,
8. (a)
: a neutron has transformed into a proton and a

is released.
(b)
: a neutron has transformed into a proton and a

is released.
(c) : the released particle has two protons and two
neutrons.
9. decay
(a)
( )
226 4 222
88 2 86
Ra Rn energy
radon
+ +
(b)
( )
214 4 210
84 2 82
Po Pb energy
lead
+ +
(c)
( )
241 4 237
95 2 93
Am Np energy
neptunium
+ +
10.
decay
(a)
( )
0 60 60
27 28 1
Co e N energy
nickel
+ +
(b)
( )
0 90 90
38 39 1
Sr e Y energy
yttrium
+ +
(c)
( )
0 32 32
15 16 1
P e S energy
sulfur
+ +
11.
24 24
12 12
Mg* Mg +
12. (a)
4 Z 4
A 2 A 2
X D energy
z
+ +
(b)
0 Z Z
A 1 A+1
X e E energy
+ +
(c)
Z Z
A A
X* X +
(d)
27 2 28 1
13 1 14 0
AI H Si n energy + + +
(e)
22 4 25 1
11 2 12 1
Na He Mg H energy + + +
13. 1 eV = 1.6 10
19
J
6
6 19
13
1.71 MeV = 1.7110 eV
= 1.7 10 eV 1.6 10 J/eV
= 2.74 10 J

14.
0 90 90
39 40 1
Y e Zr.
+ See the following figure.

15.
decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus is trans-

formed into a proton. In order for the neutral neutron to
gain a positive charge and become a proton it must also
release a particle with a negative charge equal in size to
that of the proton. The particle released is an electron.
16. Safety precautions needed for isotopes producing
radiation:
Store in sealed cardboard boxes.
Handle with gloves.
Safety precautions needed for isotopes producing
radiation:
Store in aluminium containers with walls several
millimetres thick.
Shield against, with aluminium of at least several
millimetres thick.
Safety precautions needed for isotopes producing
radiation:
Store in thick (several centimetres) lead containers.
Shield against, using lead which is several centimetres
thick.
17. It would be more dangerous to stand next to a source of
high activity (decays per second) and short half-life since
exposure would be significant in a short time frame.
18.
238 206
92 82
U Pb + ?
The release of particles does not result in a change in
mass number. As mass number changes from 238 to
206 decay is involved. 238 206 = 32, therefore a
change of 32 nucleons. Each particle released reduces
mass number by 4, therefore 8 particles released.

Each particle released reduces atomic number by 2,
therefore 8 particles reduces atomic number by
16, new atomic number of 76. This is 6 too few for
82
Pb, therefore 6 extra protons result from decay.
Therefore, to change from
238
92
U to
206
82
Pb , the atom
releases 8 particles and 6 particles.
19. (a) 7 decays and 4 decays, (b) 6 decays and 4
decays
20. No, unless the alpha source is right up against the badge.
Although there may be some exposure from Radon gas
which is more likely in a mine.
21. Astatine 218
22. No, the total changes in atomic number and mass number
are identical.
23. Approximately 2 hours: the time at which half of the
protons remain. This can be read directly from the graph.
24.

25.
1
2
= 5730 years t
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 4 8
1 g g g g
2 3 t t t

3 half-lives to get from 1 g to
1
8
g
3 5730 years = 17 190 years.
26.
1
2
120 s 2 min t = =
Method 1:
2 pm 1 g = 1 2
0
g
1:58 2 g = 1 2
1
g
1:56 4 g = 1 2
2
g
1:54 8 g = 1 2
3
g
1:52 16 g = 1 2
4
g
x half-lives before 2 pm, amount is 1 2
x
g
at 1:30 pm, 15 half-lives before 2 pm, amount is
1 2
15
g = 33 mg
Method 2:
A
0
= ?
1
2
F 0
2
t
t
A A
=

A
F
= 1 g = 1 10
6
g
30
2
6
0
1 10 2 A
=

t = 30 min 2
15
1 10
6
= A
0
1
2
2 min t = A
0
= 33 mg
27. (a) 27.0, 13.5, 6.75, 3.375, 1.69 kBq
(b) The graph should have a similar shape to the one in
question 24.
(c) (i) 23 kBq (ii) 25 kBq
(d) The activity will decrease over time and eventually
the alarm will be on permanently.
(e) The alarm could be redesigned to reset to the new
current level every time the battery is changed.
(f) Disposal: Landfill Being an emitter, the smoke
detector is quite safe. Alternatively the Americium
could be recycled and reprocessed.
(g) Am 241 Np 237 Pa 233 U 233 Th
229 Ra 225 Ac 225 Fr 221 At 217 Bi
213 Tl 209 Pb 209 Bi 209 Tl 205. Note:
this is the fourth now extinct decay chain mentioned
in the text.
28. 3 half lives in 6.0 hours give a half life of 2.0 hours.
29. 4 half lives means the activity is reduced by a factor of
()
4
= 1/16 to 16 GBq.
3 half lives in 6.0 hours give a half life of 2.0 hours.
30. Free radicals and ions are very chemically reactive and
may result in new chemical reactions taking place. For
example, the production of H
+
and OH
ions may react

with molecules either causing damage to DNA (genetic
mutations may be passed on) or to mechanisms for
controlling cell division (forming cancer), or interfering
with the production of molecules necessary for the life of
a cell (this may cause the cell to die).
31. Energy absorbed = absorbed dose mass
= 3 10
3
30
= 9 10
2
J
32. Absorbed dose
energy absorbed
mass
=

2
3
9 10
60
1.5 10 Gy
1.5 mGy
=
=
=

33. If radiation quality factor = 1
dose equivalent = absorbed dose quality factor
= 3 10
3
1
= 3 10
3
Sv
34. Quality factor = 20
dose equivalent = absorbed dose quality factor
= 1.5 10
3
20
= 30 10
3
Sv
= 30 mSv
35. Alpha () particles cause a lot of localised damage. They
give much of their energy quickly to nearby atoms (i.e.
they are stopped over short distances).
36. Using table 4.3, p. 89: >40 Sv will cause death within
48 h.
As radiation quality factor = 1 dose eq. = abs. dose
energy absorbed = absorbed dose mass
= 40 80
= 3200 J
37. Dose equivalent takes into account the different types of
damage caused by different forms of ionising radiation.
38. In its early stages, the foetus consists only of a few cells
which divide to form the rest of the baby. If these cells
are damaged, the foetus may not be able to form properly.

39. Suggested lifestyle changes might include not flying in
planes, avoiding certain medical procedures (e.g. X-rays),
living closer to sea level, not smoking and staying away
from smokers.
40. Assuming a body mass of 60 kg, gives 60 2.0 10
3

Joules. 1.0 MeV = 10
6
1.6 10
19
Joules. So the
number of particles per year is (60 2.0 10
3
)/
(10
6
1.6 10
19
) = 7.5 10
11
of particles per year,
which is 24 000 of particles per second.
41. Cancer cells are more rapidly growing than normal tissue.
Cells are more vulnerable to radiation damage when they
are dividing. This means that more cancer cells are killed
than normal cells.
42. Yes, particles will be absorbed by the air in the detector
and will not enter the atmosphere in the room.
43. radiation is more penetrating, so the sterilisation will be
more uniform across a sample.

Unit
1

Area of study 2:
Electricity

Chapter 2
Current electricity
1. After leaving the negative terminal, the electron is able to
move freely through the conductor. When it reaches the
globe, the type of material through which it is travelling
(most likely tungsten) changes. The path becomes
narrower and the electron makes repeated collisions with
atoms in the filament, converting electrical potential
energy into internal energy, increasing the temperature of
the filament. After leaving the filament, the electron
travels freely back to the cells positive terminal.
In the cell, the electron is absorbed into the chemicals
in the cell while other electrons are forced out of the
chemicals and into the circuit.
2. Conventional current is in the direction that positive
charges would flow if they were free to do so. Electron
current is in the direction that electrons would flow, i.e.
from the negative terminal of a cell.
3. Direct current: the charge carriers move in only one
direction.
Alternating current: the charge carriers periodically
change direction (backwards and forwards).
4. Dry cells, photovoltaic cells, capacitors, power packs,
thermocouples.
5. Q = It
= 2.5 15
= 37.5 C
6.
45
45 mA
1000
0.045 A
=
=

7. 2.3 10
4
A = 2.3 10
4
10
3
= 2.3 10
1
= 0.23 mA
8. 450 A = 450 10
6
= 4.5 10
4
A
9. No. Electrons cannot be destroyed. They transform energy
as they pass through the filament of the globe. Current
electricity is the movement of charged particles along a
path. Current is not used up in a light globe. The current
flowing into a globe is equal to the current flowing out of
it.
10. (a) 160 mA (b) 16 mA (c) 1.6 A
11. Q = It
I = 3.5 A
t = 20 60 = 1200 s
Q = 3.5 1200
= 4.2 10
3
C
12.
15
50
0.30 A
=
=
=
Q
I
t

13. Halve the current halve the velocity. Therefore,
8.0 10
5
m s
1
.
14.
energy
1.05 J
0.70 C
1.5 V
E
Q
=
=
=

15. Potential difference Energy Charge
3.3 V 32 J 9.6 C
6.0 V 4 J 670 mC
9.0 V 31.5 J 3.5 C
12 V 1.02 J 85 mC
4.5 V 12 J 2.7 C
240 V 7.5 kJ 31.25 C
16. (a) 2.3 V
(b) 11.5 V
(c) 23 V
17. Energy = QV
Energy = 5.7 10
6
6.0
Energy = 3.42 10
5
J
18. Energy = QV

Energy
Q
V
=

4
3.6 10
6.0
=
= 6.0 10
5
C
= 60 C
19. (a)
P
I
V
=

60
240
=
= 0.25 A
(b)
P
I
V
=

40
12
=
= 3.3 A
(c)
P
I
V
=

6.3
6.0
=
= 1.05 A
(d)
P
I
V
=

1200
240
=
= 5.0 A

20. (a) Each coulomb of charge passing through the heater
will transform 240 J of energy.
(b) Energy = QV
Energy = 25 240
Energy = 6.0 10
3
J
21. Energy = VIt
Energy = 12 2.0 30 60
Energy = 43 200 J
Energy = 4.3 10
4
J
22. P = VI
P = 12 2
P = 24 W
23. Energy = Pt

Energy
t
P
=

4
5.4 10
600
90 s
=
=

24. P = VI
P = 240 10
P = 2400
P = 2.4 kW
25. V = 240 V
I = 3.3 A
Energy = 3.2 10
4
W
t = ?
Energy = VIt

Energy
= t
VI

4
3.2 10
240 3.3
40.4 s
=

26.
Energy
9.0J
6.0C
1.5V
=
=
=
E
Q

27. Energy = VIt
= 6.0 V 3.0 A 60 s
= 1080 J or 1.08 10
3
J
28. Potential difference Current Resistance
32 V 8.0 A 4.0
48.4 V 22 mA 2.2 k
12 V 2.0 A 6.0
240 V 3.0 10
3
A 8.0 10
4

9.0 V 6.0 A 1.5
1.5 V 45 mA 33.3
29. (a) orange = 3
white = 9
black = 0
gold = 5%
R = 39 5%
= 39 2
(b) green = 5
blue = 6
orange = 3
silver = 10%
R = 56 000 10%
= 56 000 5600
(c) violet = 7
green = 5
yellow = 4
gold = 5%
R = 750 000 5%
= 750 37.5 k
30. (a)
2
3 2
6 2
4
3.142 (1.63 10 m)
4
2.1 10 m
=

=
=
d
A
(b)
=
=
L
R
A
RA
L

(c)
6 2
7
5.00 2.1 10 m
41.5 m
2.5 10 m

=
=

(d) R L
double L double R
Therefore, 10.0 .
(e)
2
2
1
4
1
=

d
R A
A
R
d

If d is halved R is multiplied by 4.
Therefore, 20.0 .
31. (a) Non-ohmic. The graph of I vs V is non-linear.
(b) 0
(c)
0.5
0
(infinity)
V
R
I
=
=
=

(d) 20 mA I =
0.65V V =

0.65
0.020
32.5
V
R
I
=
=
=

32. P = VI
or P = I
2
R
= (0.30 A)
2
5.0
= 0.45 W

33.
2
2
=
=
V
P
R
V
R
P

(a)
2
(240)
60
960
=
=
R
(b)
2
6.0
6.3
5.7
=
=
R
(c)
2
12
40
3.6
=
=
R
34.
2
240
48
1200 W
=
=
=
V
P
R

Chapter 3
Circuit analysis
1. (a) Junction: a connection between two or more con-
ducting paths.
(b) Open circuit: a circuit in which the conducting path
is broken so that no current flows.
(c) Voltage drop: the amount of electrical potential
energy converted in a load for every coulomb of
charge passing through it.
(d) Earth: a connection of part of the circuit to the earth,
making that part of the circuit be at zero volt.
(e) Series: circuit elements connected one after the other.
(f) Parallel: circuit elements connected side by side.
(g) Short circuit: the bypassing of a circuit element by
the connection of a conductor in parallel with the
element.
2. (a) Into = 3.0 A
Away = 1.5 A + I
a
I
a
= 1.5 A away from junction.
(b) Into = 2.5 A + I
b
Away = 7.3 A
I
b
= 4.8 A into the junction.
(c) Into = 1.3 A + 4.2 A + I
c
Away = 2.9 A + 3.7 A
I
c
= 6.6 A + 5.5 A
= 1.1 A into the junction.
3. V
a
= 9.0 V
V
b
= 9.0 V
V
c
= V
b
V
bc
= 9.0 5.0 V
= 4.0 V
V
d
= 0.0 V (earthed)
4. (a) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
= 2.7 + 9.8
= 12.5
(b) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
= 12 + 20 + 30
= 62
(c) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
= 1.2 + 3.2 + 11
= 15.4 k
5. I
a
= 1.0 A (series circuit)
V
1
= IR
1
= 1.0 4.0
= 4.0 V
V
2
= 2.0 V (E = V
1
+ V
2
)

2
2
2.0
1.0
2.0
V
R
I
=
=
=

6. (a) In a series circuit,
I
a
= I
b
I
a
= 2.0 A
I
b
= 2.0 A
(b) V
bc
= IR
2
V
bc
= 2.0 30
V
bc
= 60 V
(c)
ab
1
20
2.0
10
=
=
=
V
R
I

(d) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
R
eff
= 10 + 30
R
eff
= 40
(e) E = V
ab
+ V
bc
E = 20 V + 60 V
E = 80 V
7. (a) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
R
eff
= 20 + 30
R
eff
= 50
(b)
eff
100
50
2.0 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(c) 20 V = IR
= 2.0 20
= 40 V
30 V = IR
= 2.0 30
= 60 V

(d)

8. (a) R
eff
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
R
eff
= 3.0 + 5.0 + 4.0
R
eff
= 12.0
(b)
eff
12
12.0
1.0 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(c) 3.0 V = IR
= 1.0 3.0
= 3.0 V
5.0 V = IR
= 1.0 5.0
= 5.0 V
4.0 V = IR
= 1.0 4.0
= 4.0 V
(d) V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
= 3.0 V + 5.0 V + 4.0 V
= 12.0 V
9. (a) R
eff
= 1000 + 1500
= 2500

eff
25
2500
0.010 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(b) First person V
1
= IR
1
= 0.010 1000
= 10 V
Second person V
2
= IR
2
= 0.010 1500
= 15 V
10. (a)
eff 1 2
1 1 1
1 1
30 20
2 3
60 60
R R R
= +
= +
= +

5
60
=

eff
60
12
5
= = R
(b)
eff 1 2 3
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
5 10 30
6 3 1
30 30 30
10
30
= + +
= + +
= + +
=
R R R R

eff
30
3.0
10
= = R
(c)
eff 1 2 3
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
15 60 60
4 1 1
60 60 60
6
60
= + +
= + +
= + +
=
R R R R

eff
60
10
6
= = R
(d)
eff 1 2 3
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
20 50 80
20 8 5
400 400 400
33
400
= + +
= + +
= + +
=
R R R R

eff
400
33
12.1
R =
=

11. I
a
= 1.5 A
V
1
= 6.0 V
V
2
= 6.0 V

1
1
1
6.0 V
6.0
1.0 A
V
I
R
=
=
=

2 a 1
2
2
2
1.5 A 1.0 A
0.5 A
6.0
0.5
I I I
V
R
I
=
=
=
=
=

= 12
12. (a) V
ab
= I
1
R
1
= 0.20 A 60
= 12 V

(b) V
cd
= 12 V
(c) E = 12 V
(d) I
2
= I
T
I
1
I
2
= 0.50 A 0.20 A
I
2
= 0.30 A
(e)
cd
2
2
12V
0.30 A
40
=
=
=
V
R
I

13. (a)
eff 1 2
1 1 1
1 1
10 10
2
10
R R R
= +
= +
=

R
eff
= 5.0
(b)
eff
eff
15
5.0
3.0 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(c)
1
1
15
10
1.5 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

Similarly I
2
= 1.5 A
14. (a)
eff
1 1 1 1
60 30 20
1 2 3
60 60 60
6
60
= + +
= + +
=
R

eff
60
6
10
R =
=

(b)
eff
90
10
9.0 A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(c) 60 =
V
I
R

90 V
60
=

= 1.5 A

30 =
V
I
R

90 V
30
3.0 A
=
=

20 =
V
I
R

90 V
20
4.5 A
=
=

15. (a)
1 1
1
6.0 = =
V
R I
R

36 V
6.0
6.0 A
=
=

2 2
2
18 = =
V
R I
R

36 V
18
2.0 A
=
=

3 3
3
9.0 = =
V
R I
R

36 V
9.0
4.0 A
=
=

(b)
T 1 2 3
6.0 A 2.0 A 4.0 A
12 A
I I I I = + +
= + +
=

(c)
eff
36 V
12 A
3.0
E
R
I
=
=
=

16. (a) G
1
, G
2
, G
3

(b) G
1
, G
3

(c) G
1
17.

eff 1 2
1 1 1
1 1
0
= +
= +
=
R R R
R

eff
1
0 = =
R

18. (a) 6 mA
(b) 140 V
(c)
3
140 V
16 10 A
8.75 k
V
R
I
=
=
=

19. (a) V = IR
= 6.0 10
3
A 5.0 10
3

= 30 V
(b) 6.0 mA
(c) 100 V (from graph)
(d) V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
= 100 V + 30 V
= 130 V
20. (a) V = IR
= 20 10
3
A 5.0 10
3

= 100 V
(b) 100 V
(c) 6 mA
(d) I
T
= 20 mA + 6 mA
= 26 mA
21. (a) The emf of a power supply is a measure of the
amount of electrical potential energy provided to the
circuit for every coulomb of charge passing through
the supply.
A voltage drop is a measure of the amount of
energy converted in a load for every coulomb of
charge passing through it.
(b) The emf of a battery is greater than its terminal
voltage when there is a current flowing through the
battery and it has an internal resistance.
22. (a) Internal resistance in a cell is caused by:
a build-up of the products of the chemical reaction
that produces electricity
the conductivity of the electrolyte in the cell
the temperature of the cell.
(b) As a cell gets older, its internal resistance rises.
23. E = V
ext
I
r
I = 0 E = V
ext
E = 9.0 V
V
ext
= 8.0 V when I = 1.0 A
E = V
ext
I
r
9.0 V = 8.0 V 1.0 r
r = 1.0
24.

(a)
eff
eff
4.5
1.5
4.5
0.33 A
=
=
=
=
R
E
I
R

(b) V
ext
= IR
= 0.33 4.0
= 1.33 V
25. (a) E
eff
= 3.0 V
r
eff
= r
1
+ r
2
= 0.5 + 0.5
= 1.0
(b)
eff 1 2
1.5 V
1 1 1
1 1
0.5 0.5
E
r r r
=
= +
= +

eff
0.25 r =
26. (a)
eff 1 2 3
eff
25 15 10
50
10
50
0.20 A
R R R R
E
I
R
= + +
= + +
=
=
=
=

(b) 25
0.2 25
5.0 V
15
0.2 15
3.0 V
10
0.2 10
2.0 V
V IR
V IR
V IR
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(c) 25
5.0 0.2
1.0 W
15
3.0 0.2
0.6 W
10
2.0 0.2
0.4 W
P VI
P VI
P VI
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(d) P
T
= P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= 1.0 + 0.6 + 0.4
= 2.0 W

27. (a)
eff
1 1 1 1
25 15 10
6 10 15
150 150 150
31
150
= + +
= + +
=
R

eff
150
31
R =
= 4.8

eff
10 31
1 150
2.1A
=
=
=
E
I
R

(b) V across each resistor = 10 V
(c) 25 =
2
V
P
R

2
(10 V)
25
4.0 W
=
=

15 =
2
V
P
R

2
(10 V)
15
6.7 W
=
=

10 =
2
V
P
R

2
(10 V)
10
10 W
=
=

(d) P
T
= P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= 4.0 + 6.7 + 10
= 21.7 W
28. The voltage provided by the supply is constant. The
power provided by the supply is equal to the current
through the supply multiplied by the voltage provided. So
the larger the current, the larger the power provided.
Henrietta is correct since a smaller resistance gives a
larger current.
29.

The circuit consumes/dissipates more power when the
light is bright since the current flowing through the globe
is greater and for the circuit P = EI.
30.

A current will flow through the globe only when both
switches are up or down.
Chapter 4
Using electrical
energy
1. It is an alternating current.
The voltage varies between +340 V and 340 V.
The voltage oscillates 50 times per second.
The voltage provides heating effects equivalent to a DC
voltage of 240 V.
2. An overload is when too many appliances are connected
to a circuit. The overall effect is to draw too much
current. This can cause wires to melt or materials
surrounding the wires to catch fire.
3. Active brown; neutral blue; earth green-and-
yellow striped
4. Active red; neutral black; earth green.
Colourblind electricians cant distinguish between red
and green.
5.

6. The neutral wire is used to provide an insulated path for
the electricity to return to the generator. The earth wire
connects the metal case of the appliance to earth so that if
a live active wire accidentally contacts the outer case, a
low resistance path for the electricity to return to earth is
provided.
7. The earth wire is used in household lighting circuits when
the light fittings have a metal case. Plastic and glass
fittings do not need to be earthed.
8. Energy in kW-h = power rating (in kW) time (h)
time = 365 12 = 4380 h
power rating = 0.300 kW
Energy = 0.300 kW 4380 h
= 1314 kW-h
Cost = energy rate
= 1314 11.87
= 15 597.18 cents
= $155.97
= $156 (to three significant figures)

9. V = 240 V R = 24
(a)
2
2
Power
240
24
2400 W
2.4 kW
=
=
=
=
V
R

(b)
240
24
10 A
=
=
=
V
I
R

(c) Energy = P (kW) t (h)
= 2.4 5
= 12 kW-h
Cost = energy rate
= 12 kW-h $0.12
= $1.44
10. (a) Product Energy kW-h
Computer 127
Computer monitor 28.9
Cordless phone equipment 32.4
Modem 29.8
DVD player 21.0
Television 54.3
VCR 51.7
(b) 498 kg CO
2

11. An electric shock is a violent disturbance of the nervous
system caused by an electrical discharge or current
through the body. Electrocution is death resulting from an
electric shock.
12. Breaks or cuts in the skin; water
13. Nerve impulses are electrical in nature. The size of the
current will influence the size and type of muscle
contraction.
14. Fibrillation is the disorganised rapid contraction of
separate parts of the heart so that it pumps no blood.
15. Your muscles would contract and you could grip onto the
victim and not be able to let go.
16. The longer the time of exposure, the more severe the
shock.
17. Double insulation is a way to protect the user of hand-
held appliances. There are two separate layers of
insulation between the functional parts of the appliance
and the user.
18. V = IR

L
R
A
=
I L
V
A

I = 500 A
A = 2.0 10
4
m
2

L = 2.0 10
8
m
= 2.65 10
8
m

8 2
4
3
500 2.65 10 2.0 10
2.0 10
1.3 10 V
V

=

19. Voltage doesnt flow, current does. The paper should
have reported that there was a voltage drop across his
body of 50 000 V.
It is the size of the current that determines the amount
of injury. It is not the voltage that kills.
20. Leadacid batteries can be recharged. They can give a
high current with little drop in output voltage.
21. The loom contains wires which form a part of every
circuit in an automobile. The loom is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. The other side of the load
is connected to the car body which is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
22. (a) V
ext
= E Ir
= 12 50 0.04
= 10 V
(b) P = EI
= 12 50
= 600 W
(c) P = I
2
r
= 50
2
0.04
= 100 W
(d)
capacity
current
80
50
1.6 h (1 hour 36 minutes)
t =
=
=

23. (a)
capacity
Time
current
120
400
0.30 h
18 min
=
=
=
=

(b) Q = It t = 18 10 = 1080 s
= 400 1080
= 432 000
= 4.32 10
5
C
(c) The chemical reaction that produces the emf
produces products that increase the internal resistance
of the battery. Also, the chemicals involved in the
reaction are used up.
24. (a) = P VI
=
P
I
V

360 W
12 V
30 A
=
=

(b)
6
Energy 4.0 3600 s 14 400 s
360 14 400
5.2 10 J
P t t = = =
=
=

(c) Current capacity current time
30 A 4.0 h
120 A-h
=
=
=

25. 12 V
0.2
E
r
=
=

(a)
ext
12 25 0.2
12 5.0
7.0 V
V E Ir =
=
=
=

(b)
2
2
144
40
3.6
V
P
R
V
R
P
=
=
=
=

(c) 7.0 V
3.6
?
7.0
3.6
1.9 A
V
R
I
V
I
R
=
=
=
=
=
=

(d)
7.0 1.9
13.3 W
P VI =
=
=

(e) The lights dim because internal resistance and high
current reduce the external voltage in the battery.

Unit
2

Area of study 1:
Motion

Chapter 5
Analysing movement
1. (b) displacement, (d) velocity and (e) acceleration. In
each case, both magnitude and direction are required
for a complete description.
2. (a) distance = 5 znotters + 12 znotters = 17 znotters
(b)

magnitude of displacement =
2 2
5 12 +
= 13 znotters
tan =
5
12

= 23
Displacement is 13 znotters at an angle of 23 north
of west (270 + 23 = 293 True).
(c) average velocity =
displacement
time

=
13 znotters
6.5 znitters
at 23 north of west
= 2 znotter znitter
1
at 23 north of west
average speed =
displacement
time

=
17 znotters
6.5 znitters

= 2.6 znotter znitter
1
(d)
v
a
t

Units are therefore
1
2
znotter znitter
znotter znitter
znitter
=

3.
1
1
100 km
100 km h
1h
100 000 m
3600 s
27.8 m s
=
=
=

(or simply divide by 3.6)
4.
1
1
3600
1
1
1.5 m
1.5 m s
1 s
0.0015 km
h
3600 0.0015 km h
5.4 km h
=
=
=
=

(or simply multiply by 3.6)
5. (a)
1
1
55 miles 1.6 km/mile
55 miles h
1 h
88 km h
=
=

(b)
1
1
88 000 m
88 km h
3600 s
24 m s
=
=

6. (a)
Event
(m)
Average
speed
(m s
1
) Calculations
100 10.3 100 m/9.74 s
200 10.4 200 m/19.32 s
400 9.26 400 m/43.18 s
800 7.91 800 m/101.11 s
(1 min 41.11 s = 101.11 s)
1500 7.28 1500 m/206.00 s
(3 min 26.00 s = 206 s)
3000 6.81 3000 m/440.67 s
(7 min 20.67 s = 440.67 s)
5000 6.60 5000 m/759.36 s
(12 min 37.35 s = 757.35 s)
10 000 6.34 10 000 m/1582.75 s
(26 min 17.53 s = 1577.53 s)
(b) The fact that the average speed during the 100 m
event is similar to that during the 200 m event is due
to the fact that the acceleration from rest to the
maximum speed takes place over a significant
fraction of the time taken for the 100 m event. Even
though the maximum speed of the athlete is greater
during the 100 m event, the average speed is not.
(c) average speed =
distance travelled
time interval

distance travelled
time interval
average speed
=

1
42 200 m
7.28 m s
5797 s
96 min 37 s
1 h 36 min 37 s
=
=
=
=

(d) Only Asafa Powells. His event is the only one that
involves only straight line motion.

7. (a) average speed
1
distance travelled
time interval
3000 m
204.537 s
14.67 ms
=
=
=

(b) time interval
1
distance travelled
average speed
151000 m
14.67 m s
10 293 s
2.86 h
=
=
=
=

(c) time interval
1
distance travelled
average speed
151 km
80 km h
1.9 h
=
=
=

(d) i(i) average speed
1
distance travelled
time speed
302 km
4.0 h
76 km h
=
=
=

(ii)
av
1
0 km h
x
v
t
=

since x (displacement) = 0
8. Time for tortoise
1
distance travelled
average speed
1000 m
0.075 m s
13 333 s
=
=
=

Time for hare at maximum speed
1
distance travelled
average speed
1000 m
20 m s
50 s
=
=
=

In a tied race, the hare must have napped for
13 333 s 50 s = 13 283 s
= 3.7 h (approx. 3 h 41 min)
9. average speed
1 2 3
1
distance travelled
time interval
(not 1)
3
120 120 120 m
20 30 60 s
360 m
110 s
3.3 m s
v v v
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
=
=

10. (a) Predictions will vary but likely response is 90 km h
1

incorrectly obtained by
1 1
80 km h 100 km h
2

+

(b) average speed
300 300
80 100
1
distance travelled
time interval
300 300
89 km h
=
+
=
+
=

11. Only a finite time t can be measured with a stopwatch.
Thus, only the average velocity
v
t
can be determined.
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at an instant of time.
There is no time interval to measure with a stopwatch.
12. (a) B, C
(b) B, D
(c) A, E
(d) A, E
(e) D
13. A: Constant negative acceleration with an initial positive
velocity.
B: Constant positive acceleration from rest.
C: A constant positive velocity, followed by an interval
of constant negative acceleration until a negative
velocity equal in magnitude to the initial velocity is
reached. The velocity then remains constant.

14. (a)

(b)

(c)

15.

16. The instantaneous velocity is the same as the average
velocity at the mid-point of the time interval during which
the motion takes place.

17. (i) change
in speed
(ii) change in velocity
(a) 40 km h
1
40 km h
1
south (or 40 km h
1

north)
(b) 20 m s
1
20 m s
1
in original direction (or
+20 m s
1
opposite to original
direction)
(c) +5 m s
1
55 m s
1
in original direction (or
+55 m s
1
opposite to original
direction)
18. Yes, there is an acceleration. Even though the speed has
not changed, the velocity has changed.

The magnitude of v = 141 m s
1
. Its direction is south-
west. The acceleration is therefore not zero.
19. For a car that accelerates from rest to 60 km h
1
(17 m s
1
) in say 5 seconds:
1
2
17 m s
5 s
3 m s
v
a
t
= =
=

20. v
av
for a 100 m sprint in, say 9.8 s = 10.2 m s
1
estimate v
max
= 12 m s
1
is reached after 2 seconds.
1
2
12 m s
2 s
6 m s
v
a
t
= =
=

21. (a) a = 6.0 m s
2
u = 17 m s
1
v = 28 m s
1
t = ?
v = u + at
28 = 17 + 6.0t
t =
28 17
6.0

= 1.8 s
(b) a = 2.0 m s
2
u = 0
v = 10 m s
1
t = ?
v = u + at
10 = 0 + 2.0t
t =
10
2.0

= 5.0 s
22. a = 10 m s
2
x = 36 m
u = 0
(a)
2 1
2
? t
x ut at
=
= +

36 = 0 + 5t
2

36
5
t =
= 2.7 s
(b) v = ?
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
= 0 + 2 10 36
= 720
720 v =
= 27 m s
1
23. x = 12 m
t = 2 s
v = 0
(a) u = ?

2
12 2
2
u v
x t
u
+
=
=

1
12 m s u
=

(b)
2 1
2
1
2
2
?
12 0 4
2 12
6.0 m s
a
x vt at
a
a
a
=
=
=
=
=

24. u = 100 km h
1
= 27.7 m s
1
v = 0
(a) x = 48 m
a = ?
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
0 = (27.7)
2
+ 2 a 48

2
2
(27.7)
96
8.0 m s
a
=
=

(b) x = 48 m
t = ?

2
27.7
48
2
u v
x t
t
+
=
=

96
27.7
3.5 s
t =
=

(c) The reaction time of the driver needs to be known so
that the distance travelled between the instant that the
branch is seen and the instant that the brakes are
applied can be determined. An estimate of 0.2 s
would be reasonable for the reaction time. At a
constant speed of 100 km h
1
(27.7 m s
1
) the car
would travel a distance of 27.7 m s
1
0.2 s = 5.5 m.
The total distance required to stop is therefore 5.5 m
(reacting distance) + 48 m (braking distance) = 53.5 m.
The car would not stop in time.
25. In order to make the leap, the dancer must rise and fall in
0.5 s.
Ignoring air resistance, the fall takes the same amount
of time as the rise, 0.25 s.
The time taken for the dancer to rise to a height of
80 cm can be calculated:
v = 0, x = 0.80 m, a = 10 m s
2
t = ?
2 1
2
2
0.80 5
0.80
5
0.4s
x vt at
t
t
=
=
=
=

The time taken for the dancer to fall from a height of
80 cm can be calculated.
u = 0, x = 0.80 m, a = 10 m s
2
t = ?

2 1
2
x ut at =
2
0.80 5
0.80
5
0.4s
t
t
=
=
=

That is, without knowing the take off speed of the
dancer it can be shown that the leap would take 0.8 s. The
leap is not possible.
26. It is important to remember that at the instant that the
Rolls Royce rolls off the truck it is moving in the same
direction as the truck.
After one minute it has moved a distance of 1000 m (a
1
is equal to 1 km min
1
).
During the drivers reaction time the distance moved by
the truck is 8.3 m (the distance moved in 0.5 s at a
1
= 16.67 m s
1
0.5 s).
The braking distance of the truck is 25 m.
The total distance moved by the truck is 1000 m +
8.3 m + 25 m = 1033 m.
The distance moved by the Rolls Royce is 240 m (in
the same direction as that of the truck). The Rolls Royce
is therefore 793 m behind the stopped truck.
27.

(a) The balls collide when the tennis ball is at the top of
its path at a time t
c
.
For the tennis ball: v = 0
a = 10 m s
2
(taking up as positive)
x = h
t = t
c
u = ?
x = vt +
1
2
at
2
h = 5t
2
(1) (since a = 10 m s
2
)
For the golf ball: u = 0
a = 10 m s
2
(taking down as positive)
x = 100 h
t = t
c
x = ut +
1
2
at
2
100 h = 5t
2
(2)
Add (1) and (2).
100 = 10t
2
t = 10
= 3.15 s
For the tennis ball:
v = u + at
0 = u 10 3.16
u = 32 m s
1

(b) Substitute in (1)
h = 5(3.16)
2

= 50 m
The balls meet 50 m from the ground.
28. (a) B
(b) A, D, E (the intervals in which the gradient is
positive)
(c) 40 s (the first instant at which the skateboard rider
moves in a southerly direction)
(d) 20 m north (change in position after 80 s = 20 m
north of starting point)
(e) 260 m (80 m in northerly direction, followed by
120 m in a southerly direction, followed by 60 m in a
northerly direction)
(f) D (the gradient is increasing)
(g) E (the gradient is decreasing)
(h) average speed
1
distance travelled
time interval
260 m
80 s
3.3 m s
=
=
=

(i)
1
1
gradient
120 m
20 s
6.0 m s
6.0 m s south
v
=
=
=

(j) v = gradient at time t = 65 s

To find the gradient a tangent must be drawn on the
curve at t = 65 s. Two convenient points need to be
drawn on the tangent (e.g. A and B).
( )
1
rise
gradient
run
18 ( 48)
approx.
70 60
3 m s
=

=
=

The direction is north.
29. (a) B, D, F (gradient = 0 during these sections. That is,
there is no change in velocity.)
(b) Displacement = total area under graph.
This is most easily calculated by dividing the graphs
into triangles and rectangles as shown in the
following figure.

Total area
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
1 5 1 5 1 10 1 10 1
5 10 5 5 10 2.5 2.5 10 5
20 m
= + +
+ +
= + + + + +
= +

(c)
av
1
20 m
80 s
0.25 m s
x
v
t
+
=
=

(d) 30 s (the instant that the velocity becomes negative)
(e) It didnt. (The negative displacement that occurs
between 30 s and 55 s is not as great as the positive
displacement between 0 s and 30 s.)
(f) C, G (when the gradient is negative)
(g) The first half of interval C, the first half of interval E
and interval G. (During these periods, the magnitude
of the velocity is decreasing.)
(h) A negative acceleration doesnt always decrease the
speed and a positive acceleration doesnt always
increase the speed. A negative acceleration increases
the speed if the velocity is negative and decreases the
speed if the velocity is positive. Similarly, a positive
acceleration decreases the speed if the velocity is
negative and increases the speed if the velocity is
positive.
(i)
1
2
gradient
2.0 m s
10 s
0.20 m s
a
=
+
=
=

(j)
av
1
2
1.0 m s
20 s
0.050 m s
v
a
t
=
=

(k) The motion of the toy robot can be described in nine
different intervals.
First 10 seconds: The toy robot started from rest and
increased its speed at a constant rate until reaching a
speed of 1.0 m s
1
after 10 seconds.
10 s to 20 s: It maintained a constant speed of
1.0 m s
1
.
20 s to 30 s: It slowed down at a constant rate. It was
at rest for an instant, 30 seconds after starting.
30 s to 40 s: It increased its speed at the same
constant rate as the first interval, but in the opposite
direction to reach a maximum speed of 1.0 m s
1
.
1.0 m s
1
.
50 s to 55 s: It decelerated to rest at a constant rate.
55 s to 60 s: It increased its speed at a constant rate in
the original direction. The acceleration was twice that
of the first interval.
1.0 m s
1
.
70 s to 80 s: It decelerated to rest at a constant rate.
30. (a) 3.0 s (can be read directly from the graph)
(b)
1
2
gradient
10 m s
=
4 s
2.5 m s
a
=
=

(c) Let T = time at which stuntman catches the bus.
At time T the displacement of the stuntman is equal
to the displacement of the bus.
1
2
area under stuntman graph area under bus graph
4 10 10( 4) 8
=
+ = T T

20 10 40 8
2 20
T T
T
+ =
=

T = 10 s
(d) Distance = magnitude of displacement
= area under graph
= 8T (or 10T 20)
= 80 m
31. (a) A constant speed is reached when the acceleration
becomes zero. The acceleration of the jet ski becomes
zero first, after 8.0 s.
(b) (i) v = area under acceleration vs time graph
=
1
2
8 4
= 16 m s
1
v = 5.0 m s
1
v = 21 m s
1
for jet ski
(ii) Dividing the graph into a trapezium and triangle
as shown in the following figure.

v = area under acceleration vs time graph
=
1
2
6 2
6 (10 6) 2
2
+
+
= 24 + 4
= 28 m s
1
v = 5.0 m s
1
v = 33 m s
1
for car
(c)

Speed vs time graph for jet ski and car
Chapter 6
Forces in action
1. My mass is 75 kg, My weight is 750 N.
2. Vector quantities have magnitude, unit and direction.
Scalar quantities have magnitude and unit.
3. (b) weight, and (c) gravitational field strength.
4. Weight is a vector quantity. On the surface of the Earth
its magnitude would be constant (to 2 sig. fig.) but the
direction changes from place to place. There is not
enough information given to compare its direction on
Earth with its direction on Mars.
5. (a) W = mg
= 1400 kg 10 N kg
1
= 1.4 10
4
N

(b) On Mars: W = mg
= 1400 kg 3.6 N kg
1
= 5.0 10
3
N
(c) m = 1400 kg anywhere. It is a measure of the amount
of matter in an object or substance and does not
depend on the gravitational field strength.
6. (a) Apple: m 0.1 kg W 0.1 kg 10 N kg
1
1.0 N
(b) This book: m 1 kg W 1 kg 10 N kg
1
10 N
(c) If physics teacher has mass of about 80 kg:
W 80 kg 10 N kg
1
800 N
7. Assume mass of student is m kg.
(a) 10m N
(b) 3.6m N
(c) m kg
If, for example, m = 65 kg:
(a) At Earths surface W = 65 kg 10 N kg
1
= 650 N
(b) On the surface of Mars W = 65 kg 3.6 N kg
1
= 234 N
(c) m = 65 kg on Mars and anywhere else. It does not
depend on the gravitational field strength.
8.

The forces applied by the Sun and Earth on the person,
floor and Earth have not been included. Their direction is
not constant.
9. (a)

The net force is 3 N to the east.
(b)

The answer can be obtained by scale vector diagram
or using trigonometry.

i.e. cos 45
100 N
100 N cos 45
x
x
=
=

70.7 N =
Magnitude of F
net
= 2x
F
net
= 1.4 10
2
N east
10. (a)

Answer is best obtained by scale vector diagram.
Missing force = 346 N east
(b) The sum of the two forces acting at 30 to the
horizontal can be obtained by scale vector diagram or
using trigonometry.

cos30
200 N
x
=
x = 200 N cos 30

= 173.2 N
sum = 346.4 N east
Adding this to the 200 N force to the west gives a
total force of 146.4 N east.
In order to obtain a net force of 200 N east, an
additional force of 53.6 N east is required.
11. (a)

(b) The car is in uniform motion. Therefore the net force
must be zero.
12. It describes what happens to an object when acted on by a
net force equal to zero. The word inertia is used to
describe the tendency of an object to resist change.
13. The vehicle experiences a non-zero net force that slows it
down. No such force acts on you. The net force on you is
zero. Therefore, you continue in your state of constant
velocity. You are not really thrown forward. You continue
your motion while the vehicle slows down.
14. There is an unbalanced force on the bike and its velocity
changes. Your inertia keeps you moving forward as there
is no unbalanced force to change your motion (apart from
gravity).
15. (a)

(b) The direction of the net force on the ball is down the
hill (parallel to the hill) since the ball is speeding up
as it rolls down the hill.
(c) Weight force; if it were not, the net force could not
be down the hill.
(d) The ball slows to a stop because of the effect of the
friction acting on the ball. On a horizontal surface,
the normal reaction is equal in magnitude to the
weight.

16. The force of the Earth pushes on the tyres in the opposite
direction to the force applied by you pushing the car.

17.

18. (a)

cos 25
200 N
200 N cos 25
x
x
F
F
=
=

2
1.8 10 N =

(b)

cos 60
200 N
200 N cos 60
x
x
F
F
=
=

100 N =
(c) 0 N
19. Idealisations can be made to allow the use of a simple
mathematical model to solve a physical problem. For
example, in order to use simple equations to analyse the
motion of a falling ball, the idealisation can be made that
the air resistance is insignificant and the ball does not
spin.
20. (a) F
net
= ma
= 2.2 10
6
kg 3.0 m s
2
= 6.6 10
6
N
(b) F
net
= thrust weight
6.6 10
6
N = thrust 2.2 10
7
N
Thrust = 2.9 10
7
N

21. (a) Both experience the same acceleration. The
acceleration is given by
net
F
a
m
= . The air resistance
on these objects is insignificant when compared to
their weight and can be ignored. Therefore, both the
net force (weight) and mass of the gold bar are 10
times as great as they are for the bowling ball.
(b) The air resistance in the doormat is significant when
compared with its weight. Therefore, the net force on
the doormat is less than that of the bowling ball
(which has the same mass as the doormat) and the
acceleration of the doormat
net
F
m
is smaller than that
of the bowling ball (and the gold bar).
22. (a) 70 kg 10 N kg
1
= 700 N
(b) i(i) The upwards force is greater when the jumper is
decelerating downwards or, in other words,
accelerating upwards.
(ii) The weight is greater than the upwards pull when
the jumper is accelerating downwards.
(c) The tension in the bungee cord must be equal in
magnitude to the jumpers weight in order for the
speed to be constant, that is, 700 N. This occurs only
for an instant during the fall. At this instant the cord
is extending and the tension is increasing.
23.

(a) The net force is zero because the motion is uniform.
(b) W = mg = 80 kg 10 N kg
1
= 800 N
W
x
= W sin 30
= 800 sin 30
= 400 N
(c) F
net
= 0
Therefore, the sum of forces parallel to the slope is
zero.
D 400 10 = 0
D = 410 N
(d) The sum of the forces perpendicular to the slope is
zero.
N = W
y
= 800 cos 30
= 6.9 10
2
N
24. (a) Since the speed is increasing down the slope, the net
force must be in the same direction, that is, down the
slope.
(b)

(c) W
x
= mg sin 30
= 60 10 sin 30
= 300 N

(d) F
net
= 300 N down slope + 8 N up slope
= 292 N down slope
Magnitude of net force = 292 N
25. (a) F
net
= 10 000 N 2500 N
= 7500 N
(b)
net
2 2
7500
1200
6.3 m s (6.25 m s )
F
a
m

=
=
=

(c) u = 0, a = 6.25 m s
2
, t = 5.0 s
v = u + at
= 0 + 6.25 5.0
= 31 m s
1
(d)
2 1
2
2 1
2
0 6.25 (5.0)
78 m
x ut at = +
= +
=

26. u = 25 m s
1
, v = 0, x = 360 m
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
0 = (25)
2
+ 720a

2
625
720
0.868 m s
a
=
=

Frictional force = net force
= ma
= 8.0 10
6
0.868
= 6.9 10
6
N
27. x = 50 m, u = 12 m s
1
, v = 0 m s
1
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
0 = (12)
2
+ 100a


2
144
100
1.44 m s
a
=
=

Frictional force = net force
= ma
= 70 1.44
= 1.0 10
2
N (101 N)
28.

The forces acting on the teacher
The force N is provided by the bathroom scales. The
reading on the scales will be equal to N.
When the teacher is stationary N = mg = 700 N
(a) F
net
= 0 since velocity is constant
N mg = 0
N = mg
= 700 N
(b) Assign down as negative.
a = 2.0 m s
2
N mg = ma
mg = 700
m = 70 kg (since g = 10 N kg
1
)
N 700 = 70 2.0
N = 140 + 700
= 560 N
(c) a = 2.0 m s
2
N mg = ma
N 700 = 70 2.0
N = 140 + 700
= 840 N
29. Assigning up as positive, the net force on the lift is given
by
F
net
= T W
where T is the tension in the cable and
W is the weight of the lift and its passengers.
W = mg
= (480 + 24 70) 10
= 2160 10
= 21 600 N
F
net
= T 21 600
ma = T 21 600

max
21600
25 000 N
a T
m
T
=
=

max
2
25000 21600
2160
1.6 m s
a
=
=

30.

The weight mg can be resolved into components that are
parallel to and perpendicular to the slope.
Considering the forces parallel to the slope
F
net
= mg sin 30 R
ma = mg sin 30 R
120 = 600 sin 30 R
R = 180 N
31.

The weight mg can be resolved into components that are
parallel to and perpendicular to the slope.
Considering the forces parallel to the slope
F
net
= mg sin 40 180
400 a = 4000 sin 40 180

2 2
4000 sin 40 180
400
6.0 m s (5.97 m s )

=
=
a

32. (a)
2
net
2
6
0.75 m s
8
56 kg
56 kg 0.75 m s
42 N
v
a
t
m
F ma
= = =
=
=
=
=

(b)

The weight, mg, can be resolved into compoments that
are parallel to and perpendicular to the slope.

Considering the forces parallel to the slope:
F
net
= mg sin 140
42 = 560 sin 140

42 140
sin
560
19
+
=
=

33. (a) Traction (friction) on your blades
(b) The component of gravity down the slope and the
force of the ground on your poles if you use them
(c) The tension in the rope attached to the handle that
you are desperately holding
(d) The traction (friction) as you push back on the
ground
(e) The force exerted by the water on your hands, arms,
legs and feet as you push back with your hands and
kick
(f) The force exerted by the water on the oar as the oar
pushes back on the water
34. The driving force, the forward force applied to the tyres
by the road, is a reaction to the force applied backwards
to the road by the tyres. The size of the driving force is
therefore controlled by the drivers use of the accelerator.
The driving force acts on all four wheels of a four-wheel-
drive vehicle, whereas it acts only on the rear wheels of a
rear-wheel-drive car. The front wheels of a rear-wheel-
drive car are pushed forward as a result of the driving
force on the rear wheels. So the force applied to the front
wheels cannot be controlled directly by the driver.
35. Student-designed spreadsheet
36.

The forces acting on the yo-yo
The acceleration of the yo-yo in the horizontal direction is
the same as the acceleration of the rollerblader.
ma (horizontal) = T sin 5 (1)
If the vertical acceleration is zero
mg = T cos 5 (2)
Dividing (1) by (2)

sin5
cos5
tan 5
10
ma T
mg T
a
=

a = 10 tan 5
= 0.87 m s
2
37. (a) 0 m s
1
(b) 10 m s
2
. This is the same as the acceleration
throughout the rest of its flight.
(c) 5.0 N down. The net force on the ball throughout its
flight (assuming air resistance is negligible)
= mg = 0.50 kg 10 m s
2
down.
38. The friction on the rear wheels is the driving force, which
pushes the bicycle forward. The driving force is a
reaction to the backward push of the rear wheel on the
road, which can be controlled by the cyclist. The friction
on the front wheel is a retarding force, which opposes the
forward rolling motion of the front wheel, which is
pushed forward by the moving bicycle. When the driving
force is greater than the retarding force the bicycle
accelerates. When the driving force is equal to the
retarding force the bicycle maintains a constant speed. If
the driving force is less than the retarding force the
bicycle decelerates.
39. (from top to bottom)
The wall pushes on your palm in the opposite direction.
The bicycle pedal pushes up on your foot.
You push down on the ground when you are standing.
Your body pulls up on the Earth.
The broken-down car pushes on you in the opposite
direction.
The nail pushes up on the hammer.
40. (a)

(b)
(c)
41. The dinghy
Force Actionreaction pair
Resistance forces F
dinghy on air and water
, F
air and water
on dinghy

Weight F
Earth on dinghy
, F
dinghy on Earth

Tension F
rope on dinghy
, F
dinghy on rope

Normal reaction force F
dinghy on water
, F
water on dinghy

The boat
Force Actionreaction pair
Resistance forces F
boat on air and water
, F
air and water on
boat

Weight F
Earth on boat
, F
boat on Earth

Tension F
boat on rope
, F
rope on boat

Normal reaction force F
boat on water
, F
water on boat

42. All swimmers move forwards in the water because the
water pushes them forwards. This is the unbalanced force
that provides the acceleration during each stroke

(Newtons First Law). The size of the forward force is
equal to, and opposite in direction to, the force that the
swimmer applies to the water (Newtons Third Law). A
freestyle stroke pushes water back with a greater force
than a breaststroke stroke. Therefore the forward force is
greater for a freestyle swimmer.
43. The student is correct but needs to make it clear that the
two friction forces are not an actionreaction pair. The
best way to do this is to identify the two actionreaction
pairs involved. If the car is a front-wheel drive, the
friction on each of the front tyres is a reaction to the
backward push of the front tyres on the road. The rear
tyres are being pulled forward. So the friction on the rear
tyres is a reaction to the forward push of the rear tyres on
the road.
44.
(a) F
net
= 14 N, m = 7.0 kg

net
net
2
14 N, 7.0 kg
14 N
7.0 kg
2.0 m s
F m
F
a
m
= =
=
=
=

(b) Consider the 3.0 kg trolley:
F
net
= T
3.0 kg 2.0 m s
2
= T
T = 6.0 N
(c) F
net
= 14 N T
= 14 N 6.0 N
= 8.0 N
(d)
net
net
2
14 N
4.0 kg
14 N
4.0 kg
3.5 m s
F
m
F
a
m
=
=
=
=
=

45.

Assign direction to the right as positive.
(a) Applying Newtons Second Law to the system of the
two crates:
F
net
= ma
P friction = 70a
420 (70 2.0) = 70a

420 140
70
= a
= 4.0 m s
2
to the right
(b) Applying Newtons Second Law to the 40 kg crate:
F
net
= ma
= 40 4.0
= 160 N to the right
(c) Applying Newtons Second Law to the 30 kg crate:
F
net
= ma
= 30 4.0
= 120 N
F
net
= P + R
21
+ friction on 30 kg crate
120 = 420 + R
21
(30 2)
120 = 360 + R
21
R
21
= 240 N
= 240 N to the left
(d) R
12
= R
21
= 240 N to the right
(e) The net force is still P friction.
The mass is still 70 kg.

net
420 (70 2.0)
70
a
m
=

=
F

= 4.0 m s
2
to the right
It is no easier.
46. (a)
1 1
40
40 km h ms
3.6

=

2
11.11 0
3.2
3.47 m s
v
t
=
=
a

F
net
= ma
= 1000 kg (estimate) 3.47 m s
2
= 3 10
3
N
(b) At terminal velocity
air resistance = weight
= mg
= 80 kg 10 N kg
1
= 8 10
2
N
(c) p = mv
= 80 kg (estimate) 10 m s
1
(estimate)
= 8 10
2
kg m s
1
(d) p = mv
= 800 kg 60 km h
1
= 800 kg 16.7 m s
1
= 1 10
4
kg m s
1
(e) Impulse = m v
= 70 kg 8 m s
1
= 6 10
2
kg m s
1
or 6 10
2
N s
(f) Impulse = m v
= 0.4 kg (estimate) 5 m s
1
= 2 N s

(g) p = m v
= 0.2 kg (estimate) 50 m s
1
(estimate)
= 10 kg m s
1
47. Taking down as positive:
(a) p = m v
= 0.060(6.0 8.0)
= 0.84 kg m s
1
= 0.84 kg m s
1
up
(b) 0.84 kg m s
1
or 0.84 N s down
The impulse applied by the tennis ball to the ground
is equal and opposite to the impulse applied by the
ground to the tennis ball.
(c) No. The ground does not move a measurable amount.
The impulse applied to the ground is 0.84 kg m s
1

but the mass of the Earth is so large that the change
in velocity is negligible.
(d) F
net
t = p

net
3
0.84 Ns up
2.0 10 s
p
F
t

= 4.2 10
2
N up
(e) F
net
= N mg
4.2 10
2
= N 0.06 10
= N 0.6
N = 4.2 10
2
+ 0.6
= 4.2 10
2
N up
48. (a) m = 75 kg, u = 3.2 m s
1
, v = 0
Assigning up as positive:
Impulse = mv
= 75 (0 3.2)
= 240 N s
= 240 N s upwards.
(b) F
net
t = mv
F
net
0.10 = 240
F
net
= 2400 N upwards.
F
net
= N mg
where N = force ground applies to feet (normal
reaction force)
2400 = N 750
N = 3150 N
= 3.2 10
3
N upwards
(c) u = 0, v = 3.2 m s
1
, a = 10 m s
2
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
(3.2)
2
= 2 10 x

2
(3.2)
20
0.51 m
x =
=

Height (assuming feet are motionless relative to the
basketballers centre of mass) is approximately 0.5 m.
49. m = 1400 kg, u = 60 km h
1
= 16.7 m s
1
, v = 0, t = 0.080 s
(a) Impulse = mv
= 1400 (0 16.7)
= 2.3 10
4
N s opposite to initial direction
of motion of the car (2.34 10
4
N s)
(b) F
net
t = mv

net
4
2.34 10
0.080
m
t
=
v
F

= 2.9 10
5
N opposite to initial direction of
motion of the car
(2.93 10
5
N).
(c) The deceleration of the driver is the same as the
deceleration of the car because the driver is wearing a
seat belt.

2 2
16.7
0.080
2.1 10 m s
t
=
=
v
a

Deceleration = 2.1 10
2
m s
2
50. The airbags allow the change in momentum (impulse) of
the drivers head to take place over a longer time interval
than would be the case if it collided directly with the
steering wheel. The average net force on (and the
magnitude of the acceleration of) the drivers head is
therefore less.
51. The change in momentum (impulse) on the legs takes
place over a longer interval, reducing the force exerted by
the ground on the knee joint and muscles, tendons and
ligaments in the leg.
52. (a) The impulse is the area under the graph. The area is
approximately equal to the area of a triangle with a
base of 0.10 s and a height of 3200 N.

Area =
1
2
0.10 3200
Impulse = 160 N s (approximately)
(b) Impulse = m v
160 = 60 v
v = 2.7 m s
1
but v = 0
u = 2.7 m s
1
(approximately)
(c) The impulse on the unbelted occupant is greater than
that on the belted occupant (the area under the force
versus time graph is clearly greater).
The change in velocity v is the same for both
occupants.
Because impulse = m v, the mass of the unbelted
occupant must be greater.

(An estimate of the area under the blue curve
shows that the mass of the second occupant is
approximately 95 kg.)
(d) The graph describing the force on the occupant with
the seat belt shows that the force is applied
immediately and is applied for a relatively large
amount of time compared with the force applied to
the occupant without the seat belt. The occupant
without the seat belt experiences no immediate force
as she or he continues to move forward at the same
speed as the car was moving before impact. The force
applied to this occupant increases rapidly to a
magnitude greater than the force applied to the
occupant with the seat belt. The multiple peaks in
force on the second occupant can be explained by
multiple impacts with the dashboard or other parts of
the car.
53. (a) The impulse is the area under the graph. This can be
found most easily by counting the small squares.
The area of each small square = 0.005 s 100 N
= 0.5 N s
The number of small squares under the curve is
between 190 and 200.
Impulse = no. of squares 0.5 N s
Impulse = 100 N s upwards (approx.)
(b) Impulse applied by net force = m v
Impulse applied by floor + impulse due to weight
= m v
100 N s mg 0.10 = m v
100 600 0.10 = 60 v

1
100 60
60
0.67 m s
=
=
v

(taking up as positive)
u = 0 v = 0.67 m s
1
(c) Ft = Impulse applied by floor where F = average
force applied by floor

100 N s
0.10 s
1000 N upwards
F =
=

(d) The normal reaction force is present as the
basketballer is initially pushing down on the floor
with a force equal to the basketballers weight.
54. Bouncing off during collision results in a greater change
in momentum of the cars in a similar or smaller time
interval. The rate of change in momentum of the cars, and
the resulting net force on the passengers, would therefore
be greater (Ft = mv). In low-speed collisions with
small vehicles (like dodgem cars) this is not a problem.
However, in real cars at typical road speeds more injuries
would occur.
55. (a) The Earth and the basketball can be considered to be
an isolated system. The total change in momentum of
the system is zero. The momentum of the basketball
changes. Therefore, the momentum of the Earth must
change by the same amount but in the opposite
direction. The velocity of the Earth must change as a
result. However, the magnitude of the change is very
small.
If the mass of the basketball is 0.5 kg and its
change in velocity on striking the ground is 5 m s
1
:

p
b
= 0.5 5
= 2.5 kg m s
1
The magnitude of the change in momentum of the
Earth is given by:
p
E
= m
E
v
E
m
E
v
E
= 2.5 kg m s
1
m
E
= 6 10
24
kg

E
24
25 1
2.5
6 10
4 10 m s
v

=
=

(b) The concrete wall is firmly attached to the Earth, so
the car is effectively colliding with the Earth. The
Earth (including the wall) and the car can be
considered to be an isolated system. The total change
in momentum of the system is zero. The momentum
of the car changes. Therefore the momentum of the
Earth and concrete wall must change by the same
amount but in the opposite direction. The velocity of
the Earth and concrete wall must change as a result.
However, the magnitude of the change is very small.
The distance moved by the concrete wall is also
immeasurably small because the force applied to it by
the car is very small compared to the forces applied
by the ground.
If the mass of the car is 1000 kg and its change in
velocity on striking the wall is 10 m s
1
:

p
C
= 1000 10
= 10 000 kg m s
1
The magnitude of the change in momentum of the
Earth and the wall is given by:
p
ew
= m
ew
v
ew
m
ew
v
ew
= 10 000 kg m s
1
m
ew
= 6 10
24
kg

ew
24
21 1
10 000
6 10
2 10 m s
v

=
=

Chapter 7
Mechanical
interactions
1. By releasing a high-pressure propellant, the astronaut
gains momentum in one direction while the propellant
gains the same amount of momentum in the opposite
direction. The total change in momentum of the astronaut
and the contents of his or her backpack is zero.
2. (a) Provided that friction is negligible, there is no
horizontal net force on the system of the mass and the
trolley.
total momentum before = total momentum after

2.0 0.60 = 4.0 v
v = 0.30 m s
1
(b) There is no horizontal net force on the system of the
sand and the trolley.
4.0 0.60 = 2.0 v
sand
+ 2.0 v
trolley

v
sand
= 0.60 m s
1
as it falls from the moving trolley
4.0 0.60 = 2.0 0.60 + 2.0 v
trolley

2.0 v
trolley
= 1.2
v
trolley
= 0.60 m s
1
3. (a) Total momentum before collision is zero.
Total momentum after collision = 0

L C
L L C C
+
+ 0
p p
m v m v
=
=

L
L
1.5 50 1.2 0
50 1.2
1.5
m
m
=
=

= 40 kg
(b) Impulse on Catherine = m
C
v
C

= 50 1.2
= 60 N s
(c) Impulse on Lauren = Impulse on Catherine
= 60 N s
Magnitude of impulse = 60 N s
(d) Zero, because there is no external net force acting on
the system of the two girls.
(e) They would have greater speeds but still in the same
ratio as before. The total momentum would remain as
zero as there are no external horizontal forces acting
on the girls.
4. (a) Total momentum before collision is given by

N N L L
1
+ 60 2 + 70 0
120 kg m s
m v m v =
=

Total momentum after collision is given by

N N L L L
L
+ 60 0 + 70
70
m v m v v
v
=
=

Total momentum is conserved

L
L
70 120
120
70
v
v
=
=

= 1.7 m s
1
(b)
N N
Impulse on Nick
60 2
120 N s
m v =
=
=

Magnitude of impulse 120 N s =
(c) Change in momentum = impulse
Change in momentum = 120 kg m s
1
(d) p
L
= p
N
since total change in momentum is zero
magnitude of Lukes change in momentum
= 120 kg m s
1
(e) They would have different speeds but the total
momentum would still be conserved as there are no
external horizontal forces acting on the boys.
(f)
1
i
f N L
120 kg m s
( + )
120
p
p m m v
=
=
=

130 120
120
130
v
v
=
=

= 0.92 m s
1

5. (a) Total momentum before collision is given by:
p
C
+ p
P

where p
C
= momentum of car and driver
p
P
= momentum of police car and occupants
= 1250 v
C
+ 1500 0
Total momentum after collision:
(m
C
+ m
P
) v = 2750 7
Total momentum is conserved.
1250 v
C
= 19 250
v
C
= 15 m s
1
(15.4 m s
1
)
(b) Impulse on police car = m
P
v
P
= 1500 7
= 10 500 N s (1.1 10
4
N s)
in the initial direction of motion of the car.
(c) Impulse on driver = m
d
v
d
= 50 (v u)
d
= 50 (7 15.4)
= 420 N s
= 420 N s
opposite to the initial direction of motion of the car.
(d) F
net
t = impulse on police car

net
10500 N s
0.10 s
105000 N
F =
=

Average net force = 1.1 10
5
N in initial direction of
motion of the car.
6. Student-designed spreadsheet
7.
4.0 10 1.5
60 J
W Fx
mgx
=
=
=
=

8. None, since there is no displacement in the direction of
the force.
9. (a) Zero. The displacement after one complete revolution
is zero. The force applied to keep the toy dog is
directed towards the centre of the circle. It is
therefore perpendicular to the direction of motion at
all times. In other words, there is no displacement in
the direction of the applied force. Therefore, no work
is done on the dog by the girl.
(b) Although the displacement is not zero after half of a
full revolution, there is still no work done on the dog
by the girl because the applied force is perpendicular
to the direction of motion at all times.

10. Work
Unit N m
Fx =
=

2
2
but 1 N 1kg ms
Unit kg ms m
=
=

2 2
kg m s
=

2 1
2
1 2
2 2
Kinetic energy
Unit kg (ms )
kg m s
mv
=
=
=

11. (a)
1 1
2 1
k
2
2 1
2
5
750 kg (estimate)
60 km h 16.7 m s
750 (16.7)
1 10 J (approx.)
m
v
E mv

=
= =
=
=
=

(b)
1 1
2 1
k
2
2 1
2
1
0.1 kg (estimate)
100 km h 28 m s (estimate)
0.1 (28)
4 10 J (approx.)
m
v
E mv

=
= =
=
=
=

12.
2 2 1 1
2 2
2
1
2
200
0.058 0
3.6
90 J
k
W E
mv mv
=
=

=

=

13. (a) W = Fx cos
W = 8.0 2.5 cos 20
W = 19 J (18.79 J)
(b) Work done by net force = E
k
Work done by net force = E
k
(since initial E
k
= 0)
F
net
x = E
k
E
k
= (8 cos 20 7.2) 2.5
= 0.79 J (0.794 J)
(c) Zero. There is no component of displacement in the
direction of the normal reaction force.
14. (a)
gp
3
70 kg (estimate)
2.5 m (estimate)
70 10 2.5
2 10 J (approx.)
m
h
E mg h
=
=
=
=
=

(b)
gp
30 kg (estimate)
2 m (estimate)
30 10 2
600 J (approx.)
m
h
E mg h
=
=
=
=
=

(c)
gp
70 kg (estimate)
0.75 m (estimate)
70 10 0.75
500 J (approx.)
m
h
E mg h
=
=
=
=
=

15. m = 20 kg
h = 1.0 m
(a)
gp
20 10 1.0
200 J
F mg h =
=
=

(b)
20 10 1.0
200 J
W Fx
mgx
=
=
=
=

(c)

To push the crate up the ramp with a constant speed,
the applied force must be mg sin .
W = Fx
but
1.0
sin
1.0
sin
=
=
x
x

1.0
sin
sin
20 10 1.0
200 J
=
=
=
W mg

(d) It is better to use the ramp. Although the amount of
work needed to move the crate is the same, the force
that needs to be applied to the crate is less if the ramp
is used.
16. So that as little of their kinetic energy as possible is
transferred to gravitational potential energy. Subsequently,
a greater proportion of their kinetic energy is available to
cover the horizontal distance as fast as possible.
17. (a) E
k
= E
gp
(magnitude only)
E
k
= mgh (since initial E
k
= 0)
= 0.160 10 2.0
= 3.2 J
(b) 32% of 3.2 J = 0.32 3.2 J
32% of 3.2 J = 1.0 J (1.024 J)
(c) Assuming 100% recovery of stored energy
E
gp
= mgh
1.024 = 0.160 10 h


1.024
0.160 10
0.64 m
h =
=

18. (a) Spring X: k
200 0.20
40N
F x =
=
=

Spring Y: k
100 0.20
20N
F x =
=
=

(b) Spring X: strain potential energy ( )
( )
2
2
1
k
2
1
200 0.20
2
4.0 J
=
=
=
x
Spring Y: strain potential energy ( )
( )
2
2
1
k
2
1
100 0.20
2
2.0 J
=
=
=
x
19. (a) E
k
= E
gp
(magnitude only)
= mgh
= 1.2 10 20
= 240 J
(b) E
k
= 240 J (since initial E
k
is zero)

2 1
2
2
240
240 2
1.2
mv
v
=
=

v = 20 m s
1
20. (a) m = 1500 kg, u = 50 km h
1
= 13.9 m s
1

v = 0, x = 0.60 m
Work done by average net force = E
k
F
net
x = E
k
(initial)

2
1
2
net
5
1500 (13.9)
0.60
2.4 10 N
F

=
=

(b) F
net
(av) = ma
av

5
av
2 2
2.4 10
1500
1.6 10 m s
a
=
=

(c) Work done by average net force = E
k
F
net
x = E
k
(initial)

2
1
2
net
6
1500 (13.9)
0.10
1.449 10 N
F

=
=

net
av
6
1.449 10 N
1500
F
a
m
=
=

2 2
9.7 10 m s
=

(d) The kinetic energy of the car is transformed into
potential energy of the materials in the crumple zone
which undergo a permanent change in shape. This
leaves a smaller amount of kinetic energy to be
transferred to the passengers.
(e) One could argue that a large car is safer. For a given
force applied by an obstacle or another vehicle, the
deceleration of a large car is less than that of a small
car. Therefore, the deceleration of the occupants
inside is less.
For example, consider a car of mass 1500 kg
coming to rest from 20 m s
1
when a concrete wall
applies a force of 48 000 N to the car.

net
2
48000 N
1500 kg
32 m s
F
a
m
=
=
=

The deceleration of an occupant with a correctly
fitted seatbelt would be 32 m s
2
. Consider a car of
mass 1200 kg coming to rest from the same speed
when the same force is applied by the wall.

net
2
48000 N
1200 kg
40 m s
F
a
m
=
=
=

The deceleration of an occupant with a correctly
fitted seatbelt would be 40 m s
2
. Without seatbelts,
an occupant would strike the interior of a larger car
with a smaller relative speed.
Of course, these arguments are not very strong
because there are so many other variables related to
car design and the nature of the rigid barrier that
affect the deceleration of a car.
21. (a) W = Fx
W = 270 5
W = 1.4 10
3
J (1350 J)
(b) E
gp
= mgh
E
gp
= 30 10 5 sin 30
E
gp
= 750 J
(c)

Forces acting on the trolley
W = Fx
= mg 5.0 sin 30

E
gp
= work done against the force of gravity
= 750 J
(d) F
net
= 270 300 sin 30 120
F
net
= 0
Work done by net force = F
net
x
= 0
(e) Work done by net force = E
k
E
k
= 0
v = 0.50 m s
1
22. (a) E
k
= work done by net force
E
k
= Fx (since net force is constant and
initial kinetic energy is zero)
= 240 N 8.0 m
= 1.9 10
3
J
(b) F
net
= mg sin 30 + friction + air resistance
240 = 50 10 sin 30 + friction + air resistance
friction + air resistance = 240 250
= 10 N
The sum of the friction force and air resistance is
10 N up the slope.
(c) E
k
= area under net force vs distance graph
1 1
2 2
k
240 8 + (240 + 120) 8 + 120 4
1920 + 1440 + 240
3600 J (since initial kinetic energy is zero)
=
=
= E

(d) E
gp
= mgh
= 50 10 20 sin 30
= 5000 J
(e) Some of the gravitational potential energy is
transformed into thermal energy and sound, due to
the frictional force and air resistance.
23. (a)
2 1
k
2
2 1
2
4
450 (12)
3.2 10 J (32400 J)
E mv =
=
=

(b)
k gp
5
At B, 32400 + (magnitude)
32400 +
32400 + 450 10 20
1.224 10 J
E E
mg h
=
=
=
=

2 5 1
2
5
1.224 10
2 1.224 10
450
=

=
mv
v

= 23 m s
1

k gp
4
At C, 32400 +
32400 +
32400 + 450 10 12
8.64 10 J
E E
mg h
=
=
=
=

2 4 1
2
4
8.64 10
2 8.64 10
450
=

=
mv
v

= 20 m s
1
(19.6 m s
1
)

(c) At D, E
k
= 1.224 10
5
J
Maximum height is achieved when E
k
= 0
E
k
= 1.224 10
5
mgh = 1.224 10
5

5
1.224 10
450 10
h

h = 27 m (since initial height is zero)
24. (a) W = area under F versus x graph
W = 8.9 10
5
J
(b) W = average force opposing motion x
W = 360 1000
W = 3.6 10
5
J
(c) E
k
= 8.9 10
5
J + 3.6 10
5
J
= 5.3 10
5
J
E
k
= 5.3 10
5
J
since initial kinetic energy is zero

2 5 1
2
5
5.3 10
2 5.3 10
1200
mv
v
=

=

= 30 m s
1
25. (a) W = area under load vs displacement graph
This area can be estimated by dividing the area into a
number of triangles, trapezia and rectangles. The
figure overleaf shows one way in which this can be
done.

The unit of area is J since kN mm = N m
= J

1
2
15 35 + 15 (51 35)
15 + 20 20 + 23
19 + 20 + 22 37
2 2
W = +

+

2080 J
2.1kJ
=
=

(b)
3
3
2.1 10 J
2.1 10
1400 10
0.15 m(approx.)
mg h
h
=
=

26. When x = 0.10 m
Strain potential energy ( )
( )
2
2
1
k
2
1
50 0.10
2
0.25J
x =
=
=

At natural length
2
0.25 J
1
m 0.25
2
=
=
k
E
v

2
1
1
0.50 0.25
2
2 0.25
0.50
1.0 m s
=
=
v
v
27. (a) The force applied by the spring is proportional to its
compression.
(b)
4 1
k
k gradient of graph
1500
0.080
1.9 10 N m
F x
=
=
=
=

(c) Work done as the spring expands from maximum
compression is equal to the area under the graph.

1
2
0.080 1500
60 J
W =
=

(d) E
k
gained = work done by spring
E
k
gained = 60 J
(e) E
gp
gained = E
k
lost
= 60 J
60
60
30 10
mg h
h
=
=

= 0.20 m
28. As the child falls through the air from maximum height,
gravitational potential energy is transformed into kinetic
energy.
After the child touches the trampoline after falling
through the air, kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy are transformed into strain potential energy until
the trampoline is at maximum extension.
After maximum extension, strain potential energy is
transformed into gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy until contact is lost with the trampoline.
After contact is lost, kinetic energy is transformed into
gravitational potential energy until maximum height is
achieved.
29.

The motion of the centre of mass of a springboard diver
The energy transformations include the following.
AB Chemical energy is transformed into strain potential
energy of muscles, tendons and ligaments. Strain
potential energy of muscles is transformed into
kinetic energy which is then transformed into
gravitational potential energy as the diver rises for
the first time. Gravitational potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy as the diver
descends to the end of the springboard.
BC Kinetic energy and some gravitational potential
energy is transformed into strain potential energy of
the springboard until the springboard reaches its
maximum deflection. The strain potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy until the diver loses contact with
the springboard. Kinetic energy is transformed into
gravitational potential energy until the diver reaches
maximum height.
CD Gravitational potential energy of the diver is
transformed into kinetic energy until the diver
strikes the water.
DE Kinetic energy of the diver is transferred to the
water (as kinetic energy) and eventually
transformed into thermal energy of the water
particles. Some of the divers kinetic energy is
transformed into sound energy.
30. The figure below shows the motion of the centre of mass
of the skateboard.

The motion of a skateboard rider completing an ollie
(a) The energy transformations can be displayed with a
graph of energy vs time or energy vs position. A
sample graph is shown on the next page.


Graph showing energy transformations during an
ollie
As the rider moves down and up the slope,
gravitational potential energy is transformed to
kinetic energy and back again to gravitational kinetic
energy. However, the total mechanical energy is not
quite conserved and the rider needs to provide some
additional energy input to reach the top of the slope
and point C. Further energy input is needed from the
rider in order to gain the gravitational potential
energy required at point D. Gravitational potential
energy is then transformed into kinetic energy as the
rider returns to point F and transformed into
gravitational potential energy at point G. At points A,
D and G the riders kinetic energy is zero.
(b) Between points C and D, the skateboard and the rider
are in free fall. They are both travelling at the same
speed at point C. Even though they have different
amounts of kinetic energy due to their different
masses, and therefore gain different amounts of
gravitational potential energy, they reach the same
height. That is,

2 1
2
2
2
mv mg h
v g h
=
=

2
2
v
h
g
=
The horizontal components of the speed of both the
rider and the skateboard are also the same, as long as
air resistance is negligible. The rider therefore needs
to make little effort to remain in contact with the
skateboard. There is some skill involved in ensuring
that the frictional forces made possible by the contact
are used to turn the skateboard so that it lands on the
ramp before the feet or any other part of the riders
body.
31.
k
2
1
2
2
1
2
3
4
0
200
0.058
3.6
4.0 10
2.2 10 W
W
P
t
E
t
mv
t
=

32.
4.0 10 1.5
1.2
50 W
W
P
t
mg h
t
=

=
=

33. (a)
3
180 10 1.8
3.2 10 J (3240 J)
W Fx
mg h
=
=
=
=

(b)
3240
3.0
1.1kW (1080 W)
W
P
t
=
=
=

(c) None, since the barbell undergoes no displacement in
the direction in which Stefan is applying the force.
34. Force applied to car due to the engine
= 570 N + 150 N
= 720 N
P = Fv at constant speed
= 720 20
P = 14 400 J s
1
= 14 kW
35. v = 2.0 m s
1
stride length = 1.0 m
Man takes 2 strides per second.
E
gp
= 60 10 0.030 m in each stride
= 18 J per stride
E
gp
in 1 second = 36 J

gp
36 J
1s
36 W
E
P
t
=
=

36. (a) A constant speed is achieved when the force applied
to the bicycle to overcome friction and air resistance
is 6.5 N + 5.7 N = 12.2 N.
P = Fv
56 = 12.2v
v = 4.6 m s
1
(4.59 m s
1
)
(b) On a slope, the force applied to the bicycle to achieve
a constant speed is greater. (See figure on next page.)


The applied force must balance the frictional force
and air resistance (a total of 12.2 N) and the
component of the weight of the bicycle and its rider
down the slope.
F
applied
= 12.2 + mg sin 30
= 12.2 + 750 sin 30
= 387.2 N
P = Fv
= 387.2 4.59
= 1777 W
Additional power required = 1777 W 56 W
= 1.7 10
3
W

Unit
2

Area of study 2:
Wave-like properties of
light

Chapter 8
Reflecting light
1.

2. Light rays from the light source strike the object and are
reflected in all directions. Some of the rays enter my eye.
3. (a) Light rays from the Sun reflected off the flower,
travelled through the transparent glass window and
entered my eye.
(b) The points on the TV screen emitted coloured light
into the room in all directions. The rays entered my
eye.
4. At night, people from across the globe can see the Moon,
so the light from the Sun is reflected in all directions by
the rough surface of the Moon. Some part of the Moon
can be seen at all positions of its revolution about the
Earth, except during an eclipse.

5.

6. a = 90 50 = 40
b = a = 40
c = 90 b = 90 40 = 50
7. In each diagram, trace the emerging rays back to find
where they appear to be coming from. The image is
where the dotted lines meet. The image is the same
distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.

8. The image is laterally inverted: TOYOTA.
9. A camera captures an image in a similar way to the eye.
Light rays coming from the object enter the camera lens.
They appear to come from the virtual image. Therefore, if
it can be seen, it can be photographed.
10. In the first case, each of the emerging rays is parallel to
its corresponding incident ray. In the second case, the ray
which is parallel to the angled mirror emerges along the
same path from which it came.

11.

12. Your image is as far behind the mirror as you are in front
of it. If you move one metre in one second, then so does
your image. Image speed is 1.0 m/s. In that one second,
the distance between you and your image decreases by
two metres, so the speed of approach is 2.0 m/s.
13. (a) 0.80 m (b) 0.80 m
(c) 0.80 m, 0.75 m (d) Unchanged

The answers are the same regardless of how far away you
are from the mirror.
14. (a) Focus the camera lens at 4.0 metres away because
your image is 4.0 metres from the camera.

(b)

The camera, the friend and the friends image form a
right-angled triangle, so Pythagorass theorem can be
used to determine the distance from the camera to the
image. The distance needs to be set at 4.1 m.

15. Use two plane mirrors with the text upside down on the
patients chest. The patient looks in one mirror at the
image of the text in the other mirror.

16. The size of the image is the same regardless of the
distance of the object from the mirror.

17. Place the mirror on the floor under your feet.
18. Some light is reflected off the surface of the drop and into
your eye.
19. Seven images. One pair of mirrors produces three images
of the object as shown in the following figure.
The third mirror produces an image of the object and an
image of each of the three images produced by the first
pair of mirrors.

20. The table can be completed using the ray diagrams shown
below it.

Location
of object
Location
of image Magnification Nature Orientation
beyond C between
C and F
< 1 real inverted
at C at C = 1 real inverted
between
C and F
beyond
C
> 1 real inverted
at F no image nil nil nil
inside F behind
mirror
> 1 virtual upright

21. Using ray diagrams like those shown in the answer to the
previous question, drawn to scale, the location, size,
nature and orientation can be found.

22. (a)

(b) Searchlight, torch or headlamp
23. If the top half of a concave mirror is removed, then the
location, nature, orientation and size of the image are
unchanged. The image is still the full image of the object,
but the brightness is less because it is formed with half
the light.

Chapter 9
Refracting light
1.
sin 40
sin , 29
1.33
sin50
sin , 35
1.33
= =
= =

Angle of refraction increases by 6 when the angle of
incidence increases by 10.
2.
sin 55
sin 55 sin 33 ,
sin 33
1.5
n n
n
= =
=

3.
sin 65
sin , 36
1.55
= =

The block is rectangular, so the opposite sides are
parallel. Therefore, the angle of incidence at the bottom
face is the same as the angle of refraction at the top face.
Because Snells Law applies regardless of the direction of
the light ray, the angle of refraction as the light emerges
will be the same as the angle with which it entered the
block. This means the ray is parallel to the incoming ray,
but shifted sideways.
4. (a) The different layers are parallel to each other, so the
angle of refraction at the top surface of a liquid will
equal the angle of incidence at the bottom surface.
This means that:
n
air
sin
air
= n
acetone
sin
acetone

= n
glycerol
sin
glycerol

= n
carbon tet
sin
carbon tet
n
air
= 1.0,
air
= 25,
acetone
= 18.1,
glycerol
= 16.7,

carbon tet
= 16.8
1.0 sin 25 = 1.357 sin
acetone
= 1.4746 sin
glycerol
= 1.4601 sin
carbon tet
1.4601 sin
carbon tet
= 1.53 sin
glass
All expressions equal each other, so the angles of
refraction will equal 1.0 sin 25 / refractive index of
the medium. So, for acetone the angle is 18, for
glycerol: 16.7, carbon tetrachloride: 16.8, and glass:
16.0. Because the layers are parallel, the light ray
will emerge from the glass into the air at the angle it
left the air: 25.
(b) When the light reflects off the mirror, the angle of
reflection will equal the angle of incidence, so the light
ray will leave the bottom medium at the same angle
that it entered it. The light path up through the layers
will be the reverse of the path coming down through
the layers. All the angles will be the same.
5. Find the critical angle.

c
c
c
1.33 sin sin 90 1
1
sin 0.75
1.33
48.59 49
= =
= =
= =

The angle of incidence of 55 is greater than the critical
angle, so the light ray will be totally internally reflected
and will reflect off the water surface with an angle of
reflection of 55.
6. (a) The wavelet produced at the surface projects into the
air as well as into the glass.
(b) The surface cannot both attract and repel the particles
at the same time.
7. (a) 1.0 sin 35 = 1.55 sin

sin 35
sin 0.3700
1.55
= =
= 22. The angle of incidence at the bottom surface
is 22 and the angle of refraction is 35.
(b)

tan 22 cm
5.0
5.0 tan 22 2.0 cm
d
d
=
= =

(c) Angle of incidence at adjacent face = 90 22 = 68.
The critical angle is given by

c
1
sin
1.55
=

c
= 40, so the light ray undergoes total internal
reflection.
(d)

Because of symmetry the ray will meet the bottom
surface at an angle of incidence of 22, so the angle
of refraction will be 35.

(e) If the initial angle was less than 35, then the ray
would meet the adjacent face at a more glancing
angle and so be totally reflected. The largest value for
the initial angle is 90. This gives an angle of
refraction of 40 and so an angle of incidence of 50
at the adjacent face, which is greater than 40 and is
totally reflected. So all rays, regardless of angles, will
be totally reflected.
(f) Total internal reflection at the adjacent face does
depend on the refractive index. Any values less than
1.414 will allow the light to pass out the adjacent face
for some angles. The value 1.414 is the square root of
2, which is sin 45, which is the case when the angle
of refraction at the top face equals the angle of
incidence at the adjacent face.
8. (i) (f) (ii) (d) (iii) (b)
(iv) (c) (v) (g) (vi) (a)
9. (a) Your refractive index must be the same as the air, the
medium the body is in. Otherwise, images of objects
behind you would appear to be distorted.
(b) The light entering the eye is absorbed by the eye, so a
person looking in the direction of a so-called
invisible person would see a black screen the shape
of the retina obscuring the view in front. So to be
truly invisible the retina would not be able to absorb
light. That is, a truly invisible person would not be
able to see.
10. 1.00 sin 65 = 1.55 sin
Angle of refraction = 36
Angle of deviation
= 65 36 = 19
11.

The angle of refraction is given by
sin 30 = 1.4 sin = 20.9.
Length of the path ray in the glass

5.0
cos 20.9
=

Sideways deflection
= length of light path
sin (30.0 20.9) = 0.85 cm
12.

The angle of refraction is obtained from
sin 40 = 1.5 sin = 25.4.
The angle where the normals meet equals 120, so the
angle of incidence at the exit face equals
180 120 25.4 = 34.6.
The angle of refraction will therefore be 58.4.
The angle of deviation will equal:
(angle of incidence angle of refraction at the first face)
+ (angle of refraction angle of incidence at the second
face), which equals
(40 25.4) + (58.4 34.6)
= 34.4.
13. sin 30 = 1.5 sin = 19.5
When the ray meets the opposite side of the glass sphere,
the normal at this point passes through the centre of the
sphere (i.e. it is a radius). This means that the triangle
formed by the points on the glass sphere and the centre of
the sphere is an isosceles triangle and that the angle of
incidence at the opposite side of the sphere is 19.5. This
situation is the reverse of the entry into the sphere, so the
angle of refraction is 30.
14.
c
c
c
2.5 sin sin 90 1
1
sin 0.4
2.5
0.4 24
= =
= =
=

15. (a) The critical angle is 45, so the refractive index

1
1.4.
sin 45
= =

For total internal reflection, n sin
c
1.
If n < 1.4, then n sin
c
< 1, so the ray will refract
out of the glass.
n = 1.4 is the minimum value for total internal
reflection to occur for an angle of incidence of 45.
(b) The positions of the rays are inverted. This device is
used twice in binoculars to correct the normally
inverted image produced by a telescope.

16. 1.500 sin 82.0 = n sin 90
n = 1.500 sin 82.0 = 1.49
17. Above, the diver would see a circle in which was
compressed a 180 view of the world above the water.
Towards the edge of the circle, the image would look
distorted. Outside the circle, the diver would see the
reflected, inverted image of the world beneath the surface
of the water due to the total internal reflection of the light
rays from beneath the water as they meet the waterair
boundary.

18. Critical angle for light travelling from glass into water is
given by:
1.55 sin
c
= 1.33 sin 90

c
1.33
sin 0.858
1.55
= =

c
= 59.1. The angle of incidence at the glasswater
boundary is 45, which is less than the critical angle, so
the ray is refracted into the water. The angle of refraction,
w
, is given by:
1.55 sin 45 = 1.33 sin
w

w
= 55

19.

At critical angle 1.33 sin
c
= 1.0 sin 90

c
= 48.8
tan
c
=
40
r
, so r = 40 tan 48.8
= 46 cm
20. (a) Path length of reflected ray

6
2
cos 82
0.5 1 10
2
cos 82
r

= 7.18 10
6
m
Path length of straight ray
= 2 r tan 82
= 2 0.5 1 10
6
tan 82
= 7.11 10
6
m
Path length difference is
7.18 10
6
7.11 10
6

= 7.0 10
8
m
(b) Speed of light in the glass
c
n
=

c
1
sin
1
sin 82
n
n
=
=

Speed of light in the glass

8
8 1
8
16
8
3.0 10
3.0 10 m s
sin 82
distance
Time difference
speed
7.0 10
2.3 10 s
3.0 10
= =
= =

This time is small, but in an optical fibre of 1.00 km,
there would be
3
6
1.00 10
7.11 10
reflections, equals
1.4 10
8
reflections, corresponding to a total time
difference of 3.28 10
8
s. This would limit the
upper frequency of light pulses sent down the optical
fibre. Too high a frequency and the pulses would
overlap. The problem can be overcome by using a
narrower optical fibre or using an optical fibre whose
refractive index gets smaller the greater the distance
from the centre.
21. (a)
A B C D
1 Angle of Refractive Refractive Angle of
2 incidence index index refraction
3 89 1.0003 1.00028 89.06794
4 89.06794 1.00028 1.00026 89.14124
5 89.14124 1.00026 1.00024 89.22141
6 89.22141 1.00024 1.00022 89.31085
7 89.31085 1.00022 1.0002 89.41379
8 89.41379 1.0002 1.00018 89.53917
9 89.53917 1.00018 1.00016 89.71526
10 89.71526 1.00016 1.00014 #NUM!

(b) In the seventh layer, the light will be totally internally
reflected. With the refractive indices the same, if the
initial angle of incidence was 88 the ray would not be
reflected. If the initial angle was 89.5, the reflection
would occur in the first layer. If the rate of change in
the refractive index was halved to 0.000 01, then the
reflection would occur in the 15th layer.
22. Light bends away from the normal, so the refractive index
gets smaller with height. This means the temperature rises
with height.

23. (a)

The image is real and inverted and located 60 cm
from the lens on the other side from the object. It is
about 12 cm high.
(b)

The image is virtual and upright and located 60 cm
from the lens on the same side as the object. It is
18 mm high.
(c)

The image is real and inverted and located 10.5 cm
from the lens on the other side from the object. It is
about 2.5 mm high.
24. Accommodation mechanism is the strategy that an
animals eye uses to keep an image sharp and in focus on
the retina whether the object is near or distant. There are
several different mechanisms. The thickening of the
human lens to achieve a sharp image of nearby objects on
the retina is an example. Another is the movement of a
fixed focal length lens closer to the retina as the object
moves further away.
25. (a) You would see an inverted image of the teacher.
(b) The trees are further away, so their image is closer to
the focus of the lens; so move the screen closer to the
lens.
26. For objective lens u = 5.2 mm, f = 5.0 mm

1 1 1
1 1 1
5.0 5.2
130 mm
u v f
v
v
+ =
=
=

This is 20 mm in front of the eyepiece lens.

i
o
130
5.2
H v
M
H u
= =
=

For eyepiece lens u = 20 mm, f = 40 mm

1 1 1
20 40
40 mm
2
v
v
v
M
u
=
=
= =

130
Total magnification 2
5.2
50
=
=

The same result can be obtained using a ray-tracing
diagram.
27. (a) u = 4.0 cm, f = 5.0 cm, v = ?

1 1
5 4
1
20
20
Magnification 5
4
v
v
u
= =
= = =

The image is located 20 cm behind the lens and is 5
times as big.
(b) u = 3.0 cm, f = 5.0 cm, v = ?

1 15
7.5
1 1
2
5 3
7.5
Magnification 2.5
3
v = = =
= =

The image is located 7.5 cm behind the lens and is
2.5 times as big.
28. (a) v = 400 cm, f = 5.00 cm, u = ?

1 400
5.06
1 1
79
5 400
u = = =

The slide is located 5.06 cm from the lens.
(b) Magnification 79
v
u
= =
The size of each side of the square image is
79 35 = 2765 = 2.76 m.
(c) The image is inverted and will be an L, but upside
down and back to front.
(d) A clear image needs to be formed closer to the lens,
so the object, that is, the slide, needs to be moved
further away from the lens.
29. The slide projector needs to be moved back and the lens
moved closer to the slide.

Chapter 10
Seeing colours
1. Refraction: bending of light as it passes from one material
into another.
Reflection: light leaves a surface at the same angle it
approached the surface.
Dispersion: the spreading of light into colours as it is
refracted.
Spectrum: the range of colours into which light can be
broken.
Refractive index: a measure of how much a material
slows light down and therefore changes its direction.
Chromatic aberration: circumstances, such as the use of
telescopes and cameras, where dispersion distorts the
image.

2. (a)

The emerging coloured rays are parallel to each
other.

(b)

In a triangle, the rays emerge at different angles and
spread further apart the further they travel, so that on
a distant wall the colours are seen separately. With
the rectangle, the colours stay the same distance apart
regardless of how far they travel.
3. Red light, as it has a lower refractive index

8
r
1
8
b
8 1
3.00 10
Speed in red light
1.514
1.98151 108 m s
3.00 10
Speed in violet light
1.528
1.963 35 10 m s
c
n
c
n
= =
=
= =
=

Difference = 1.82 10
6
m s
1
4. Violet light is bent more as it has a greater refractive
index.
5.

6.

7. Because the violet light is bent more than the red at both
the front and back surfaces of the lens, the violet light
will come to a focus closer to the lens and so have a
shorter focal length.
8. (a) In the morning the Sun is in the eastern sky. To see a
rainbow, the Sun needs to be behind you so that light
that is totally internally reflected from the raindrop
enters your eye. You would need to look to the west.
At midday it would be very difficult to see a rainbow
as the Sun needs to be behind you, so you need to
look down, preferably from a plane or a balloon.
(b) In the northern hemisphere the directions are the
same as in the southern hemisphere.
9. The Sun would be behind you on the other side of the
plane. The rainbow will still be circular, but because you
are in the air, you could see a full circle because there
may be water droplets below.
10. A periodic wave is a pulse that is repeated at regular
intervals.
11. (a) 5 drops in 10 s = > 1 drop in 2 s: T = 2 s
(b)
1 1
2
1
s 0.5 Hz f
T
= = =
12.
15
14
15
1 1
2.08 10
4.8 10
2.1 10 s
T
f
= = =
=

13. f = 6.5 10
14
(a)
8
8
7
14
3 10
3 10
4.6 10 m 460 nm
6.5 10
v
v
f
= = = =

(b)
8
8
7
14
2.0 10
2 10
3.1 10 m 310 nm
6.5 10
v
= = =

14. For red light:
sin = n
r
sin 30 = 1.4742 0.5
angle of refraction for the red light is 19.8
For blue light:
sin n
b
sin 30 = 1.4810 0.5
angle of refraction for the blue light is 19.7
The difference is 0.1.

15. For red light:

c
d
c
1 1
sin
2.40
24.6
= =
=

The critical angle for red light is 24.6.
For blue light:

c
d
c
1 1
sin
2.24
24.2
= =
=

The critical angle for blue light is 24.2.
16.

(a) For red light:

sin 45 sin 45
sin
1.514
27.8
tan 27.8
5.0
2.64 cm
tan 45
5.0
5.00 cm
5.00 2.64 2.36 cm
a
a
a d
a d
d

= =
=
=
=
+
=
+ =
= =

For deep blue light:

sin 45 sin 45
sin
1.528
27.6
tan 27.6
5.0
2.61 cm
tan 45
5.0
5.00 cm
5.00 2.61 2.39 cm
a
a
a d
a d
d

= =
=
=
=
+
=
+ =
= =

Red light is shifted sideways by 2.36 cm, and deep
blue light by 2.39 cm.
(b) Deep blue light is shifted more, by 0.03 cm.
(c) Each colour is shifted more as the angle of incidence
increases for all angles. By calculating the shifts for
different colours for various angles of incidence, you
can show that the difference between the shifts for a
given pair of colours increases for angles of
incidence up to about 57, then decreases.
17. (a) When the Sun is about 40 above the horizon, a small
part of the rainbow circle will be above the ground.
(b) When the Sun is on the horizon, half the circle of the
rainbow will be above the ground.
18. The rainbow is produced by reflection only. As the light
ray enters the raindrop, it is refracted towards the normal.
Because a raindrop is approximately spherical, this
normal passes through the centre of the raindrop; that is,
it is a radius of the sphere. When the refracted ray meets
the other side of the drop, the normal at this point will
also be a radius. This means that the triangle formed by
the centre of the drop and the two points on the surface
that the light ray passes through form an isosceles triangle
with the two angles at the surface the same. Since light
can travel along a light path in either direction, the ray
will be refracted out of the drop with an angle of
refraction equal to the initial angle of incidence. Only
some of the light entering the drops is reflected, but
sufficient to see a rainbow, particularly against a dark
background.
19. (a)

(b) The order of the colours should be reversed. The
rainbow should be higher in the sky and probably the
colours should be further apart due to the greater path
for divergence of the colours.
20. If light behaved like a longitudinal wave, it could not be
restricted to travelling only in a plane that was not
parallel to its direction of propagation.

21. (a) Filters B and C
(b) Filters A+B only slightly
(c) Redorange
(d) Black no colour passes through all three filters.
22. (a)
8
r
8 1
8
v
8 1
3.00 10
1.514
1.98 10 m s
3.00 10
1.532
1.96 10 m s
v
v
=
=
=
=

(b)
sin 45
For red light: sin 27.8
1.514

= =

sin 45
For violet light: 27.5
1.532

= =
For red light, the length of the path, R, through the
glass is given by:

10 10
cos 27.8 11.31 cm
cos 27.8
R
R
= = =

For violet light, the length of the path, V, through the
glass is given by:

10 10
cos 27.5 11.27 cm
cos 27.5
R
V
= = =

(c) Time to travel across the block is the distance the
light travels divided by its speed. The red light
emerges first in 0.0571 microseconds, while the
violet light emerges in 0.0576 microseconds.

(d)

The rays will be parallel to each other and to the
initial incident ray.
(e) The red ray ends up ahead even though it travels a
greater distance in the glass.
23. Newton carried out this second stage of the experiment to
see if the prism would further break up the red light.

Unit
2

Detailed study: Astronomy

Chapter 11
Our view of the sky
1. (a) Altitude is the angle that the object makes with a
right angle from the horizon.
(b) Azimuth is the angle clockwise from north around
the horizon.
(c) Declination is the angle measured north or south
from the celestial equator.
(d) Right ascension is the number of hours east of the
vernal equinox.
2. The azimuth is 90 degrees.
3. She sees the meteor rising from near the horizon. The
horizon has an altitude of 0 degrees and the zenith
90 degrees. A change from 10 to 80 degrees describes a
motion from low in the sky to high in the sky.
4. At 7 am the altitude of the Sun is 2 degrees and at
10 am is 37 degrees so the altitude has changed by
35 degrees. The azimuth changes from 94 degrees to
66 degrees (a ruler from the centre of the circle can help
here) which is a 28 degree change in azimuth.
5. (a) It must reach the same altitude in summer because
the Earths alignment with the stars does not change
significantly within a year. Over long periods of time
the altitude will change due to the precession of the
equinoxes.
(b) In winter, when the ecliptic is low in the sky during
the day but high in the sky at night
6. (a) 10 am: 71 degrees azimuth, 38 degrees altitude;
noon: 40 degrees azimuth, 59 degrees altitude; 6 pm:
265 degrees azimuth, 25 degrees altitude
(b) A (21 h 47 min, 16) B (21 h 32 min, 5.6)
C (21 h 4 min, 11.3)
7. They are all potentially visible at some time in the year,
but Capella, Deneb and Vega would all be so low in the
northern sky that they may not be visible in practice.
8. Procyon will reach its highest point 54 minutes after
Sirius but is nearly 22 degrees further north.
9. (a) Formalhaut, with a declination of 29 degrees
45 minutes, is about 8 degrees from the zenith at its
maximum altitude.
(b) Betelgeuse reaches about 5 degrees from the zenith at
its maximum altitude.
10. (a) Formalhaut has both the RA closest to 0 and
declination closest to 38 degrees, so it would be
highest in the sky.
(b) Alpha Centuri, Beta Centuri, Alpha Crucis, Beta
Crucis, Spica, Arcturus are all high in the Melbourne
sky at this time.
11. (a) DEC = 0. Therefore the star is above the equator and
will take 6 hours to reach the horizon. It will reach
the horizon at 8 pm + 6 hours, which is 2 am. Stars to
the north of this star would have set earlier, and stars
to the south later. Stars with declination less than 52
degrees never set in Melbourne.
(b) Yes. To be visible from Melbourne it would need to
have a declination of less than 90 either side of
38. This means that all stars south of DEC 52 are
potentially visible from Melbourne. In practice, stars
near the northern horizon are not readily visible, but
with a declination of 16.7 Sirius is only 21.3 from
the zenith when at its highest point in the sky.
(c) 20 minutes. Canopus arrives first because it has the
smaller RA.
(d) Canopus as it is closer to the South Celestial Pole.
12. A year is the period during which the Sun moves a full
circle against the background of stars in the sky, returning
to the same place against the stars.
13. The Earths axis is tilted. This causes the length of the
day to be longer in summer than in winter and the Sun to
rise higher in the sky in summer than winter.
14. (a) One year (b) One day
15. The daytime would be very long, as would the night.
Stars in the sky on the night side would take a long time
to noticeably change position, unlike on Earth where
rotation shows obvious changes in star position in under
an hour. On Venus such changes would take weeks.
16. Lets consider that the period of rotation is equal to the
period of revolution. In the situation that the rotation is
not retrograde (such as with our Moon whose rotation and
revolution periods are equal) the same side of Venus
would always face the Sun so it would be in perpetual
daylight and the other side in perpetual night. The
retrograde motion, however, results in 2 days per year.
The difference between the sidereal day (period of
rotation) of Earth and the Solar day, the time from noon
to noon is only a few minutes on Earth due to the large
difference between the diurnal and annual periods. With
Venus, however, the difference between the solar and
sidereal days is months.

Venus shown at eight different places in its orbit of the
Sun. The line is a stake in the surface of the planet to
show rotation. Although the planet only rotates once in
the revolution, there are two periods in the revolution
when the stake side is facing the Sun.

17. The seasons would be more extreme. The Sun would rise
higher in the sky in summer and not as high in winter.
The days would be longer in summer and shorter in
winter. Winter would probably be colder and summer
hotter as a result.
18. It takes about twelve months for Orion to return to the its
high point at midnight. It will take about a quarter of this
(three months) before the constellation is setting at
midnight.
19. Depending on the time in the Moons cycle, it can be seen
either in the day or in the night, usually part of both,
sometimes neither. Day and night on Earth are due to the
Earths rotation. Meanwhile, the Moon is revolving
around the Earth about once a month.

If we start observing when the Moon is high in the sky at
midnight, one week later the Moon will just be rising at
midnight. A week later again and it will be rising near
dawn and will be in the sky all day, but invisible as a
new Moon.
20. Geocentric means that the Earth is at the centre.
21. Ptolemy used epicycles to explain retrograde motion.
22. The geocentric model is consistent with casual
observations of the rising and setting of the Sun and stars.
Even with careful observation, the expected parallex of
the stars was not observed.
Until Galileo, the laws of physics suggested that the
Moon would not continue to orbit the Earth if it was in
motion about the Sun.
Religious beliefs claimed that the Earth did not move.
23. The geocentric model attributed the changing seasons to
changes in the Suns orbit of the Earth. This meant that
the orbits of the planets also had to change at the same
time as the Sun.
24. As the Moon and the Sun revolve around the Earth, half
of the Moon is lit up at any time. The phase depends on
how much of this lit side is visible from the Earth. The
Sun revolves around the Earth once a day but the Moon
revolves slightly slower so that the phase from Earth
changes.
25. Epicycles were a device that changed the speed of the
planets relative to the Earth at different parts of their
orbits, for example, for part of Mars motion along its
epicycle, it was moving in one direction while for the
other part it was moving in the other direction. (See
following figure.)

26. Heliocentric means that the Sun is at the centre.
27. The Sun is no longer considered to be the centre of the
universe but is itself in motion around the Milky Way
galaxy.
28. In a heliocentric model, the motion of the other planets
against the background of stars changes with the relative
position of the planets, for example:

Earth and Mars moving in same direction. Earth moves
faster than Mars so those on Earth see Mars in retrograde
motion.

From this position Mars is seen to be moving forward
against the background stars.
29. Copernicus made the orbits elliptical, fully eliminating
the need for epicycles.
30. The phases of the Moon and due to the relative positions
of the Earth, Moon and Sun. The full cycle of phases

occurs as the Moon orbits the Earth (see diagram in text,
p. 240).
31. Such a large change in peoples perspective takes a long
time. People have had time to accept the change. There
have also been many new discoveries that make sense
only if the Earth revolves around the Sun, such as
Newtons Law of Gravitation, our new understanding of
our position in a vast universe, the Coriolis effect causing
weather systems, space travel and so on.
Chapter 12
Telescopes
1. (a) The planets appeared as discs through the telescope,
while the stars were still just points of light.
(b) The magnification made the images large enough to
see as discs. The light-gathering power would only
have made the planets appear brighter, and the
resolution enables smaller features to be observed.
2. Stars are separated by tremendous distances. Even at the
speed that stars are travelling it takes a long time for them
to significantly change their position in the sky. This can
be detected either by very precise mapping of the stars
over a long period of time or by shortening the time
required to observe the movement by magnifying the
distance it moves through using a telescope.
3. (a) Diameter = 15 cm, f = 90 cm
f-number
diameter
90 cm
15 cm
6
f
=
=
=

(b) Brighter because it has a smaller f-number
4. Most of the smaller or more distant bodies are very dim.
The large diameter telescopes collect more light from
these objects, making them more visible.
5. They emitted brief, equally spaced pulses of radiation.
6. Galileo observed that Venus had phases consistent with it
revolving around the Sun, Jupiter had moons revolving
around it that were not left behind as it moved, the Moon
had mountains and valleys like Earth, the Sun had spots,
and the Milky Way was a myriad stars. All these data
conflicted with the Aristotelian view that the Moon and
everything beyond it were different in nature to the Earth.
The data were also consistent with a heliocentric solar
system, rather than the geocentric one of Aristotle.
7. Kepler published his first two theories of planetary
motion and Galileo built his first telescopes and observed
the sky with them.
8. Planets were seen as lights in the sky that moved against
the background of stars. Galileo showed them to be disks
with features on them that were similar in scale and shape
to the Earth. Following Galileos observations, it became
understood that the Earth was a planet.
9. There was some question over whether the Moon would
move with the Earth if the Earth was in motion. Either
Jupiter or the Earth or both must be in motion, so the
observation that Jupiter had moons that moved with it
confirmed that the motion of the moon around the Earth
did not mean the Earth must be stationary.
10. Planets, pulsars, black holes, galaxies, nebulae, asteroids,
quasars, white dwarfs
11. Enhanced light collection, resolution and magnification
12. A telescope that detects X-ray wavelengths. It would need
to be outside the Earths atmosphere.
13. Telescopes aid vision by magnifying and collecting light,
and improving resolution.
(a) Magnification makes small objects large enough to
see, collecting light enables dim objects to be seen,
and improved resolution enables small details to be
distinguished.
(b) Features on planets and moons are only visible
because of magnification. For example, the rings of
Saturn would not have been visible to the naked eye
as they are too small when viewed from Earth.
(c) Planets and bodies in the outer solar system, such as
Pluto, that are dim because of their distance from the
Sun would not be visible without considerable light
collecting power. Asteroids, many comets, distant
stars and galaxies all rely on light-collecting power
for their discovery.
(d) The moons of Pluto, and any other objects that are
located close together, will only be visible as
individual objects if the resolution is sufficient to
separate them.
14. Pulsars, quasars, et cetera. These objects emit very
strongly in the radio frequencies but not as strongly at
visible wavelengths.
15. Photographic film, because the longer it is exposed, the
fainter the objects it can detect. The eye, once adapted to
darkness, does not improve its sensitivity to faint objects
with time.
16. Electronic sensors enable computer enhancement, such as
colouring particular features, produce an instant image,
do not require film removal and development, and are
more sensitive to light.
17. The first telescopes suffered from chromatic aberration,
where images were surrounded by coloured fringes, and
spherical aberration, where images are blurred because
spherical lenses do not have a single focal point.
Chromatic aberration is solved using achromatic lenses
with more than one type of glass, or by using mirrors
instead of lenses. Spherical aberration is solved by using
parabolic mirrors and lenses.
18. Can view the sky at wavelengths not visible to the human
eye, can be used as radar to measure distances and map
the surfaces of planets, can see through gas clouds that
absorb light
19. One with a larger diameter objective, assuming that the
optics of both telescopes are equal
20. (a) Diameter of star disc = 1.5 minutes of arc. The
Dawes limit is equal to the radius of the image of
the star
Dawes limit = 0.75 minutes of arc.
(b) Yes. The separation of the two stars is greater than
the Dawes limit, so they will be resolved as two stars

in this telescope. Although the images are resolved,
they will overlap.
21. (a) Equatorial mounts have the ability of tracking objects
by adjusting only one axis.
(b) The rotation of the Earth about its axis
(c) Move the telescope about its polar axis, anti-
clockwise looking south
22. Objects whose position is not affected by the rotation of
the Earth are easily located looking left and right and up
and down. An equatorial mount is difficult to manoeuvre
to different targets. Observing the heavens that are
rotating about a polar axis is much simpler with the
equatorial mount.
23. Galileo allowed light to strike only the central region of
the objective lens, so that the aberration was small.
24. (a) The light-gathering power of a telescope is
proportional to the area of its objective lens or mirror.

2
2
HST
2
2
KECK
A 4.52 m
4
A 78.54 m
4
d
d
= =
= =

The Keck telescope therefore has
78.54
,
4.52

approximately 17 times the light-gathering power.
(b) The relative brightness of the images can be
compared by calculating the f-number of each of the
telescopes. The lower the f-number, the brighter the
image.

58 m
f-number (HST) 24
2.4 m
17.5 m
f-number (KECK) 1.8
10 m
f
d
f
d
= = =
= = =

So, Jupiter will be brighter when viewed through
Keck.
(c) Hubble is in orbit so it is not affected by the
atmosphere, which distorts the light and absorbs
some of the radiation, restricting the performance of
telescopes on Earth.

Unit
2

Detailed study:
Astrophysics

Chapter 13
The nature of stars
1. The Sun
2. The spectrum of the Sun resembles the spectra of stars. It
has similar composition to the stars. The distances to
many stars can be accurately measured and their
luminosities, temperatures, masses and diameters are
similar to that of the Sun. The theory of how the Sun
works predicts stages in its evolution that other stars are
currently displaying.
3. (a) SA = 4r
2
= 4 (1.5 10
11
)
2
= 2.83 10
23
m
2
(b) A = r
2
= (6.38 10
6
)
2
= 1.28 10
14
m
2
Fraction
14
23
10
1.28 10
2.83 10
4.52 10
=

(c) Power = 3.86 10
26
4.52 10
10
= 1.74 10
17
W
Energy = 1.74 10
17
24 60 60
= 1.5 10
22
J
(d) 1.5 10
22
J spread over 5.12 10
14
m
2
(1.5 10
22
) (5.12 10
14
) J m
2
= 2.9 10
7
J
4.
3
4
S
S 3
3
4
E E
3
8 3
3 3
6
(6.955 10 )
(6378.1 10 )
1.30 10
r
V
V r
=

5. The radius of Rigel is 560 times the radius of the Sun.
6. The total mass in all of the major planets plus Pluto is
2.67 10
27
kg. The mass of the Sun is 1.99 10
30
kg.
The Sun is therefore 1.99 10
30
/2.67 10
27
= 745 times
the mass of all of the planets put together.
7. Atoms found in the Suns atmosphere absorb light from
the continuous spectrum produced by the dense gas of the
Sun beneath. Absorbed light is at the specific frequencies
permitted by the electron energy levels of the atoms in the
Suns atmosphere.
8. Ancient observers thought that the stars were all the same
distance from us, fixed on a sphere that revolved around
the Earth. The stars were not distant Suns. We now know
that the Sun is a star, that the stars are distributed
throughout a vast universe and that the Earth is not the
centre of this universe.
9. Universe, super cluster of galaxies, cluster of galaxies,
galaxy, solar system, Sun, Earth
10. Student-generated timeline
11. By the lines in its spectrum
12. m = 5 is brighter than m = 5.1.
13. Luminosity does not change, it is a property of the star.
Absolute magnitude does not change. Apparent
magnitude is reduced.
14. r
m
= 3.84 10
8
T
m
= 27.3d

2 3
2
4
G
r
M
T
=

2 8 3
11 2
24
4 (3.84 10 )
6.67 10 (27.3 24 60 60)
6.0 10 kg
=

=

15. (a)
Sun
30
8 3
4
3
3
Sun
water
1.99 10
(6.96 10 )
1409 kg m
1409
1000
1.41
m
V
=

=
=
=

(b)
WD
30
5 3
4
3
9 3
1.99 10
(4.9 10 )
4.0 10 kg m
m
V
=

=

(c) The Sun will have less mass that it does now partly
due to the mass defect from the billions of years of
fusion reactions, but particularly because it will eject
large volumes of material into space that will form a
planetary nebula.
(d) The same as the density of a neutron, 10
17
kg m
3
(e)
30
17
3
4
3
1.4 1.99 10
10
m
V
r
=

=

r = 18 806 m
= 1.88 10
4
m
16. Blue stars are very hot, much hotter than yellow stars, so
Beta Centauri is a much hotter star than Alpha Centauri.
Beta Centauri must be much further from us than Alpha
Centauri, because hot blue stars are massive and have
high luminosity.
17. Population II stars formed from clouds of hydrogen and
helium and contain very little of any other element. The

heavy elements that make up the Earth are absent, so
Earth-like planets would not form around Population II
stars.
18. Many of the spectral lines of type O and type A stars are
the same, but type A stars have additional spectral lines.
19. Fusion reactions involving fusion of light nuclei, usually
hydrogen.
20. Hydrogen and helium
21. (a) P = 3.86 10
26
J s
1
From 1 reaction E = 26.76 MeV
= 26.76 1.6 10
13
J
= 4.2816 10
12
J
Number of reactions per second
= 3.86 10
26
(4.2816 10
12
)
= 9.02 10
37
(b) 10% of 10
57
= 10
56
Number of seconds = 10
56
(9.02 10
37
)
= 1.11 10
18
s
= 1 10
18
s
= 4 10
10
years
22. (a)
3 4 7
2 2 4
He He + + 1.59 MeV + Be
(b)
2
13
8 2
30
c
1.59 1.6 10
(3 10 )
2.83 10 kg
E
m
=

=
=

(c) Some helium is present in the gas cloud that the star
formed from; most of the helium would be formed
from earlier fusion of hydrogen in the star.
(d)
4
2
He
23. (a) Nothing else could produce so much energy for so
long, the composition of the star is as predicted for
fusion, neutrinos are detected in the numbers
expected.
(b) Gravity could only sustain the Suns energy for about
15 million years. This is not nearly long enough to
sustain processes of geological and biological
evolution as witnessed on Earth.
24. Hydrogen and helium are very light and easily gain
enough energy to escape the Earth, except for the
hydrogen that is bound in compounds like water.
25. Student research
26. White dwarf, black dwarf, neutron star, pulsar, black
hole.
27. Hydrogen and helium, because the nebula comes from the
outer layers of stars that have not undergone extensive
nuclear fission.
28. Massive stars have shorter lives than small stars because
the greater gravitational force increases the rate of fusion
in the core. She is not correct.
29. (b) The position of a star on the main sequence is
determined by its mass, so assuming its mass is
stable, it will not move along the main sequence.
(c) The Sun is a fairly small star that will become a red
giant late in its life. It will not become a supergiant
because it is a medium-mass star.
(d) Those above the main sequence are fusing elements
heavier than hydrogen.
(e) Very massive stars move to the right of the HR
diagram when hydrogen burning ceases in their cores
so that they cool.
(f) The bottom of the HR diagram has stars that are still
hot but dim, white dwarfs.
(g) They have the same temperature, but not brightness,
so they are not at the same place on the HR
diagram.
(h) It is fusing hydrogen.
(i) Blue
30. Look for stars that have motions that can only be
explained by a companion with the gravitational pull of a
black hole. Look for the high-energy X-rays that are
emitted by matter as it falls into a black hole.
31. Student internet research
32. Description should include the following stages: nebula,
main sequence star, red giant, white dwarf, black dwarf.
33. A galaxy is a collection of many millions of stars that are
bound together by gravity.
34. Astronomers observed objects they called nebulae in the
sky which may have been nearby clouds of gas or distant
galaxies of stars. When they were able to measure the
distance to these nebulae they found that some were
clouds of gas in our own galaxy, but there were also
many at tremendous distances, well beyond any of the
stars and other features found in our galaxy. Until this
discovery astronomers considered that our galaxy might
contain all of the matter in the universe.
35. (a) = 0.155
d = ?
d =
1

=
1
0.155

= 6.45 pc
(b) 1 pc = 3.086 10
16
m
6.45 pc = 1.99 10
17
m
(c) 1 LY = 9.46 10
15
distance =
17
15
1.99 10
9.46 10

= 21 light-years
36. = 0.05 arcsec

1
1
0.05
20 pc
d
=
=
=

37. The standard method of parallax uses the Earths
movement around the Sun to provide a baseline. This can
be extended by using the motion of the Sun through the
galaxy over a number of years. The distance traveled by
the Sun in this time is significantly greater than the
distance it travels in its orbit around the Sun.
38. The moving cluster method can be used to measure the
distance to stars in clusters where the stars are not too

close together, relatively near to Earth and are either
moving toward or away from Earth.
39. Cepheid variable stars vary in brightness with a period
that is related to its luminosity. This enables the
luminosity of a Cepheid variable to be determined and
then its distance measured by observing its brightness
from Earth.
40. Both stars have the same luminosity but the first is closer,
making it appear brighter. As brightness obeys an inverse
square law, a ratio of 8 in brightness corresponds to a
ratio of 8 in distance, so the second star and its galaxy
are 8 = 2.8 times as far away as the first.
Chapter 14
Cosmology
1. That most galaxies were receding and the more distant,
the faster their recession.
2. The expansion of the universe stretches light waves so
that their wavelengths become longer. The longer the
wavelength, the more the light is shifted towards the red
end of the spectrum.
3. Andromeda is moving towards the Milky Way due to
gravity. The light is blue shifted by the Doppler effect,
which causes light in front of a moving object to have a
shorter wavelength.
4. Hubbles Law states that the recession speed of galaxies
is proportional to their distance from us.
5. The constant has not really changed, only our ability to
measure it. Astronomers have greatly improved the
accuracy of their measurements of distant galaxies. They
have also greatly increased the distance to the furthest
galaxies measured, enabling a much more accurate
determination of the gradient of the velocitydistance
graph.
6.

7. The wavelength of light from a star moving away from us
is stretched because the star is closer to us when it emits
the start of the wavelength than when it gets to the end.
As all parts of the wavelength of the light leave the star at
the speed of light the wavelength is longer than it would
be if the stars distance from Earth was not changing.
Distant galaxies emit light that travels the long journey
through space to reach us, taking millions, if not billions
of years. During this time the universe expands,
stretching the light wave as it travels. The further the
galaxy, the longer the light travels and therefore the
greater it is stretched.
8. The light from a star or galaxy has a nearly continuous
spectrum, however, some gases present in the
atmospheres of stars absorb some of the light. The
absorption lines that result have specific wavelengths
according to the element that absorbed the light. In
redshift these lines are noticed to have a longer
wavelength that for the gas at rest and for blueshift the
lines have a shorter wavelength.
9. The greater the speed that the star is moving away from
us, the greater the redshift.
10. Infra-red. The protostars are in clouds of gas that absorb
visible light. Some of the infra-red radiation can pass
through the clouds of dust.
11. Regions close to the Sun were too hot for the more
volatile materials to condense, so when the sun began to
shine the Suns radiation blew these materials away from
the inner solar system. The rocky materials condensed to
form the inner planets and asteroids. Further from the
Sun, the gases and ice remained, so the planets contain
much greater quantities of these gases and ice.
12. Spiral galaxies formed from rotating clouds of gas.
Rotating objects tend to flatten at the poles.
13. Solar system, quasar, galaxy, cluster, supercluster,
universe
14. (a) Population I, because these stars are younger and
therefore contain the elements necessary for life on
Earth.
(b) In the spiral arms, because this is where the young
stars are. Only old Population II stars are in the halo.
(c) Elliptical galaxies are unlikely to be the home to
advanced life forms because they are dominated by
Population II stars.
15. Collisions between galaxies and gravitational interaction
with neighbouring galaxies may determine the type of
galaxy formed.
16. The central core and the halo contain old stars but new
stars are always forming in the spiral arms of galaxies.
17. Any motion of gas and dust outside the plane of the
galaxy is damped by interaction with other matter as it
passes through the plane of the galaxy. This interaction is
not sufficient to absorb the momentum of stars. As a
result stars that formed before the galaxy collapsed into a
disc still orbit the galactic centre on whatever plane of
revolution they were on when they formed. Stars that
formed in the disc of the galaxy are relatively young and
remain in their orbit in the plane of the galaxy.
18. The Earth is made from elements such as iron,
aluminium, oxygen and carbon. All of these elements
were absent from the hydrogen and helium that was
produced in the big bang. It was only stars that formed
these elements so the solar system is the product of
material that was once made by earlier stars that were
already in the Milky Way before the Solar System
formed.
19. The stars within galaxies are not static but in motion
around the galactic centre. This orbital motion is stable
and prevents the star sinking to the centre of the galaxy,

in the same way that the motion of the Moon keeps it in
orbit about the Earth.
20. Shapley measured the distances to globular clusters and
found that they formed a sphere with its centre in the
direction of Sagittarius. From that he deduced that the
centre of the galaxy was in the direction of Sagittarius.
21. Spiral
22. 1 10
11

23. Hubble had to show that the nebula was beyond the edge
of the Milky Way. To do this he needed to know where
the edge was.
24. A quasar is an object found at a great distance that emits
intense radiation across the spectrum. They are believed
to be the result of enormous black holes drawing in vast
amounts of matter. As the matter is ripped apart on its
way into the black hole, it emits radiation which powers
the quasar. They are found at the centres of galaxies in
the early universe.
25. Student construction
26. Depends on galaxies chosen.
27. This is only true as long as most of the light emitted by
the galaxy is of shorter wavelength than red. However, a
galaxy can be so redshifted that most of the light it emits
in longer than red and is infra-red.
28. Very distant objects have their light so red-shifted that it
is in the infra-red or radio parts of the spectrum.
29.
Galaxy shape Number Percentage
Spiral (inc. all disc
galaxies)
3 = 3/43 = 7%
Elliptical (inc. all
galaxies that are regular
but not disc)
28 = 28/43 = 65%
Irregular (anything else) 12 = 12/43 = 28%

Note: The membership of some galaxies in the local
Group is disputable and new galaxies are discovered from
time to time so the numbers in the table may change with
time and the reference used.
30. Based on the local group most galaxies are elliptical and
irregular, with relatively few being spirals.
31. No. Gravity holds the Earth in orbit around the Sun.
Expansion only pulls galaxies apart that are sufficiently
distant that the gravity between them is small.
32. Before the big bang theory was developed, scientists
believed that the universe had existed forever and was
essentially unchanging.
33. Normal explosions start with a mass that rapidly expands
into the space around it. The big bang started with
nothing, no mass and no space to expand into.
34. As the recession is due to the expansion of space, the
further objects are apart the faster they will recede from
each other. Two hundred light-years will expand twice as
much as one hundred light-years in the same time, so an
object two hundred light-years away will move away at
double the speed.
35. Galaxies receding at a rate dependent on their distance
from us, increase in density of galaxies in the past,
presence of cosmic microwave background radiation,
proportion of hydrogen and helium in the universe
36. According to the big bang theory, matter would have first
appeared as neutrons, which decayed into protons and
electrons. This provides the hydrogen. In the very early
universe the pressure and temperature were sufficient for
protons to fuse with neutrons to form deuterium, tritium
and helium. These reactions occur from interactions
between individual protons and neutrons. The pressure
and temperature of the universe had diminished
sufficiently before heavier elements could be created.
37. Heavier elements were formed in stars. The heaviest
elements are only formed in supernova explosions, which
also distribute the elements throughout the galaxy.
38. The cosmic microwave background had been predicted
by theorists as a necessary outcome of the big bang.
There was no other explanation for its existence. Theories
that successfully predict new discoveries are highly
regarded by scientists because these theories do not just
explain the observed but also what is yet to be observed,
making them far more powerful as theories and much
more likely to be correct.
39. It was a violation of the steady state cosmological
principle. The big bang theory requires evolution of the
universe over time.
40. Telescopes detect electromagnetic radiation. Parts of the
universe are too far away for light from them to reach the
Earth within the age of the universe, so we cannot detect
them. They are outside the visible universe.
41. The rapid expansion of the universe meant that material
had to clump together early on, or else it would not have
had time to clump to form galaxies, clusters and
superclusters. Before the tiny variations were found, the
cosmic microwave background seemed completely
uniform and another explanation would have been
needed. This was another example of the theory
predicting a phenomenon that was later discovered.
42. Hubble estimated the age of the universe to be
1
,
H
where
H is the velocity of galaxy recession divided by the
distance to the galaxy. If the distances are twice what
Hubble thought then H will be halved. Halving H doubles
the estimated age of the universe.
43. Galaxies rotate in a way that suggests the presence of
more mass than is observed. Also, current theories of the
universe suggest that it has just enough mass to avoid
collapse; if this is so there must be much more mass than
is visible.
44. Inflation theory states that there was a period of enormous
expansion in the first moments of the universe. It is
popular with cosmologists because it helps to explain
features observed in the universe today, such as the
uniformity of the cosmic microwave background
radiation.
46. Student investigation

47. (a) Hubbles constant
1
6 1
1 1
gradient
1000 km s
2 10 Mpc
500 km s Mpc
=
=
=

(b) The biggest reason for the difference from todays
figure is that Hubble used an incorrect value of the
distance to other galaxies.
48. (a) The steady state theory claimed that the universe has
existed forever, and has always looked much the
same as it does now. The steady state universe
constantly creates new matter so there should be
ancient galaxies and young galaxies. The big bang
theory says that the universe had a beginning, when
virtually all of the matter in the universe was created.
It has expanded with time so its density has
decreased. Early in the universe, all of the galaxies
were young, now they are all old.
(b) Looking back in time we see different features, such
as quasars and a greater density of galaxies. The
steady state theory has no explanation for the cosmic
microwave background radiation, and all galaxies
and other objects in the universe seem to be less than
15 billion years old.
(c) The big bang theory suggests that the universe was
smaller, more active and more dense in the past. It
even suggests a time before which the universe does
not exist. The universe in this view is not the same
for all time as required by the cosmological principle
of the steady state theorists.
49. Debate.
50.

51. The big bang theory readily explains the major
observations of the universe; steady state does not explain
anything that the big bang cannot.
52. Scientific accounts are based on measurements and tested
hypotheses. They are adapted as new data come to light.
Ancient accounts are preserved in spite of scientific
evidence against them. They have more to do with morals
and values, whereas science attempts to deal objectively
with observations.
53. Often simulations of galaxy formation start with
individual particles and the forces, such as gravity, that
act between them. In this way astronomers can test
hypotheses they have about the formation of galaxies and
other structures. As the simulation runs, astronomers can
observe whether or not the particles move to form
structures similar to those observed in the universe.
54. It is impossible to get a cloud of gas sufficient to form a
galaxy and wait long enough to see if the galaxy forms as
expected. Simulations allow astrophysicists to perform
experiments with simulated clouds of gas and can run the
simulation in a time that allows them to see what would
have occurred over billions of years.

Unit
2

Detailed study:
Energy from the nucleus

Chapter 15
Nuclear energy
1. The nucleons are held together in the nucleus by a force
of attraction called strong nuclear force, which is strong
enough to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion.
2. (a) Fusion is the joining together of two nuclei to form a
larger, more stable nucleus. Fission is the splitting of
a single nucleus to form two smaller, more stable
nuclei.
(b) Fusion
3. In both cases, more stable nuclei than the original are
being created. Excess energy is then released.
4. From the graph (see figure 8.4, p. 200), binding energy
per nucleon for
235
U is = 7.8 MeV.
binding energy of
235
U = 235 7.7 MeV
= 1810
Binding energy after decay
= binding energy of
141
Ba + binding energy of
92
Kr
= 141 8.4 + 92 8.7
= 1184.4 + 800.4
= 1984.8
Energy released = 1985 1810
= 175
= 200 MeV
(1 significant figure is appropriate considering data are
required from graph.)
Therefore, it is close to the accepted value.
5. Energy is released when fusing two small nuclei together
because a larger, more stable nucleus results with a
greater binding energy per nucleon.
6. The neutron knocks an electron from an atom.
7. A flat mass has a much lower volume/surface area than a
sphere. That is, for the same volume and mass as a
sphere, more of the flat sheet is exposed to the air. This
allows many more free neutrons to escape rather than
sustain a chain reaction.
8. Kinetic energy of a neutron and a fused nucleus and some
gamma radiation.
9. Because they have no charge and can easily enter a
nucleus.
10. A chain reaction occurs when more than one of the
neutrons produced in a fission reaction triggers another
fission reaction.
11. Similarities:
Each energy source is used to heat water, produce steam
and turn turbines.
The kinetic energy of the moving turbine in each plant is
converted into electrical energy (via a generator).
Electrical energy is distributed by other plants to the
community via transformers and transmission lines.
Differences:
Nuclear power is the initial energy source.
A nuclear power plant does not produce CO
2
.
Nuclear waste can be stored until harm to the environment
is reduced.
12. Control rods absorb neutrons that may split other uranium
atoms. By absorbing these neutrons, the chain reaction
can be slowed.
13. The fuel for conventional reactors is uranium-235. The
plutonium-239 used in fast breeder reactors is derived
from uranium-238, which is more plentiful than uranium-
235. Also, because plutonium-239 absorbs fast-moving
neutrons, there is no need for a moderator to slow them
down.
14. The fuel in fast breeder reactors (plutonium-239) readily
absorbs fast-moving neutrons, whereas uranium-235
reactors using uranium-235 as fuel require a moderator to
slow the neutrons down. Slow-moving neutrons are more
likely to be captured by uranium-235.
15. The list might include, for example:
Benefits: Good supply of fuel (in some locations), reduced
production of greenhouse gases
Risks: Possible accidents causing large-scale environ-
mental and human devastation, radioactivity of waste
products
16. Answers should be based on information contained on
pp. 34852 of the text.
17. The mass of the two isotopes U235 and U238 are very
close, differing by about 1%.
18. Boron is a neutron absorber and is also used in control
rods.
19. The speed of particles in a substance is a measure of its
temperature, the higher the temperature, the faster the
particles are moving. The neutrons are slowed down by
the moderator to a speed comparable to that of the
uranium atoms in the fuel rods because of the temperature
they are at.
20. Control rods regulate the nuclear reaction. They absorb
neutrons so when they are pulled out the reaction rate
increases; when they are dropped in, the reaction rate
slows or is stopped.
21. Suggestions of location should be areas which are:
geologically stable
away from high density populations.
Safety precautions should include:
secure location
inability for waste to leak
e.g. use of Synrock
dry area
space between waste and perimeter fence
discussion of shielding and half-life.
22. Depleted Uranium is the leftover Uranium from the
enrichment process. It has a higher concentration of
U238, being almost pure. It is a very dense metal and is

used as a medical radiation shield. Its high density and
high melting point means that it is also used in the tips of
armour piercing missiles. There are concerns about the
radiation exposure to soldiers and the non-combatants
from exploded shell fragments. However the material is
weakly radioactive, but it has a very long half-life.
23. What does the phrase reprocessing of spent fuel rods
mean?
A spent fuel rod contains a mixture of fission fragments,
uranium and transuranic elements such as Plutonium.
Reprocessing is the chemical separation of these for
either disposal as waste or re-use as a nuclear fuel.
24. Fissionable material is contained as two or more
subcritical masses within a bomb. This allows safe
transportation. These subcritical masses are brought
together through the detonation of a small conventional
bomb to reach critical mass (needed for a chain reaction
to be sustained).
25. Atmospheric testing:
The effects may remain for months/years as the
radioactive fallout (with long half-lives) returns to the
earth.
Underground testing:
As the ground is a good shield, the effects are not as
significant. There is little fall-out above ground level.
26. Personal reflections of students
27. A neutron bomb releases a significant amount of its
energy as neutrons, which damage tissue, but not
infrastructure, however, while neutron bombs have about
one-tenth of the explosive power of a nuclear bomb, this
is still considerably greater than conventional weapons.
The neutrons are produced by the fusion reaction within a
thermonuclear bomb, but are allowed to escape the
reaction vessel in a neutron bomb.
28. Kinetic energy of fission fragments and neutrons.
29. Fusion has minimal waste problems and a largely
inexhaustible source of fuel, for example, sea water. The
disadvantage is that after about 60 years of research a
sustainable fusion reaction has still not been achieved.
30. Amount of energy in joules = 10
3
10
6
60 60 24
joules.
Amount of energy in eV
= (10
3
10
6
60 60 24)/(1.60 10
19
)
Number of fusion reactions
= ((10
3
10
6
60 60 24)/(1.60 10
19
))/(4.0 10
6
)
Mass of Deuterium
= (2.00 1.66 10
27
) ((10
3
10
6
60 60 24)/
(1.60 10
19
))/(4.0 10
6
)
Mass of Deuterium = 0.45 kg

Unit
2

Detailed study:
Investigations: flight

Chapter 16
Flight investigations
1. The centre of pressure is the point on an aircrafts wing at
which the lift forces are considered to be acting. The
centre of gravity is the point on any object at which the
weight force can be considered to be acting.
2. (a) 100 N, net force, accelerates up
(b) 100 N, decelerates
(c) 200 N + 10 N, accelerates up and forwards
(d) 200 N + 10 N, accelerates down and forwards
3. (a) Constant speed
thrust = drag
drag = 25 kN
(b) F = 25 000 N
v = 200 m s
1
P = Fv
= 25 000 200
= 5 000 000
= 5.0 10
6
W
4. In fluids, the particles experience more freedom than in
solids, they are bound together less tightly, and the spaces
between them are larger. This is especially so in gases.
5. v
1
= 9.3 cm s
1
v
2
= 13 cm s
1
A
1
= 61 cm
2
A
2
= ?
v
1
A
1
= v
2
A
2
A
2

1 1
2
2
9.3 61
13
44 cm
v A
v
=
=
=

6. v
1
= 2.1 m s
1
v
2
= ?
d
1
= 0.15 m d
2
= 0.45 m
2 2
1 2
1 2
2
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
1
4 4
2.1 0.15

0.45
0.23 m s
d d
v v
v d
v
d

=
=
=
=

7. (a)
1 1 2 2
1 1
2
2
2 1
1 1
2
1
but 2
2
v A v A
v A
A
v
v v
v A
A
v
=
=
=
=

1
2
A
=
The area is halved.
(b)
1
2
2
2 1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
A
A
r
r
r
r
r
=
=
=
=

The radius would be reduced by a factor of
1
2
or
0.71.
8.
1 1 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 1 1 2
2
2 1
2
1
2
4 4
10
10
10
v A v A
d d
v v
v d v d
d
d
d
d

=
=
=
=
=

Decrease in diameter by a factor of
1
10
or 0.32
increases air speed by a factor of 10.
9. As the speed of a fluid increases, the pressure decreases.
This is Bernoullis principle in simple terms.
10. In the term
1
2
v
2
, = density, measured in kg m
3
, and
v = fluid speed, measured in m s
1
. Therefore the units of
1
2
v
2
are kg m
3
(m s
1
)
2
= kg m
3
m
2
s
2
= kg m
1
s
2
.
N is equivalent to kg m s
2
, so N m
2
is equivalent to
kg m s
2
m
2
or kg m
1
s
2
as above.
11. In the term gh, = density, measured in kg m
3
,
g = acceleration due to gravity, measured in m s
2
, and
h = height, measured in m. Therefore the units of gh

are
kg m
3
m s
2
m = kg m
1
s
2
. N is equivalent to
kg m s
2
, so N m
2
is equivalent to kg m s
2
m
2
or kg
m
1
s
2
as above.
12. An aerofoil is curved on the top and flat on the bottom. It
is shaped so that the air travelling over the top surface is
sped up, reducing the air pressure below normal pressure.
This results in an upwards force, known as the lift force,
that acts from the region of normal air pressure below the
aerofoil towards the region of lower pressure above the
aerofoil.

13.

14. As an aerofoil travels through the air, it deflects the airflow
downwards. This is downwash. The reaction to this action
is an upward push on the wing by the air. This provides
about 15% of the lift needed by a cruising aircraft.
15. Wing-tip vortices are caused by the higher-pressure air
under the wing flowing around the wingtip to the region
of lower-pressure air on the top of the wing.
16. (a)

(b) Roughly 108 km h
1
(c) A high lift-to-drag ratio means an aircraft experiences
maximum lift and minimum drag. This corresponds
to an optimum cruising speed for the aircraft and
determines its maximum range and endurance.
(d) Stalling occurs at low airspeed due to an increase in
drag. This corresponds to the left-hand region of the
graph.
(e) In a stall, the airflow over the wing breaks down and
becomes turbulent. Lift is lost and the aircraft could
drop in an uncontrolled manner.
17. Glide ratio = 9 : 1
loss of altitude = 1200 m
(a)
glide distance
Glide ratio
loss of altitude
glide distance glide ratio loss of altitude
9 1200
10 800 m (10.8 km)
=
=
=
=

(b) Lift-to-drag ratio = glide ratio
= 9 : 1
18. (a)
glide distance
Glide ratio
loss of altitude
12 000
800
15 : 1
=
=
=

(b) Lift-to-drag ratio glide ratio
15:1
=
=

19.
glide distance
Glide ratio
loss of altitude
glide distance
Loss of altitude
glide ratio
3600 m
40
90 m
Final altitude 0
Initial altitude 90 m
=
=
=
=
=
=

20. The function of the tailplane in an aircraft is to provide an
extra force that can be called into action when required to
correct any out-of-balance of the aircraft.
21. (a) Taking torques about the centre of gravity,

net
clockwise anticlockwise
w w T T
T
T
3
0
15000 1.1 9.3
15000 1.1
9.3
1.8 10 N downwards
I d L d
L
L
=
=
=
=
=
=

(b) The force that depends on the mass of the plane, the
weight, mg, acts through the centre of gravity. When
torques are taken about the centre of gravity, the
torque due to the weight is zero.
22. The location of an aircrafts centre of gravity can be
altered by repositioning the load it carries, for example,
fuel, passengers and cargo. In this case, one or all of these
would need to be shifted rearwards.
23.
net
= 0
W
1
= 10 000 g W
2
= 15 000 g
d
1
= 12 m d
2
= ?

1 1 2 2
2
2
10000 g 12 15000 g
10000 12
15000
8.0
W d W d
d
d
=
=
=
=

The second container should be located 8.0 m in front of
the planes centre of gravity.

24. The additional torque due to the weight of the added
cargo W
c
has to be compensated for by a decrease in the
torque due to the weight of released fuel W
f
.

added cargo released fuel
c c f f
f
f

200 3.6 4.0
200 3.6
4.0
180 kg.
W d W d
g M g
M
=
=
=
=
=

25. The longitudinal axis of an aircraft runs from the front
end to the rear end through the centre of gravity. The
vertical axis runs vertically downwards through the
aircrafts body, through the centre of gravity. The lateral
axis runs parallel with a line from wing tip to wing tip
and also through the centre of gravity.
26.
Type of motion
Axis about
which motion
occurs
Aircraft control
surface
responsible for
motion
yaw vertical rudder
pitch lateral elevators
roll longitudinal ailerons

Unit
2

Detailed study:
Investigations: sustainable
energy sources

Chapter 17
Investigating energy
alternatives
1. Renewable sources of energy replace themselves
continuously. Non-renewable sources of energy rely on
fuels that dont replace themselves.
2. Energy sources are described as renewable if they replace
themselves continually. Energy sources described as
sustainable are those that have a long term future because
they are not limited by supply and environmental factors.
3. Without a Greenhouse Effect to prevent too much energy
leaving the Earths atmosphere, the temperature at and
near the Earths surface would be too low for the survival
of living things.
4. A high-grade form of energy can be efficiently converted
into other useful forms of energy. Low-grade energy
cannot be converted into another useful source of energy.
5. Internal energy is classified as a low-grade form of
energy because it cannot be converted efficiently into
other useful forms of energy.
6. In any energy conversion, some energy is always
degraded into lower grade forms.
7. Estimate the area of the body facing the Sun. For
example,

2
1.5 m 0.5 m
0.75 m
1200 W
A
Q
t
=
=
=

where Q is the quantity of energy received by an area of
1 m
2
.
t = 30 60 s
= 1800 s
Q = 1200 W 1800 s
Energy received by body = 1200 W 1800 s 0.75
= 1.6 10
7
J
= 16 MJ
A major assumption is that the sky is clear. The value
seems high but one must remember that:
some of the incident energy is reflected by the body
and not absorbed
while radiant energy is being absorbed, the body is also
cooling by conduction, convection and/or evaporation.
8. Energy used 110 0.5
55 kJ
energy used
Power
time interval
=
=
=

55 kJ
55 s
1.0 kW
=
=

9. Answers will vary from school to school. Assumptions
might include:
average power consumption for lighting and
heating = 50 kW
hours of operation per day = 7
days of operation per year = 200
For example,
Energy = 50 000 7 60 60 200
= 2.5 10
11
J
Cost of lighting: Assume 1 kW power consumption.
Energy used in one year = 1 kW (7 200) h
= 1400 kW-h
Cost = 1400 $0.17
= $238
10. Energy input in one hour
= 10 3.3 10
7
J
= 3.3 10
8
J
Mechanical energy output in one hour
= 25% of 3.3 10
8
J
= 8.25 10
7
J

7
4
energy output
Power output
time
8.25 10 J
3600 s
2.3 10 W
23 kW
=
=
=
=

11.
4500 MW
Energy collected
0.15
30 000 MW
=
=

10
8 2
Each square metre collects 80 W
area needed 30 000 MW 80 W
3.0 10 80
3.8 10 m
=
=
=

12.
2
2
2
Insolation 1.2 kW m
Area 2000 m
Efficiency 18%
Incident energy 1.2 2000
2400 kW
Energy converted 0.18 2400
432 kW
4.3 10 kW
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

13. The increase of salt concentration with depth.

14. (a)
2 1
2
2
2
Insolation 6.5 kW-h m day
6.5 kW-h

1m 24 h
(6.5 24) kWm
0.27 kWm

=
=
=
=

(b)
0.27 1000
%
1.37 1
19.7% (20%)
=
=

15. (a)

(b) The shapes are mostly as expected. Insolation greater
during summer and loss during winter. Less
insolations the further from the equator. Unexpected
variation in southern hemisphere due to factors other
than latitude, for example, location with respect to
land mass and ocean.
16. The flow of water through a turbine is used to generate
electricity in a hydroelectric power station. The speed of
the water is determined mainly by the height the water
has fallen through.
(a) Flow = 2 ML min
1
h = 180 m

6
9 1
9
7
4
Energy conversion
2 10 9.8 180
3.53 10 J min
3.53 10 J
60 s
5.9 10 W
5.9 10 kW or 59 MW
mgh
=
=
=
=
=
=

(b) Some of the available energy is transferred as heat to
the tunnel, turbine and surrounding air as a result of
friction and magnetic effects.
17. Student research. Answers should include the size of the
power plant (which will affect the cost) and the huge
amount of time it would take to build. Because of its
likely weight, it would have to be built in space.
18. Incident radiation= 1.37 kW m
2
Area of panel = 8 km 8 km
= 8000 m 8000 m
= 6.4 10
7
m
2
Incident energy = 1.37 6.4 10
7
= 8.768 10
7
kW
Receiving energy rate = 8.768 10
7
0.18 0.65
= 1.0 10
7
kW
= 10 000 MW
19. (a)
2
2
3 2
65 m Area
4
3318 m
3.3 10 m
d
d
= =
=
=

(b)
m
V
=
= 1.22 kg m
3
V = A thickness
= 3318 1
= 3318 m
3
m = V
= 1.22 3318
= 4048 kg
= 4.0 10
3
kg
(c) P =
1
2
v
3
r
2
=
1
2
v
3
area
=
1
2
1.22 8
3
3318
= 1.0 10
6
W
= 1.0 MW
(d) P v
3
If v is reduced by
1
2
, v
3
is reduced by (
1
2
)
3
=
1
8

Power is reduced by
1
8

(e) Power output = 1.04 10
6
W 0.35
Power output = 3.6 10
5
W
Power output = 360 kW
20. Student answers will vary.

Unit
2

Detailed study:
Medical physics

Chapter 18
Waves and
radioactivity in
medical diagnosis
and treatment
1. Ultrasound is sound above 20

000 Hz frequency, whereas
sound for normal hearing in humans is of frequency below
20 000 Hz; 20 000 Hz is at the limit of human hearing.
2. High frequency is not used to scan internal organs
because it doesnt reach them. High-frequency ultrasound
is absorbed by living tissue more than low-frequency
ultrasound. High-frequency ultrasound is used only on
regions close to the skin.
3. Z = v, where Z = 1.59 10
6
kg m
2
s
1

v = 1570 m s
1
= 1.59 10
6
1570
= 1.01 10
3
kg m
3
The density of blood is 1.01 10
3
kg m
3
(or 1.01 g
cm
3
).
4. (a) Z = v, where = 1060 kg m
3
v = 1540 m s
1
Z = 1060 1540 kg m
2
s
1
= 1.63 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
The acoustic impedance of soft tissue is 1.63 10

kg
m
2
s
1
.
(b) Z = v, where = 1600 kg m
3
v = 4080 m s
1
Z = 1600 4080 kg m
2
s
1
= 6.53 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
The acoustic impedance of bone is 6.53 10
6
kg
m
2
s
1
.
(c) Z
1
= Z
liver
= v, where = 1050 kg m
3
v = 1570 m s
1
Z
1
= 1050 1570 kg m
2
s
1
= 1.6485 10
6
kg m
2
s
1

Z
2
= Z
muscle

= v, where = 1075 kg m
3
v = 1590 m s
1
Z
2
= 1075 1590 kg m
2
s
1
= 1.709 25 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
I
r
I
o
= (Z
2
Z
1
)
2
(Z
2
+ Z
1
)
2
,
where Z
1
= 1.6485 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
Z
2
= 1.709 25 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
= 3.27 10
4
Note that if Z
1
and Z
2
are calculated to only three
significant figures, the answer obtained is
3.19 10
4
.
5. (a) There is the most reflection at the skinair interface
(as I
r
/I
o
has the largest value).
(b) There is the least reflection at the brainfat interface
(as I
r
/I
o
has the smallest value).
(c) The greatest amount of absorption occurs where there
is least reflection. This is at the brainfat interface.
(d) For the fatbone interface, I
r
/I
o
= 0.029, where
I
o
= 60 mW cm
2
.

I
r
= 1.74 mW cm
2

The intensity of the reflected signal is 1.74 mW cm
2
.
(e) For the fatmuscle interface, I
r
/I
o
= 0.011, where
I
o
= 80 mW cm
2
.
I
r
= 0.88 mW cm
2
Amount of signal travelling into the muscle
= 80 0.88 mW cm
2
= 79.12 mW cm
2
(f) Some of the energy is converted to heat as the
ultrasound travels through the muscle and the rest of
the energy travels through the muscle to the next
interface, where part is reflected and part is
transmitted.
6. If the ultrasound travels through fat to liver, the same
percentage of ultrasound will be reflected as when the
ultrasound travels through liver to fat. Because of the
squared term in the equation to find I
r
/I
o
, it does not
matter whether fat or liver is assigned the value Z
1
the
ratio will remain the same.
7. A full bladder pushes the lower intestine, which contains
a lot of gas, out of the way and lifts the uterus to a good
position for taking an image. If the lower intestine were in
the way, ultrasound would be reflected from the gas and it
would not be possible to obtain an image of the foetus.
8. Z
1
= 1000 kg m
3
1500 m s
1
(for aqueous humour)
= 1.5 10
6
kg m
2
s
1

Z
2
= 1140 kg m
3
1620 m s
1
(for lens)
= 1.85 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
I
r
I
o
= (Z
2
Z
1
)
2
(Z
2
+ Z
1
)
2

= (0.35 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
)
2
(3.35 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
)
2
= 0.109
I
r
= 0.0109 I
o
= 0.0109 15 mW cm
2
= 0.16 mW cm
2
The intensity of the reflected beam is 0.16 mW cm
2
.
9. (a) Most of the ultrasound would be reflected from the
interface between air and skin as the difference in
acoustic impedance between air and skin is very
large.
(b) The optimum acoustic impedance of the gel would be
the same as that of the skin. Then all the incident
ultrasound would be transmitted into the skin.
The acoustic impedance of the gel = 1010 1540
= 1.56 10
6
kg m
2
s
1

(c) Z = v, where Z = 1.56 10
6
kg m
2
s
1
= 1200 kg m
3
v = 1300 m s
1
The speed of ultrasound in the gel is 1300 m s
1
.

10. When subjected to an alternating potential difference, the
piezoelectric crystal vibrates. This vibration is rapid and
produces signals in the ultrasound frequency range. In
this way, ultrasound waves are produced. When
ultrasound strikes a piezoelectric crystal, the pressure
changes, due to compressions and rarefactions, cause the
crystal to vibrate. The vibration generates an alternating
potential difference across the crystal. In this way, the
ultrasound waves are received.
11. An ultrasound A-scan is a range measuring system in
which an ultrasonic pulse is sent into the body in one line
and the time for the pulse to be reflected from an interface
in the body is measured. The intensities of the reflected
signals are plotted as a function of time and from this
information the position of features inside the body can
be found. For a B-scan, a pulse is sent into the body along
one line, and the reflected pulses are recorded as dots, the
brightest corresponding to the signal of greatest intensity.
By sending pulses into the body at different angles, a
series of B-scans can be used to build up a 2-D picture of
a cross-section through the body.
12. (a) Ultrasound signal is sent through the heel bone. The
speed and attenuation of the transmitted ultrasound
are measured. These data are then compared with
information about healthy heel bone.
(b) This method has limited effectiveness in the
diagnosis of osteoporosis as it is not done at the site
of possible fractures i.e. the hip or spine. It can be
used as an indicator of the need for further tests using
X-rays if an abnormal result is obtained.
13. (a) Speed of sound = 1540 m s
1
Distance travelled by pulse = 700 mm = 7 10
1
m
Time for pulse to travel this distance
4
0.7
s
1540
4.5 10 s
=
=

minimum time between pulses = 4.5 10
4
s
(b) A faster pulse rate would mean that the time between
pulses was shorter than 4.5 10
4
s. A new pulse
would be sent into the body before the reflected pulse
was received, leading to interference between the
reflected pulse and the incoming pulse and lack of
clarity of the position of the image.
14. A continuous signal is directed at the foetal heart and the
reflected signal is detected by a separate receiver. The
output is electronically filtered so that only the difference
in frequency due to the Doppler shift is amplified. This
difference is in the audible range. The tone will vary with
the speed of movement of the heart and hence with the
heartbeats, which can therefore be monitored.
15. (a) Electrons are emitted from a heated filament in a
highly evacuated tube. The heated filament is the
cathode. A very high potential difference (maybe
over 100 000 volts) is applied between the cathode
and the tungsten anode. The very fast electrons strike
the anode and are absorbed, and some of their energy
is converted into X-rays, which are sent in a direction
determined by the angle of the tungsten target.

(b) The X-rays are passed through a filter so that the
low-frequency rays are observed, leaving the beam
with a higher proportion of the more penetrating,
high-frequency rays.
16. (a) Attenuation, or reduction in intensity, of X-rays
depends on the atomic density of the material
encountered. Atomic density refers to the number of
protons in the nuclei of the atoms encountered by the
X-rays. Bone has a high atomic density and so will
absorb the X-rays readily and show up clearly in an
X-ray image. Soft tissue has a moderate atomic
density and hence will not absorb X-rays as well as
bone. Soft tissue such as muscle and skin will show
up very faintly on an X-ray image. Air, on the other
hand, has a low atomic density, so air in the body will
not absorb X-rays and will appear black on an X-ray
image.
(b) The bone would be white, the muscle would be light
grey and translucent in appearance and the air would
be black. Bone would absorb X-rays, because bone
has a high atomic density as outlined in part (a), and
so the X-rays would not reach the photographic film,
which would show up as white behind the bone.
Some X-rays would penetrate the muscle, with a
medium atomic density, and reach the film, resulting
in the light grey colour behind muscle. X-rays would
not be stopped by air and these X-rays would reach
the photographic film, resulting in a black image.
17. (a) Hard X-rays have a higher frequency and are more
penetrating than soft X-rays.
(b) Hard X-rays are preferred because they penetrate the
body and are absorbed by bone. Soft X-rays are
absorbed by the skin before they reach bone and
expose the patient to X-rays which have no value in
obtaining an image.
18. Conventional X-ray images are produced by a stationary
X-ray tube. CAT scans are produced by an X-ray tube
that is rotated around while the patient is slowly moved
through a gantry.

19.
CAT scan X-rays Ultrasound
Soft tissue
accurately
imaged,
resulting in fine
detail being
shown.
Soft tissue does not
absorb conventional
X-rays to any noticeable
extent, so soft tissue
will not show up, unless
a contrast medium is
used.
Ultrasound will
not clearly
distinguish one
type of soft tissue
from another.
Images of slices,
close together,
through the body
can be taken.
Conventional
X-rays cannot be used
to image a slice of the
body.
Ultrasound cannot
accurately image
slices close
together.
The images of
slices can be
built up into a
3-dimensional
image.
X-rays cannot do this as
slices cannot be imaged.
Ultrasound cannot
accurately image
slices close
together so a
3-dimensional
image built up
from ultrasound is
not very clear.
The brain can be
imaged through
the bony skull.
Conventional
X-rays would show up
the skull rather than
what was inside the
skull.
Ultrasound would
be reflected from
the skull and not
image what was
underneath, unless
the ultrasound was
taken through a
gap in the skull.
CAT scans
provide a clear
image of the
lungs.
X-rays provide less
detailed images than
CAT scans.
Ultrasound cannot
image the lungs
because the air
tissue boundary
reflects sound
waves.
Complicated
bone structure is
imaged and a
3-dimensional
image may be
obtained.
Bone absorbs most of
the rays giving a
2-dimensional image of
the part of the bone
facing the X-rays, and
so the complex structure
cannot be seen.
Ultrasound is
reflected from
bone, and so no
useful image is
formed.
20. (a) In a coherent bundle the fibres are in the same
position relative to one another at each end of the
fibre.
(b) A coherent bundle of optical fibres is used to transmit
the reflected light back from the inside of the body to
the eye or camera outside the body. It is necessary
that an accurate image is produced and hence each
fibre must remain in the same position relative to the
other fibres. In this way light from the far right of the
object will emerge from the body and be at the far
right of the image; this matching of light beams will
occur for each optic fibre. The result will be an image
which is exactly the same as the object inside the
body.
(c) It is dark inside the body. Hence, the inside of the
body will not be visible unless light is passed from a
powerful light source along an optical fibre, reflected
off the inside of the body and transmitted back to the
outside. The internal organs are not necessarily good
reflectors of light, so the source must be bright to
reflect as much light as possible to see the organs.
(d) If the fibres in the bundle are narrow and have a large
core to cladding ratio, light reflected from many
points on the object will be transmitted. Hence, the
resulting image will be made of many points and will
therefore be clearer.
21. The endoscope can be inserted into the oesophagus
through the mouth. The tumour in the oesophagus can be
viewed because light is reflected off the oesophagus and
the tumour. A small tool on the end of the endoscope can
be used to remove a sample of the tumour. This sample is
then removed from the oesophagus by this tool and sent
for examination. Taking a biopsy means removing a
sample of the tumour.
22. The high intensity of the light makes lasers suitable for
heating, cutting or vaporising tissue. The narrowness of a
laser beam allows surgeons to target small areas,
minimising damage to surrounding tissue. The narrow
range of wavelengths for each particular laser allows the
selection of a laser for a particular purpose of location in
the body.
23. Advantages of keyhole surgery over other methods
include:
less invasive than open surgery
less risk of infection
less swelling and scarring
quicker recovery time.
24.

The graph should show that the activity for carbon-11
halves every 20 minutes while the activity for bromine-75
halves every 100 minutes.
25. (a) Sixteen days is two half-lives. After one half-life,
1
2

of the original amount remains. After two half-lives,
1
4
of the original amount remains.

1
4
of original amount = 6.0 mg
the original amount = 24 mg
24 mg of iodine-131 was used in the treatment.

(b) After another 16 days, two more half-lives will have
past.
The amount left =
1
4
of 6.0 mg = 1.5 mg.
(c) Iodine-131 emits beta and gamma radiation, exposing
the patient to more radiation than iodine-123, which
decays by gamma radiation only. Iodine-131 has a
longer half-life than iodine-123, exposing the patient
to radiation for longer than necessary.
26. (a) In one half-life the activity will drop to 2.0 MBq, and
in another half-life the activity will drop to 1 MBq.
Hence, the isotope will take two half-lives, or
4.0 minutes to reach an activity of 1.0 MBq.
(b) Halving the activity of each half-life, we see it will
take four half-lives for the activity to reach
0.25 MBq. The time involved will be 4 2.0 minutes
or 8.0 minutes.
27. This radioisotope is not suitable for use in medical
diagnosis as the half-life is too long. After waiting a
suitable time for the radiopharmaceutical to accumulate in
the target organ, the rate of emission will be low, because
the half-life is 100 days. Hence, a clear image will not be
able to be made. A larger dose of radioisotope could be
given to increase the rate of emission, but this will mean
more radioisotope will either remain in the patients body
or be excreted into the sewerage system.
28. The amount of emissions produced may have decreased
below a useful level for producing an image before the
radiopharmaceutical has accumulated in the target organ.
Once the radiopharmaceutical has accumulated in the
target organ, a short half-life will mean that the emission
rate will be too low by the time the examination has
finished.
29. (a) Example
Isotope Where it is used Justification
Iodine-123 To examine the
thyroid gland
It is taken up by the
thyroid gland. The
amount of radiation
given out is a measure
of whether or not the
thyroid gland is
functioning normally,
because the uptake of a
normal thyroid gland is
known.
Technetium-99m To examine bone Polyphosphate ions
labelled with
technetium-99m
accumulate in bone and
the gamma rays
produced show the flow
of blood. High blood
flow and hence high
-ray activity are called
hot spots and are often
associated with disease.
(b) Radioisotopes used in medical imaging are taken into
the body and the -rays which are produced are
detected outside the body. If particles are produced,
they will penetrate some of the internal tissue before
being absorbed and causing ionisation, which is
damaging. They will not be detected outside the body
as they will be absorbed before they emerge. Hence,
they would be useless for imaging; they are also
harmful.
30. (a) A study to measure the volume of blood in the body
uses a radioactive tracer which mixes with the blood.
(b) A study to detect blockage in the lungs uses a tracer
which is trapped in the fine capillaries in the lung. If
the tracer cannot become trapped, it may be because
the lung is blocked.
31. Technetium-99m has a relatively short half-life (6 hours),
it emits -rays only when it decays, and it readily attaches
to different compounds to form radioactive tracers. These
different compounds, when labelled, are metabolised by a
number of different organs and hence technetium-99m
can be used to image many organs.
32. (a) The top study shows both lungs because they are
functioning normally. The radioisotope will reach the
capillaries around the alveoli in the perfusion study,
and the radioisotope will reach the spaces in the
alveoli in the ventilation study. The bottom studies
show only the right lung in the perfusion study. Both
lungs are visible in the ventilation study.
(b) In the bottom study, the radioisotope does not reach
the capillaries because they are blocked in the left
lung. (This is a front view of the lungs.) The
perfusion study shows the blocked capillaries. The
radioisotope can reach the spaces in the alveoli in the
ventilation study, and so both the lungs show up on
the image. The ventilation study would show blocked
alveoli, not blocked capillaries.
33. (a) The X-ray shows the bone as whiter on the outside.
The inside of the bone is a similar shade to the
surrounding tissue. The bone scan shows the bone
brighter at the ends of the long bones in the legs
possibly due to these areas being where the bone
grows.
The X-ray shows a distinct break in one bone. The
bone scan shows white patches on bones in the spine,
ribs, shoulder and upper legs of the skeleton, which
has tumours.
(b) The X-ray produces an image because X-rays are
absorbed by bone and tissue through which they pass.
The bone is denser than the surrounding tissue and so
bone absorbs more X-rays. A shadow of the bone
forms on the X-ray photo and this shadow shows a
break in the bone.
In the bone scan, a radiopharmaceutical is injected
into the bloodstream and accumulates in bone. Where
there is increased blood flow more radiation from
the decaying radio-isotope is detected. The areas of
high blood flow show up as white spots on the scan
and often indicate tumours.
34. Xenon should not be used in preference to krypton for
investigations of lung function. In the investigation the
radioactive gas would be inhaled and accumulate in the
lungs. The -rays produced as the radioisotope decays

would be detected with a gamma camera. As the
radioisotope collects in the lungs very quickly, krypton-
81m with a short half-life of 13 seconds would be
adequate. A small dose would produce significant activity
as the half-life is very small. If xenon-133 were used, a
larger dose would be needed to produce the same activity
and any residual radioisotope, which was not excreted,
would remain in the body for many days because the half-
life is 5.3 days. Xenon-133 would also produce
particles as it decayed and these would penetrate the
tissue with which they were in contact and cause damage
to the tissue.
35. The radioisotopes used in PET scans decay by the
emission of positrons positively charged particles.
Those not used in PET scans emit other types of radiation.
36. (a) A positron is a positively charged particle.
(b) Positrons may be obtained when a proton dis-
integrates into a neutron and a positron.
(c) Positronelectron interaction results in the
annihilation of the pair and the production of two
-rays of energy 0.51 MeV travelling in opposite
directions. In medical diagnosis, the pairs of -rays
produced inside the body are detected and their
location determined from knowledge about the
attenuation of the gamma rays as they pass through
tissue. By locating the source of -rays, the source of
the radiopharmaceutical can be determined. Often a
different amount of radiopharmaceutical from what is
expected indicates disease.
37. Sample answer: The radioisotope fluorine-18 replaces a
hydrogen atom on some molecules of -D-glucose and
the radio-pharmaceutical so formed is called FDG. This
radiopharmaceutical is injected into the bloodstream. The
molecules are of a suitable size to reach the brain.
Fluorine-18 decays, with a half-life of 109.8 minutes,
emitting positrons. After travelling a short distance from
the place of emission, a positron encounters an electron
and the pair of particles annihilate one another producing
two photons of energy 0.51 MeV. These travel in
opposite directions from the site of annihilation and
emerge from the head, to be detected by the gamma
cameras surrounding the patients head. The intensities of
pairs of -rays is measured, and by comparison with
known attenuation for -rays travelling through tissue, the
site of the annihilation can be determined. About half a
million -ray pairs are needed to make a useful image,
and so a computer has a valuable role in analysing the
collected data. The concentration of glucose in the brain
for healthy brain function is known. Tumours require
more oxygen and hence more glucose. The site of a
tumour could show up as a site where more -rays than
expected were detected, because more positron emitting
radioisotopes circulated there.
It is important to give the patient a dose of the
radiopharmaceutical that is large enough to last for the
duration of the test but not so large that it will remain in
the patients body longer than necessary and expose the
patient to unnecessary radiation. The radiographer should
avoid contact with the -radiation produced or with the
positrons emitted from the fluorine-18 by using a shield
to absorb any harmful radiation and by moving away
from the region where radiation would be produced.
38. Protons align themselves so that they are parallel to a
strong external magnetic field.
39. Hydrogen is the most abundant of the elements in the
human body with nuclei that align themselves with an
external magnetic field.
40. The intensity of the pulse released by the protons is
analysed to provide information about the proton density
in the tissue. The duration of the pulse released is
analysed because it provides an indication of how easily
the protons release their energy and, therefore, the type of
hydrogen compounds in the tissue.
41. MRI distinguishes well between tissues and cancerous
tumours because they have different proton densities.
42. A printed image of the organs should be made. The activity
in the diseased organ may be greater than in the healthy
organ, as the bone scans show in the figure at the bottom of
page 426. On the other hand, the activity may be less in the
diseased organ due to blockage of the radioisotope from
the diseased area, as shown in the figure at the top of
page 426. Make sure you compare the images you find.
43. The answer is best presented in a table. Use ideas
including spatial clarity, time for examination, cost and
mobility of machine, best method for imaging organs, and
patient comfort and safety.

Appendix
2

Revision questions

page 449
A2.1 (a) Gigawatt, megavolt, kilojoule, decimetre,
centimetre, milliampere, microgram, nanometre
(b) (i) 1500 mA = 1500 10
3
A
= 1.5 A
(ii) 750 g = 750 10
3
kg
= 0.750 kg
(iii) 250 GW = 250 10
9
W
= 250 000 000 000 W
(2.5 10
11
W)
(iv) 0.52 km = 0.52 10
3
m
= 520 m
(v) 600 nm = 600 10
9
m
= 0.000 000 6 m (6.00 10
7
m)
(vi) 150 s = 150 10
6
s
= 0.000 15 s (1.5 10
4
s)
(vii) 5 cm = 5 10
2
m
= 0.05 m
(viii) 50 MV = 50 10
6
V
= 50 000 000 V (5.0 10
7
V)
(ix) 12 dm = 12 10
1
m
= 1.2 m
(c)
1
2
m s
unit of acceleration
s
ms
v
a
t
=
=

(d) (i)
1
N
unit of
kg
N kg
F mg
F
g
m
g
=
=
=
=

(ii) N kg
1
= kg m s
2
kg
1
= m s
2
page 451
A2.2 (a) 637 000 m = 6.37 10
5
m
(b) 300 000 000 m s
1
= 3.0 10
8
m s
1
(c) 0.000 000 000 3 m = 3 10
10
m
page 452
A2.3 (a) (i) 4 (ii) 2 (iii) 4 (iv) 6 (v) 2 (vi) 3
(b) (i) A = lw
= 30.5 m 15.24 m
= 464.82 m
2
Answer should be expressed as 465 m
2
as
least accurate quantity (30.5 m) has three
significant figures.
(ii) P = 2(l + w)
= 2(96.3 m + 72.42 m)
= 2 168.72 m
The value of l + w should be rounded off to
one decimal place as the minimum number
of decimal places in the data is one.
P = 2 168.7 m
= 337.4 m
(c)
1
distance travelled
Average speed
time taken
2 64 m
46.52 s
8.644 107 m s
=

=
=

(using the button on calculator)
Answer should be expressed to two significant
figures only as the least accurate quantity (64 m)
has two significant figures.
average speed = 8.6 m s
1

page 454
A2.4
(a)
(b)

(c)

(a) Area = Area A + Area B
=
1
2
7.5 s 5 m s
1
+
1
2
2.5 s 5 m s
1
= 12.5 m
(b) Area =
1
2
0.010 s 20 N
= 0.10 N s
(c) Area of each small square = 0.005 m 0.5 N
= 0.0025 N m
Total number of squares is approximately 270.
Approximate area = 270 0.0025 N m
= 0.68 N m
page 455
A2.5 (a) (i) P V
if voltage is tripled, power is tripled
P = 60 W
(ii) P I
if current is doubled, power is doubled
P = 40 W
(iii) P VI
if both V and I are tripled, P increases by a
factor of nine
P = 180 W
(iv) P VI
if V is doubled and I is halved, P remains
the same
P = 20 W
(b) (i) E
k
mv
2
E
k
= kmv
2
where k = constant of
proportionality

1
2
k =
(ii) If v is tripled, v
2
increases by a factor of 9
E
k
increases by a factor of 9.
(iii)
2 1
k
2
k
k
kA A
B kB
kA
kB
2
2
1.4
E mv
E
v
m
v E
E v
v E
E
E
=
=

=
=
=
=

(c)
1
V

V = constant
if V is divided by 3, triples
= 3 1.4 10
3
g cm
3
= 4.2 10
3
g cm
3
page 457
A2.6

(a) (A + B)
2
= A
2
+ B
2
(Pythagoras theorem)
= (24)
2
+ (10)
2
= 676
A + B = 26 units

10
tan
24
=
= 23
Sum is 26 units in a direction 23 east of north.
(b) (C + D)
2
= C
2
D
2
(Pythagoras theorem)
= (20)
2
(12)
2
= 256
C + D = 16 units
Sum is 16 units south.

page 458
A2.7

v = v + (u)
Because the magnitudes of u and v are equal and
the angle between them is 60, the triangle
produced by adding the vectors is equilateral.
Therefore the magnitude of v is 20 m s
1
.
page 458
A2.8

Q
H
= 50 cos 65 (since cos 65 =
H
50
Q
)
= 21 units
Q
V
= 50 sin 65 (since sin 65 =
V
50
Q
)
= 45 units
horizontal component is 21 units; vertical
component is 45 units.

page 459
A2.9

In each case, the vectors are added tail to head.
(c) F
net
2
= 2
2
+ 2
2
= 8
F
net
= 2.8 N.
(h) The triangle produced is equilateral. Therefore,
F
net
= 400 N.

page 460
A2.10

page 463
A2.11
This is an example of exponential growth. The number of
grains on the nth square is given by 2
n 1
. Therefore, the
number of grains on the 64th square would be 2
63
. That is
9.2 10
18
grains. The total number of grains on the board
after the nth square is filled is given by 2
n
1. When the
chessboard is entirely filled the total number of grains would
be 2
64
1, that is, 1.8 10
19
grains.
A reasonable estimate of the number of grains of wheat to
make up a gram is 15. The mass of the grains on the
chessboard is, therefore,
19
18
1.8 10
1.2 10 ,
15
g
= or
1.2 10
15
kg. The total world production of wheat in 1998
was about 6 10
11
kg, so the king would have found it
somewhat difficult to honour the wish.

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Part A

: a neutron has transformed into a proton and a

: a neutron has transformed into a proton and a

+ See the following figure.

decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus is trans-

ions may react

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