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CONTENTS Page
1. Introduction 2
2. Fundamentals of welding 3
3. Welding process 4
4. Types of welding 7
5. Arc welding 8
6. Gas welding 10
7. Plasma arc welding 11
8. Resistance, Solid-state, Friction welding 12
9. TIG welding 14
10. Brazing and soldering 14
11. Basic terms 17
12. Welding arc 23
13. Types of welds and weld joints 24
14. Design recommendations for
fabrication
26
15. Welding distortion 29
16. Methods to minimize distortions 30
17. Defects in welding 31
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INTRODUCTION
Welding is the most prominent process for joining large components
into complex assemblies or structures. A necessary condition for
welding is that the two or more surfaces to be joined must be brought
into intimate contact. When fusion takes place, the joint is achieved
by melting of two or more workpiece materials in a localized region.
In contrast, the solid-state joining processes rely on plastic
deformation of the surface asperities along the contact surface
representing the original weld interface or the impending weld joint.
welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,
usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is
often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to
form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a
strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat,
or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and
brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material
between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without
melting the workpieces.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a
gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and
ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be
performed in many different environments, including open air, under
water and in outer space. Welding is a potentially hazardous
undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric
shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge
welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and
steel by heating and hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding
were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and
electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology
advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and
World War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining
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methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques
were developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc
welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as
semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc
welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and
electroslag welding. Developments continued with the invention of
laser beam welding, electron beam welding, electromagnetic pulse
welding and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century.
Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is
commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to
develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld
quality.
WELD : To join (metals) by applying heat, sometimes with pressure
and sometimes with an intermediate or filler metal having a high
melting point.
WELDING : Join together (metal pieces or parts) by heating the
surfaces to the point of melting with a blowpipe, electric arc, or other
means, and uniting them by pressing, hammering, etc
Fundamentals of welding

A welded joint is obtained when two clean surfaces are brought into
contact witheach other and either pressure or heat, or both are applied
to obtain a bond. Thetendency of atoms to bond is the fundamental
basis of welding. The inter-diffusionbetween the materials that are
joined is the underlying principle in all weldingprocesses. The
diffusion may take place in the liquid, solid or mixed state. In welding
the metallic materials are joined by the formation of metallic bonds
and a perfectconnection is formed. In practice however, it is very
difficult to achieve a perfect joint;for, real surfaces are never smooth.
When welding, contact is established only at a fewpoints in the
surface, joins irregular surfaces where atomic bonding occurs.
Thereforethe strength attained will be only a fraction of the full
strength. Also, the irregular surfacemay not be very clean, being
contaminated with adsorbed moisture, oxide film, greaselayer etc. In
the welding of such surfaces, the contaminants have to be removed
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for thebonding of the surface atoms to take place. This can be
accomplished by applyingeither heat or pressure. In practical welding,
both heat and pressure are applied to get agood joint.
As pointed out earlier, any welding process needs some form of
energy, oftenheat, to connect the two materials. The relative amount
of heat and pressure required tojoin two materials may vary
considerably between two extreme cases in which eitherheat or
pressure alone is applied. When heat alone is applied to make the
joint,pressure is used merely to keep the joining members together.
Examples of such aprocess are Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW),
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW),Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW) etc. On the other hand pressure alone is used to makethe
bonding by plastic deformation, examples being cold welding, roll
welding, ultrasonicwelding etc. There are other welding methods
where both pressure and heat areemployed, such as resistance
welding, friction welding etc. A flame, an arc orresistance to an
electric current, produces the required heat. Electric arc is by far the
most popular source of heat used in commercial welding practice.

WELDING PROCESS:

In general, gas and arc welding are employed; but, almost all
structural weldingis arc welding.In gas welding a mixture of oxygen
and some suitable gas is burned at the tip ofa torch held in the
welders hand or by an automatic machine. Acetylene is the gas used
in structural welding and the process is called oxyacetylene welding.
The flameproduced can be used both for cutting and welding of
metals. Gas welding is a simpleand inexpensive process. But, the
process is slow compared to other means of welding.It is generally
used for repair and maintenance work.The most common welding
processes, especially for structural steel, use electricenergy as the heat
source produced by the electric arc.IS:816 in this process, the
basemetal and the welding rod are heated to the fusion temperature by
an electric arc. Thearc is a continuous spark formed when a large
current at a low voltage is dischargedbetween the electrode and the
base metal through a thermally ionised gaseous column,called plasma.
The resistance of the air or gas between the electrode and the
objectsbeing welded changes the electric energy into heat. A
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temperature of 33000 C to 55000C is produced in the arc. The
welding rod is connected to one terminal of the currentsource and the
object to be welded to the other. In arc welding, fusion takes place by
the flow of material from the welding rod across the arc without
pressure being applied.
The Shielded Metal Arc Welding process is explained in the
following paragraph.In Shielded Metal Arc Welding or SMAW,
heating is done by means ofelectric arc between a coated electrode
and the material being joined. In case bare wireelectrode (without
coating) is employed, the molten metal gets exposed to atmosphere
and combines chemically with oxygen and nitrogen forming defective
welds. Theelectrode coating on the welding rod forms a gaseous
shield that helps to excludeoxygen and stabilise the arc.The coated
electrode also deposits a slag in the molten metal, which because of
its lesser density compared to the base metal, floats on the surface of
the molten metalpool, shields it from atmosphere, and slows cooling.
After cooling, the slag can be easilyremoved by hammering and wire
brushing.
Design of Steel
The coating on the electrode thus: shields the arc from atmosphere;
coats the moltenmetal pool against oxidation; stabilises the arc;
shapes the molten metal by surfacetension and provides alloying
element to weld metal.

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The type of welding electrode used would decide the weld properties
such asstrength, ductility and corrosion resistance. The type to be
used for a particular jobdepends upon the type of metal being welded,
the amount of material to be added andthe position of the work. The
two general classes of electrodes are lightly coated andheavily coated.
The heavily coated electrodes are normally used in structural
welding.The resulting welds are stronger, more corrosion resistant
and more ductile comparedto welds produced by lightly coated
electrodes. Usually the SMAW process is eitherautomatic or semi-
automatic.
The term weldability is defined as the ability to obtain economic
welds, which aregood, crack-free and would meet all the
requirements. Of great importance are thechemistry and the structure
of the base metal and the weld metal. The effects of heatingand
cooling associated with fusion welding are experienced by the weld
metal and theHeat Affected Zone (HAZ) of the base metal. The
cracks in HAZ are mainly caused byhigh carbon content, hydrogen
enbrittlement and rate of cooling. For most steels, weldcracks become
a problem as the thickness of the plates increases.








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TYPES OF WELDING :




Arc Welding: A welding power supply is used to create and maintain
an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt
metals at the welding point. In such welding processes the power
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supply could be AC or DC, the electrode could be consumable or non-
consumable and a filler material may or may not be added.
The most common types of arc welding are:
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): A process that uses a
coated consumable electrode to lay the weld. As the electrode
melts, the (flux) coating disintegrates, giving off shielding
gases that protect the weld area from atmospheric gases and
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels
from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld
pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, the slag must be
chipped away to reveal the finished weld.


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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):A process in which a
continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas
(usually an argon and carbon dioxide mixture) are fed through
a welding gun.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):A process that
uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by
a shielding gas, and a filler metal that is fed manually is usually
used.
Shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW)
SMAW is primarily a manual welding process where the heat
source is an electric arc formed between a consumable
electrode and the base material [Figure 4.1.5]. The electrode is
covered with a coating (flux), which is extruded on the surface
of the electrode. During welding, the electrode coating
decomposes and melts, providing a protective atmosphere
around the weld area and forming a protective slag over the
weld pool. SMAW process is the most popular amongst all
other arc welding processes since the equipment is relatively
easy to use, inexpensive, and portable. The filler metal and
means for protecting the weld pool are provided by the covered
electrode. However, the final weld quality in SMAW is greatly
dependent on operators skill. Entrapment of slag and lack of
fusion are other common defects in SMAW. Since SMAW is a
manual process, the productivity is quite low.


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Gas Welding: In this method a focused high temperature flame generated
by gas combustion is used to melt the workpieces (and filler) together. The most
common type of gas welding is Oxy-fuel welding where acetylene is combusted
in oxygen.

Flux cored arc welding process (FCAW)
FCAW is similar to GMAW except the fact that a tubular wire
electrode filled with flux is used The flux, which is contained
within the core of the tubular electrode, melts during welding
and shields the weld pool from the atmosphere. The FCAW
process combines the best characteristics of SMAW and
GMAW. The flux for FCAW consumables can be designed to
support larger weld pools out of position and provide higher
penetration compared to using a solid wire (GMAW). Larger
welds can be made in a single pass with larger diameter
electrodes in FCAW where GMAW and SMAW would need
multiple passes for equivalent weld sizes. This improves
productivity and reduces distortion of a weld.
Submerged arc welding process (SAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) process employs a granular flux
which is fed into the joint around the tip of the welding torch by
a hose from a flux hopper .The arc is struck between the wire
and the work piece beneath the flux cover. Both the arc and the
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molten weld pool are completely shielded by the envelope of the
molten flux and a layer of granular flux particles (which are yet
to fuse). The filler or electrode metal is a continuously-fed wire
electrode like in GMAW and FCAW. However, higher
deposition rates can be achieved using SAW by using larger
diameter electrodes and higher currents (650 1500 A).

Plasma arc welding process (PAW)
The objective of the Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) process is to
increase the energy level of the arc plasma in a controlled
manner such that greater thickness can be welded with the
minimum spread of the welding arc. This objective is achieved
by providing a special gas nozzle around a tungsten electrode
operating on direct current electrode negative (DCEN) polarity.
The constricted plasma formed is highly ionized and
concentrated. Two variants of the Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
process are commonly used. One is the transferred arc process
and the second is the non-transferred arc process. In the
transferred arc mode, an arc is struck between the electrode and
the work piece. In the non-transferred mode, the arc is struck
between the electrode and the nozzle, thus eliminating the
necessity to have the work as a part of the electrical system.
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Resistance Welding: Resistance welding involves the generation of heat
by passing a high current (1000100,000 A) through the resistance caused by
the contact between two or more metal surfaces where that causes pools of
molten metal to be formed at the weld area. The most common types of
resistance welding are Spot-welding (using pointed electrodes) and Seam-
welding (using wheel-shaped electrodes). Energy Beam Welding: In this
method a focused high-energy beam (Laser beam or electron beam) is used to
melt the workpieces and thus join them together.
Solid-State Welding:In contrast to other welding methods, solid-state
welding processes do not involve the melting of the materials being joined.
Common types of solid-state welding include; ultrasonic welding, explosion
welding, electromagnetic pulse welding, roll welding, friction welding
(including friction-stir-welding), etc.
Friction Welding (FRW)is a solid state welding process which
produces welds due to thecompressive force contact of workpieces
which are either rotating or moving relative to oneanother. Heat is
produced due to the friction which displaces material plastically from
the fayingsurfaces.
In friction welding the heat required to produce the joint is generated
by friction heating at theinterface. The components to be joined are
first prepared to have smooth, square cut surfaces.One piece is held
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stationary while the other is mounted in a motor driven chuck or
collet androtated against it at high speed. A low contact pressure may
be applied initially to permitcleaning of the surfaces by a burnishing
action. This pressure is then increased and contactingfriction quickly
generates enough heat to raise the abutting surfaces to the welding
temperature.
As soon as this temperature is reached, rotation is stopped and the
pressure is maintained orincreased to complete the weld. The softened
material is squeezed out to form a flash. A forgedstructure is formed
in the joint. If desired, the flash can be removed by subsequent
machiningaction. Friction welding has been used to join steel bars
upto 100 mms in diameter and tubeswith outer diameter upto 100
mm.
The necessity and advent of Friction Stir Welding:
The basic problems with fusion welding of aluminum and its alloys
are that they possess:
Cast brittle dendritic structure,
Micro porosity,
Inferior mechanical and fatigue properties,
Loss of strength in heat affected zone,
Solidification and liquation cracking,
Loss of alloying elements from the weld pool.
The following alternate techniques are being used for joining of
aluminium and its alloys:
Electron beam welding (EBW),
Laser beam welding (LBW),
Variable polarity plasma arc welding (VPPAW),
Friction stir welding (FSW).


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TIG welding
The designation TIG comes from USA and is anabbreviation of
Tungsten Inert Gas.Tungsten - also called wolfram - is a metal with
afusion point of more than 3300oC, which meansmore than double
the fusion point of the metalswhich are usually welded.Inert Gas is
the same thing as inactive gas, whichmeans a type of gas that will not
to combine withother elements.In Germany this method is called WIG
welding,the W meaning wolfram.TIG welding is the international
standardized designation for this welding method.According to
DS/EN 24063 this welding processhas number 141.The Principle of
TIG WeldingTIG welding is an electric arc welding process innwhich
the fusion energy is produced by an electricarc burning between the
workpiece and thetungsten electrode.During the welding process the
electrode, the arcand the weld pool are protected against thedamaging
effects of the atmospheric air by aninert shielding gas.By means of a
gas nozzle the shielding gas is leadto the welding zone where it
replaces theatmospheric air.TIG welding differs from the other arc
weldingprocesses by the fact that the electrode is notconsumed like
the electrodes in other processessuch as MIG/MAG and MMA.
Brazing and Soldering Processes
Brazing and soldering fall in the category of solid-liquid joining
processes since only the filler material and not the base materials
melts during these processes. The parts to be joined are fitted together
with tight tolerances and a liquid filler is distributed between the
mating surfaces by capillary action. Though the base metals do not
melt, still joining can be performed between the work materials which
are otherwise unweldable.
Brazing is a solid-liquid joining process, whereby the molten filler
metal (the braze) is drawn into the gap between closely adjacent
surfaces of parent materials by capillary attraction. The melting point
of the filler metal is usually above 450C, but always below the
melting temperature of the parent material. To achieve a perfect joint,
the filler and parent materials should be metallurgically compatible.
There are many ways of brazing, and they all differ in the method of
applying heat to the braze assembly, in particular, the joint area for
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the melting of the filler material. These include dip brazing, furnace
brazing, induction brazing, infrared brazing, resistance brazing and
torch brazing. Figure 4.1.12 depicts a schematic set-up of furnace
brazing process. Some of common brazing filler alloys include
aluminum-silicon, copper-silver, copper-zinc, gold-silver, etc.
The wetting of the parent surfaces by the flowing brazing filler is
critical for a good brazed joint quality. This is critical, in particular,
for ceramics that are inherently difficult to join either to themselves of
to metal structures due to the strong ionic and covalent bonding of the
ceramics. If a braze alloy is melted between two ceramics, a poor
quality joint is likely to result due to poor wetting, which is measured
in terms of the contact angle between the braze and the substrate
(ceramic surface) after melting. For good wetting, the contact angle
should be lesser than 90
0
. One common remedy is to metallise the
ceramic surface by electroplating the same to be brazed with Nickel
or Copper if the specific ceramic is electrically conductive.
Alternately, vapor deposition or a sputter coating can be used to
deposit a metal onto the ceramic surface and subsequently, wetting of
the plated ceramic surface by the brazing filler can improve. Another
approach is to use an active metal hydride to form a reaction layer
between the ceramic and the brazing filler alloy. Metal hydrides of
Titanium or Zirconium are reduced and brazed simultaneously on the
ceramic surface (without any a-priori metallization) in a controlled
atomosphere (vacuum or inert gas) at relatively low temperature.
Typically, Silver, Copper or Silver-Copper eutectic alloy are then
used as brazing filler alloy. A recent improvement in this direction is
the active metal process which is similar to metal hydrides. In both
cases, the active element is (e,g, Titanium, Zirconium, Vanadium or
Aluminum) reacts with the ceramic surface forming a reaction layer
between the ceramic and the molten brazing filler alloy that will
reduce the interfacial energy to such a level that wetting of the
ceramic surface can take place. The active metal process is fast
superseding the metal hydride process since the former uses the active
metal along with the brazing filler alloy (Silver, Copper or Silver-
Copper eutectic alloy) and hence, allows a is a one-step process. The
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most common active brazing filler alloys are based on Silver, Copper
or Silver-Copper eutectic system with added Titanium.
Soldering refers to a typical group of solid-liquid joining processes
that produce coalescence between the parts to be joined by heating
them to the soldering temperature and by using a filler metal having
liquidus temperature not exceeding 450C and below the solidus of
the base metals. Usually, a nonferrous alloy is used as the solder
material. Like brazing process, there are different types of soldering
process viz. dip soldering, furnace soldering, induction soldering,
infrared soldering, resistance soldering, torch soldering and wave
soldering. The solders are classified according to whether or not they
contain lead. The most common general-purpose solder confirms to a
typical Pb (50%) and Sn (50%) composition.






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Basic terms

Pressure welding. Welding in which sufficient outer force is applied
to cause more orless plastic deformation of both the facing surfaces,
generally without the addition offiller metal. Usually, but not
necessarily, the facing surfaces are heated in order to permitor to
facilitate bonding.
Fusion welding. Welding without application of outer force in which
the facingsurface(s) must be melted. Usually, but not necessarily,
molten filler metal is added.
Surfacing. Producing a layer of different metal by welding, e.g. with
highercorrosion, abrasion or heat resistance than the parent metal.
Welding procedure specijication (WPS). A document specifying
the details of therequired variables for a specific application in order
to assure repeatability (EN 288).
Deposition rate. Amount of metal supplied to the joint per unit time
during welding.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES
Electrode coating
Electrode covering has a large effect on its performance. The
functions of the
electrode include the following; it
(a) provides a vapour shield to protect the molten metal from reaction
with theoxygen and nitrogen of the air.
(b) provides an ionised path for conducting current from the electrode
tip tothe work and for maintenance of an arc.
(c) provides flux for cleansing the metal surface of oxides and tying
up anyoxides as slags that float to the top and may be removed from
the finishweld.
(d) controls the weld profile, especially on fillet welds.
(e) controls the melt-off rate of the electrodes
(f) controls the penetration properties of the arc.
(g) provides filler metal in addition to that supplied by the core wire.
(h) adds alloy materials to the weld deposits where a particular
chemicalcomposition is required.
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Materials used in the electrode covering for fluxing and slag
formation, vary intheir abilities to clean dirty or rusty plate and
provide the thickness of the resultantslag covering. These materials
remove undesirable elements, and form slags thatWelding Processes
49rise to the surface of the pool, freeze before the metal below freezes
and thus aid inthe protection of the molten metal from reaction with
the atmosphere. Deoxidizersin the covering serve to reduce oxides
that might have been present on the work orinadventently formed by
oxidation of the molten metal through imperfect shieldingor slagging.
Oxides would tend to make the weld metal brittle. The most
commonlyused deoxidizing agents are silicon, aluminium and
manganese.
Arc stabilization is another important function of the electrode
covering. WithAC current, which reverses its direction, there is
tendency for the arc to cut-offevery time the current flow is
reversed. This problem is solved in the AC electrodeby incorporating
potassium compounds, such as potassium titanate in the covering.
Thus DC electrodes are not useable with AC currents, but AC
electrodes can beused with DC current.The electrode covering is also
used for adding filler metal ingradients to theweld deposits. Thus iron
powder is extensively used in electrode covering-addingiron to the
weld, in addition to the iron supplied by the core wire. A small
percentageof iron powder, in some E6010 electrodes, stabilizes and
quiets the arc withoutloss of penetration characteristics. Iron powder
added in large amount increasesthe deposition rate, increases the
optimum current and, with thick covering,facilitates the use of the
drag technique in welding. The electrode covering canalso be a source
of alloying metals, such as manganese, nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum. When mixed with iron from the steel wire core, an
alloy weld iscreated during the welding process.
There are four main types of electrode coatings on which all mild and
low alloy
steel electrodes are based.
(a) Gas shielded (cellulosic) electrodes : These coatings developed
originallynearly 60 years ago contain over 30 per cent of organic
material such asalpha flock, wood flour or other cellulose. In the arc
the coating breaksdown to give a voluminous gas shield of H2, CO
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and CO2 which give goodprotection of the molten weld metal with
consequent good weld metalproperties. These electrodes develop a
strong plasma jet which givesexcellent penetration. Burning off rate
of the electrode is low and the coatingconstitution leads to only a
small amount of thin friable slag being formed,which makes the
electrode very suitable for positional welding, includingvertical
position. Direct current is necessary.
(b) Rutile electrodes : This coating contains 50 per cent titania (TiO2)
as the mineralsrutile or ilmenite. This compound gives good arc
stability and low operatingvoltage so that it can readily be used with
alternating current. Protectionagainst contamination is effected by a
gaseous atmosphere containinghydrogen, oxides of carbon nitrogen
together with an acidic slag, whoseviscosity can be varied by minor
mineral additions. The easily controllableslag, low spatter, medium
penetration and high depostion rate make thiselectrode type ideal for
general engineering. Weld appearance is also goodand uniform and
mechanical properties are generally sound. However,ductility is lower
than that with other coatings.50 Welding Technology and Design
(c) Iron oxide/silicate electrodes : The coating is based on iron oxide
and manganeseoxide and associated silicates. This gives very little
gas shielding but avoluminous acidic slag which can result in intense
slag metal reactions.Depending on other constituents of the coating,
the high oxygen contentcan lead to a very low carbon weld deposit of
low strength or a welldeoxidised deposit with good strength and
ductility. A low operating voltagemakes the electrode suitable for a.c
or d.c. The slag makes control, andtherefore position welding
difficult, but gives good weld appearance witha slightly concave
profile which is excellent for fillet welds and deepgrooves. Deposition
rates are high, penetration good and spatter low.
Although mechanical properties (strength and ductility) and
soundness aregood, the high oxygen content of the weld metal gives
low notch ductility.Additionally, the acid slags cannot cope with high
sulphur contents whichlead to weld metal cracking.
(d) Basic electrodes : This type, also known as low hydrogen, lime-
ferritic orlime-fluorspar electrodes, has a complex coating containing
a highproportion of limestone (CaCo3) and Fluorspar (CaF2). Clays,
asbestos andother minerals with combined water are kept to a
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minimum to ensure verylow hydrogen contents in the weld deposit.
For this reason basic electrodesare also baked at a higher temperature
than other types and are stored underdry conditions.
Protection against contamination is by CO2-CO gas yield (with no
H2) anda fluid basic (or semi basic) slag which allows good
deoxidation of themetal which has low oxygen content. Mechanical
properties includingductility and notch toughness are superior to other
types, soundness isexcellent and the deposit has a high resistance to
hot and cold crackingwhich is very good for welding higher strength
steels (most alloy electrodeshave basic coatings). Basic electrodes are
also less sensitive to plate qualitythan other types and they are used
for high carbon or high sulphur containing
steels.
The arc voltage of basic electrodes is fairly high, and most electrodes
requiredirect current electrode positive. But the addition of potassium
salts to thecoating leads to potassium ions in the arc atmosphere and
allows the use ofalternating current. It is necessary to maintain a short
arc length. The slagis fluid and gives the weld bead a convex to flat
profile which can lead todeslagging problems. These electrodes give
medium speed of deposition,moderate penetration and good bead
appearance. They are generally moredifficult to use than rutile
electrode and require short arc lengths and carein weaving, stopping
and starting, if porosity and slag inclusions are to beavoided.
Dampness in the coating must be avoided.
The division of electrode coatings into four main types gives only a
generalpicture of coatings and it is worthwhile considering further
subdivisions orcombinations of these types:
(a) Cellulosic electrodes : Little variation is possible with this major
type ofelectrode. The original coatings restrict use to direct current;
however, minoradditions or arc stabilisers allow the use of a.c. with
some electrodes. Spatterlosses remain high and the weld bead is
coarse with uneven ripples.Mechanical properties of the weld are
good.
(b) Medium rutile electrodes : With an average coating thickness i.e.,
outer diameterless than one and a half times the core wire diameter, it
is based on titaniumdioxide, with around 15 per cent of cellulosic
material present in the coveringto give some gas shielding. These
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electrodes are suitable for positionalwelding. Hot cracking can occur
with small throat thicknesses althoughthe weld metal is not so
susceptible as iron oxide/silicate deposits.
(c) Heavy rutile electrodes : Thicker coverings with less, below 5 per
cent, cellulosicadditions result in a heavy compact self detaching slag.
The weld appearanceis smooth and mechanical properties are quite
good.
(d) Iron oxide acid electrodes : These electrodes have a medium to
heavy coveringthat produces an iron oxide, manganese oxide-silica
acidic slag. Further,the covering contains deoxidizers (generally
ferromanganese) to give soundweld deposits with good mechanical
properties. The solid slag has acharacteristic honey comb structure
and is readily detached. Depositionrates are high and deep penetration
can be achieved with thick coverings.Though the welds can be made
in all positions, the nature of the moltenslag (voluminous and often
fluid) makes these electrodes best suited in the
flat position.Weld deposits from these electrodes are more susceptible
to hot crackingthan from other types and care must be taken with the
parent material.Carbon content should not exceed 0.24 per cent nor
sulphur content exceed0.05 per cent for killed steels or 0.06 per cent
for rimmed steels. Cracksusceptibility is most marked in horizontal-
vertical or vertical fillet welds.
(e) Rutile acid electrodes : With replacement of iron and/or
manganese oxide bytitaniaupto a maximum of 30 per cent, a
somewhat more fluid acid slag is52 Welding Technology and Design
produced. Mechanical properties and weld soundness are similar to
ironacid electrodes.
(f) Oxidising electrodes : A thick covering based on iron oxide and
possiblemanganese oxide without deoxidants produces an oxidising
slag whichgives a weld deposit with very low carbon and manganese
contents andlow strength. Penetration is low and molten weld metal
fluid, restrictinguse to horizontal/vertical or flat fillet welds. The slag
is heavy, compactand self detaching and gives excellent weld
appearance.
(g) Basic electrodes : These electrodes have thick coverings
containing considerableamount of basic carbonates (generally calcium
or magnesium) and calciumfluoride, which give CO2 gas shielding
22

and an active basic or semi-basicslag. Deoxidation is generally
effected by ferro-silicon and ferro manganese.The deposited weld
metal is low in oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, retains
alloying additions and has excellent mechanical properties,
particularlyductility and toughness. A medium quantity of dense slag
forms on theweld giving a reasonably good appearance. Slag
inclusions are rare.The coatings are often hydroscopic and must be
stored under warm dryconditions to prevent moisture. Otherwise
hydrogen in the weld metal canlead to porosity, fissuring and
underbead cracking in susceptible steels.Moisture content should not
exceed 0.6 per cent.The high ductility and low hydrogen content of
the weld deposits lead toexcellent resistance to hot and cold cracking
and basic electrodes areparticularly suitable for welding heavy or
highly restrained structures.
(h) Iron powder electrodes : Iron powder can be added to all types of
electrodecoverings; so it is not strictly a single type.
The main advantages of the addition of iron powder are :
* it allows nearly twice the deposition rate;
* the iron powder is recovered in the weld deposit so that a specified
electrode length will give a longer arcing time and a large bead.
Iron powder also reduces the operating voltage; this can be an
advantage,
and for example, it allows cellulosic electrodes to be used with
alternating
current; however, 50 per cent iron powder in the coating reduces
operation.Iron powder also increases slag fluidity which leads to
manipulationdifficulties for positional welding. However, electrode
coverings are oftenslightly conducting and this allows touch
welding in the flat position. Toget high deposition rates, particularly
at the lower operating voltages. Theseelectrodes use high current
which can lead to a decrease in weld metalductility. Ductility
improves after a post weld tempering or stress relievingheat
treatment.
A recent development has been the introduction of low hydrogen
rutileiron powder electrodes which offer an electrode that is easy to
use in theflat position and gives a low hydrogen content in the weld
deposit. There issome indication that certain of these electrodes can
23

give porosity inpositional welds and require a high level of operator
skill for positionwelding.

The welding arc

A welding arc is an electric discharge between two electrodes. The
welding current isconducted from the electrode to the workpiece
through a heated and ionised gas, calledplasma. The voltage drop and
current in the arc give the amount of electric power that isreleased, the
heat of which, melts the electrode and the joint faces.The power must
also be high enough to keep the temperature of the arc sufficient
forthe continued transport of the current. The temperature maintains
ionisation of the gas,i.e. it creates electrically charged particles that
carry the current.Depending on the choice of shielding gas, different
temperatures are needed to keep theplasma ionised. Argon, for
example, is easier to ionise than helium. That means thatwelding in
helium or helium-mixed gases produces a higher voltage drop and
higher heatinput to the weld pool.When welding with a consumable
electrode, such as MIG/MAG welding, the arc hastwo main functions.
One is the above-mentioned supply of heat for melting the
materials;the other is the transport of the molten electrode material
down to the weld pool.This droplet transfer is very dependent on the
electromagnetic forces and surface tensionin the arc region. These
forces have a great influence on the behaviour of the weldingprocess,
and enable one to distinguish between different arc types.Spray arc
At high current, the resulting magnetic forces are directed downwards
which helps thedroplet to be released from the surface tension at the
electrode. The droplet transfer ischaracterised by a stream of small
droplets.

Short arc

At lower current it has the opposite effect. The magnetic forces are
smaller and are alsodirected upwards. The droplet hanging at the tip
of the electrode tends to increase in sizeand the process runs the risk
of being unstable. A way to overcome this problem is tokeep the arc
length so short that the droplets will dip into the pool before they have
24

grown too much. Surface tension will then start the transfer of the
melted material andthe tail of the droplet will be constricted by the
magnetic forces, the so-called "pincheffect".
No metal is transferred in the form of free droplets across the arc gap.
The stability ofthe short circuiting transfer is very sensitive to
variations in the shielding gas, thechemical composition of the
electrode and the properties of the power source and wirefeed system.

Magnetic arc blow

The force or 'arc blow' that arises when the magnetic field around the
arc is notcompletely symmetrical, is a well-known problem with arc
welding. In critical cases, itcan result in a defective weld.
The weld pool, and thus the weld bead, can be deflected towards one
side, producinga defective weld.If the arc is deflected along the joint,
the width of the bead and the penetration can beaffected.The
protection provided by molten slag or gas can be affected, resulting in
the formationof pores.The problem becomes worse, and more
noticeable, as the welding current increases,as this results in a
corresponding rapid increase in all the electromagnetic forces in
and around the arc.

Types of Welds and Weld Joints
There are eight basic types of welds, which are commonly used to
prepare welded joints. Fillet weld is the most commonly used one and
named so due to the approximately triangular cross-sectional shape of
the weld profile. The fillet is regarded as being on the joint. Fillet
welds are economical and requires no joint preparation and hence,
widely used to join corner, T- and Lap joint configurations. Groove
weld is another type of weld that is made between two members and
regarded as being in the joint. Commonly, the grooves are usually
made V-shaped due to ease of machining while U-shaped and J-
shaped grooves are also used. Backing weld is usually made on the
root side of a previously made weld to improve the quality of the weld
joint by ensuring complete penetration. Usually, the root of the
original weld is gouged, chipped and ground prior to the backing weld
is made. Spot and projection welds are made typically at the interface
25

of the members being joined. Seam welds are similar to spot welds
while the actual weld geometry varies with the type of the welding
process. Stud weld is used to weld a metallic stud onto a workpiece.
Surfacing welds refer to a group of welds that are used to build up a
broken surface on a base metal.


26


Design Recommendations for Economical and Efficient
Welded Fabrication
1. Welded assemblies should be made up of as few parts as possible.
Reduction in the number of joints leads to less handling, processing
time, equipment, service inspection, testing, less distortion etc. It is
always suggested to reduce the number of weld joints by
introducing formed parts.
2. Placement of weld joints should facilitate easy access of the
welding nozzle. This is particularly important for consumable
electrode fusion arc welding processes.
3. Whenever possible, design should be such that the joint is
horizontal during welding with the electrode pointing downward.
4. Parts should fit-up properly. This is essential not only for welding
speed but also for minimizing distortion of the finished weldment
(Figure 4.2.3). Especially with butt joints, the edges of mating
workpiece surfaces should be straight and uniform.
5. The fillet weld deposits should be kept to a minimum. Additional
material in the convex portion of the fillet weld cross section
contributed little to the strength of the joint.
6. Cast and forged parts should be designed so that the wall thickness
of both these parts to be joined is equal at the joint interface to
minimize weld joint distortion (Figure 4.2.4).
27

7. It is preferable to locate welds out of sight rather than in locations
where special finishing operations are required to improve the
appearance of the final assembled part.
8. The joint should be designed so that it requires minimal edge
preparation. It is often advisable to use lap joints in welded
assemblies to avoid the cost of edge preparation.
9. In some cases, curved edges parts can be used to provide the
equivalent of a grooved edge for the weld joints (Figure 4.2.5).
10. If machining after welding is required, welds should be placed
away from the material to be machined to avoid machining near to
the weld joints (Figure 4.2.6a).
11. Back-up strip can be included as an integral part of the component
to be welded to reduce the effort related to holding the back strip
(Figure 4.2.6b).



Figure 4.2.3 Poor and good fit-up of weld joints [1]
28


Figure 4.2.4 The wall thickness of parts to be joined should be equal at the joint [1]

Figure 4.2.5 Joints that have natural grooves and thus need little or no edge preparation [1]
a) b)
Figure 4.2.6 (a) Keep the weld metal outside the portion of the weldment, (b) Integral backup
strip
29

Welding Distortion
Welding distortion is caused by the non-uniform expansion and
contraction of the weld metal and the adjacent base metal during the
heating and cooling cycle of the welding process. The extent of
welding distortion will depend on various factors such as:
(a) geometry of the joint,
(b) type of weld preparation,
(c) width or volume of the web,
(d) rate of heat input during welding process,
(e) volume of weld deposition,
(f) alignment of structural elements in the weldments, and
(f) the sequence in which welds are made.
Figure below schematically shows six types of welding distortion
which are common in fusion arc welding (a) transverse, (b)
longitudinal, (c) angular, (d) rotational, (e) longitudinal bending, and
(f) buckling.

30

Guidelines for Minimizing Distortion
(1) Good fit-up of parts is important for minimizing distortion. the
maximum contact of all the mating surfaces minimizes the welding
time and also the requirement of the volume filler material. The
more gap to fill, the greater the possible weldment distortion.
(2) Heavier sections are less prone to distortion. So if distortion
prevention is important to the application, designers should
consider the use of thicker, more rigid components.
(3) Long and thin sections are readily distorted and buckled unless a
good rigid support is provided. Use of short-flanged butt joint can
minimize distortion in this case.
(4) Whenever possible, try to place welded joints in symmetric
position. Distortion can be reduced by placing welds opposite to
one another which balance the shrinkage force in the weld fillets.
(5) If sections of unequal thickness are to be welded together, then
distortion can be reduced by machining a groove in the thicker
section such that the thickness of the both part at the welded
section becomes equal
(6) When dimensioning welded assemblies, it is essential that
consideration be given to the shrinkage inherent in each weld.
Defects in Welding
The performance of welded structure in service depends on presence
or absence of defects in weld joints. Weld defects impair the strength
of welded joints and may results in the failure of a complete assembly
/ structure in service. In a general sense, the term weld defect refers to
any departure in welded structure or welded joints from the specified
requirements. According to the International Institute of Welding, the
weld defects are classified into six groups as follows:
(a) Cracks,
(b) Cavities (blowholes, porosity, shrinkage, etc.),
(c) Solid Inclusion,
(d) Incomplete fusion,
(e) Imperfect Shape,
(f) Miscellaneous defects.



31

Cracks
Cracks are the most dangerous amongst all types of defects as it
reduce the performance of a welded joint drastically and can also
cause catastrophic failure. Depending on the position, location and
orientation these can be categorised as longitudinal cracks, transverse
cracks, crater cracks, under-bead cracks, and toe cracks. These cracks
are usually visible and hence, referred to surface defects in weld
joints. In general, the cracks in weld joints occur due to high
concentration stresses during solidification of weld, poor fit-up and
incorrect welding procedures, and poor edge quality. Formation of
cracks can be controlled by preheating the joints, reducing the cooling
rate, taking proper precautions during post weld heat treatment.

Blowholes and porosities
These are usually subsurface defects in weld joints and are actually
voids, holes or cavities formed by the entrapped gases by the
solidified weld metal. The source of the trapped gas may be
uncleaned rust, dirt, paint, etc. on the parent metal or electrode, damp
flux (in shielded metal or submerged arc welding), impurities and
moisture in the shielding gas.
Normally, porosity is not considered as serious a defect as cracks
since the porosity cavities usually have rounded ends which are not
expected to propagate as cracks. However, porosities in weld joints
are usually not permitted for pressurized containers intended for
storage and transportation of liquid, gaseous or inflammable liquids.
The best way to avoid porosity or blowhole in weld joints is to use
perfectly clean base materials and baked electrodes.



Longitudinal CrackUnder-Bead Crack
32


Transverse Crack

Shrinkage Cavity

It is referred to the cavities which are formed due to shrinkage of weld
metal during its solidification. The shrinkage cavity usually occurs
during welding of thick plates in a single pass using submerged arc
welding or electroslag welding processes. Proper amount of filler
material has to be supplied for compensation during shrinkage to
avoid this king of defect.

Slag Inclusion

The slag inclusion refers to the solidified flux comprising of oxides,
phosphorous compounds and nitrides, which fail to float out to the
surface and get entrapped in the weld. When gas tungsten arc welding
is carried out with direct current electrode positive polarity and at
high current, tungsten inclusion from the tungsten electrode into the
weld can occur. Such inclusions can be continuous, intermittent or
very randomly paced. Slag inclusions reduce the mechanical strength,
in particular, the ductility, of the welds.

Incomplete Fusion and Penetration

Incomplete fusion can occur due to inadequate welding current, offset
of electrode from the axis of the weld, too high a weld speed,
improper joint preparation and fit-up. It occurs between the parent
metal and the weld metal and also between intermediate layers in
multi-pass welding reducing the weld strength. Lack of penetration or
33

inadequate penetration usually occurs at the root of the weld and also
becomes a built-in crack, which can run through the base metal or
weld metal or heat affected zone in actual service condition.

Radiographic Testing

Radiographic Testing is a non-destructive testing method of
inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to
penetrate various materials. In this method the part is placed between
the radiation source and a piece of film. A pattern will be generated
on the film depending on the thickness of the inspected part. Where
ever there is a defect, the amount of radiation absorbed will be
different and corresponding pattern will be generated. Detection of
subsurface defects is the major advantage of this test but proper safety
measures have to be taken to prevent exposure to these radiations.