Atomic & Kinetic Theory

Observation under a microscope of smoke or a very dilute suspension of

particles in a liquid shows that the relatively large particles are moving
erratically:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuf/Applets/brownian
/applet.html
This phenomenon can be explained as the large particles of smoke being
bombarded by smaller particles in the air or in the liquid This is evidence
that matter consists of particles
The ability of concentrated perfume or air freshener to spread throughout
a room is further evidence that matter consists of particles
!hen solutions are made" the total volume after mixing is often less than
the sums of the two separate components This is explained as the solute
particles #tting into spaces in the solvent $ further evidence that matter
consists of particles
All of these observations considered together led %alton and others to
formulate the kinetic theory of matter:
1. Matter made up of very small particles in constant motion; the higher
the temperature, the more the particles move; at higher temperatures, they
have more kinetic energy
2. There are four states of matter solids" liquids" gases and plasma. In
this course, we will not study plasma, which consists of charged particles.at
high temperatures for example on the surface of the sun.
3. In solids the particles are packed very close together. They vibrate
about #xed positions and have strong forces of attraction between
them.
&olids : have a high density because the particles are
tightly packed
can not be compressed because particles are
already as tightly packed as they can be
do not ow because particles cannot move
from their !xed positions; the forces holding
them are very strong
have a !xed shape
have a !xed si"e
#
expand slightly on heating because particles
vibrate more and hence need more space
#. In liquids the particles are close together but not as close as they are in
solids. They can move around in any direction and are not #xed in
position. The forces of attraction between them are still quite strong but,
again, not as strong as in solids.
'iquids : have a medium density particles are not as
tightly packed as in solids, but not as widely
spaced as gases
can not be compressed although particles
can ow
have the shape of their container
have a !xed si"e; will expand slightly on
heating forces of attraction still exist, though
not as strong as in solids

$. In gases the particles are very far apart with large distances between
them. They move around very quickly in all directions and the forces
of attraction between them are very" very weak.
(ases : have a very low density particles are widely
spaced and represent only a small % of the
overall volume
can be compressed
can ow & very low forces of attraction
have the shape of their container but di'use
to !ll the space they occupy; the rate of
di'usion depends on temperature and on the
si"e or particles
$
have the si"e of their container
expand greatly on heating if they are allowed
to expand; if they are not allowed to their
pressure (pressure is due to collisions with the
container )increases

*. +ou can change the state of a substance by heating or cooling it.
,hen the change is from a solid to a liquid it is called melting or
fusion
,hen the change is from a liquid to a gas it is called evaporation or
boiling )slightly di*erent+
,hen the change is from a liquid to a solid it is called free,ing
,hen the change is from a gas to a liquid it is called condensation
-hanges from solid directly to gas without melting or vice
versa . sublimation
-. ,hen a solid is heated it changes to a li.uid and then a gas. / graph of
temperature against time for this process would look like this0
*
K/0
A: 1ver portion / the particles in the solid are vibrating
more and more as they gain the heat energy so the
temperature rises.
1: 1ver portion 2, as the solid changes into a li.uid, all
the energy is being used to overcome the strong
forces of attraction between the particles and
separate them so the temperature does not rise
-: 1ver portion 3 the particles move around faster as
they gain energy so the temperature rises.
%: 1ver portion 4 the heat energy is all being used to
separate the particles and overcome the forces of
attraction between them so again the temperature
does not rise as the li.uid changes to a gas
/: 1ver part 5 the temp rises as the particles move
around faster
4alton6s /tomic Theory0
-
5arlier we mentioned 2rownian motion, and other observations which led to the
theory that matter consists of tiny particles. ,hat are these particles7
2ased on his observations, 4alton proposed the atomic theory0
%alton2s Atomic Theory
#) /ll matter is made of atoms. /toms are indivisible and indestructible.
$) /ll atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties
*) 3ompounds are formed by a combination of two or more di'erent kinds of atoms.
-) / chemical reaction results in a rearrangement of atoms.
8nder The 3lassi!cation of Matter, we de!ned atoms and molecules. These are the
particles of which matter consists. /n atom is the smallest particle of an element
that contains the properties of that element. / molecule consists of two or more
atoms, and is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist on its
own.
/s we will discuss later, some parts of 4alton6s /tomic Theory have been proven
incorrect based on modern scienti!c observation, but the theory helps us to
understand elementary chemistry. In particular, it helps us to understand three
basic laws of 3hemistry0
The 9aw of 3onservation of Matter (Mass)
The 9aw of 3onstant 3omposition (4e!nite :roportions)
The 9aw of Multiple :roportions
The 'aw of -onservation of 3atter:
In an ordinary chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The total
mass of products e.uals the total mass of reactants.
;ince chemical reactions result in the rearrangement of atoms, and atoms are
neither created nor destroyed, the same atoms must be present in the same
.uantities after a reaction has occurred as before.
The 'aw of -onstant -omposition )%e#nite 4roportions+:
<o matter where it is found or how it is produced, the composition of a particular
compound is always the same.
=
This law is a conse.uence of the fact that all atoms of the same element are
identical.
The 'aw of 3ultiple 4roportions:
If two elements combine to form more than one compound, the several masses of
one that combine with a !xed mass of the other, are in a simple ratio (e.g. #0$ or
$0* or =0>). This law follows from the law of constant composition.
:ressure of ?ases0
/s mentioned above, particles in gases are in constant rapid motion. They collide
with one another, and with the walls of any container in which they are contained.
3ollisions with the walls result in pressure. The particles in a gas are all moving
about randomly. /s they move around, they collide with the walls of their container.
5ach collision produces a tiny force on the wall, trying to push it outwards.
/ container of gas contains many billions of particles. 5ach of them bumps into the
walls thousands of times every second. /lthough we can6t feel each individual
bump, they average out to produce a constant pressure on the walls.
?as pressure can then be de!ned as the force exerted on the walls of a container by
particles of a gas.
:ressure increases with temperature because particles move faster and collide more
forcibly at higher temperatures.
@apour :ressure0 5vaporation in an open container.
Molecules in a li.uid possess kinetic energy and are in constant motion. This
includes molecules at the surface. /s they move, some of these molecules at the
surface gain enough kinetic energy to escape into the atmosphere; some return and
some do not. ;ome escape completely. This results in evaporation which is a
surface phenomenon & some molecules have enough kinetic energy to escape. If the
container is closed, an e.uilibrium is reached where an e.ual number of molecules
return to the surface. The pressure of this e.uilibrium is called the saturation vapor
pressure.
>
The water that is left behind provides all or part of the energy for the surface
molecules to escape, so evaporation is a potent cooling mechanism. 5vaporation
heat loss is a maAor climatic factor and is crucial in the cooling of the human body.
;weat on the surface of the body, or on the tongue of a dog for example, helps to
cool the body down. / fan increases the rate of evaporation, and thus provides a
greater cooling e'ect.
/s a result of evaporation, the space above a li.uid contains molecules of the
substance which have escaped. This creates what is known as a vapour pressure.
/s the temperature increases, more molecules escape, and the vapour pressure
increases until the vapour pressure is e.ual to the atmospheric pressure. /t this
point, molecules are escaping from all parts of the li.uid, not only the surface. This
temperature is the boiling point of the li.uid.
Evaporation vs Boiling
Ordinary evaporation is a surface phenomenon - since the vapor pressure is low and since the
pressure inside the liquid is equal to atmospheric pressure plus the liquid pressure, bubbles of
water vapor cannot form. But at the boiling point, the saturated vapor pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure, bubbles form in all parts of the liquid..
B
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container
<ow imagine what happens if the li.uid is in a closed container. 3ommon sense tells
you that water in a sealed bottle doesnCt seem to evaporate & or at least, it doesnCt
disappear over time.
2ut there is constant evaporation from the surface. :articles continue to break away
from the surface of the li.uid & but this time they are trapped in the space above the
li.uid.
/s the gaseous particles bounce around, some of them will hit the surface of the
li.uid again, and be trapped there. There will rapidly be an e.uilibrium set up in
which the number of particles leaving the surface is exactly balanced by the
number reAoining it.
D
In this e.uilibrium, there will be a !xed number of the gaseous particles in the space
above the li.uid.
,hen these particles hit the walls of the container, they exert a pressure. This
pressure is called the saturated vapour pressure (also known as saturation
vapour pressure) of the li.uid.
?oing over something we covered earlier today, the boiling point of an element or
a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the li.uid e.uals the
environmental pressure surrounding the li.uid. / li.uid in a vacuum environment or
when the atmospheric pressure is lower than standard pressure has a lower boiling
point than when the li.uid is at atmospheric pressure. / li.uid in a high pressure
environment has a higher boiling point than when the li.uid is at atmospheric
pressure. In other words, the boiling point of li.uids varies with and depends upon
atmospheric pressure. 4i'erent li.uids boil at di'erent temperatures. The normal
boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric
pressure boiling point) of a li.uid is the special case in which the vapor pressure
of the li.uid e.uals the de!ned atmospheric pressure at sea level, # atmosphere. /t
that temperature, the vapor pressure of the li.uid becomes suEcient to overcome
atmospheric pressure and lift the li.uid to form bubbles inside the bulk of the li.uid.
1n a mountaintop, the pressure is lower than it is at sea level, so water boils at a
lower temperature, causing food to take longer to cook.
In a pressure cooker, the pressure is higher than atmospheric, so water boils at a
higher temperature, enabling food to cook faster.
(A& 'A!&
1O0'/5& 'A!
o If a gas is compressed to half its original volume the concentration or
density of the gas is doubled. Therefore there will be twice as many
collisions with the surface causing twice the impact e'ect i.e. double
the pressure.
o If the volume of a gas is increased by a factor of three, the
concentration is reduced by the same factor, so the chance of particle
collision with the container walls is similarly reduced, so the pressure
decreases by a factor of three.
1oyle2s 'aw states that for a #xed mass of gas at a constant temperature"
the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure
4 )!hen the pressure of a #xed mass of gas at constant temperature
increases" the volume decreases+
F
Another way of stating the same thing is to say that 4 x 6 is a constant or
4767 8 4969
&tating 1oyle5s 'aw this way makes calculations much easier
A graph to illustrate 1oyle5s 'aw looks like this:
:
4lotting 4ressure against produces a straight
line
-:A;'/&5 'A!
3onsider the e'ect of increasing the temperature of a
!xed mass of gas under constant pressure. The
particles will be moving much faster, and they will need a larger volume. -harles5
'aw states that0
The volume of a #xed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature
6 (,hen the temperature of a !xed mass of gas increases at
constant pressure, the volume increases)
#G

/n e.uation to represent this relationship is0 is a constant or
67 8 69
T7 T9
-O31<=/% (A& 'A!
3ombining 2oyle6s and 3harles6 9aws, we come up with a 3ombined ?as 9aw0
8sing this e.uation, you can solve any problem relating to gases. If we say that
Temperature is constant, it becomes 2oyle6s 9aw. If we say that pressure is
constant, it becomes 3harles6 9aw. ;ometimes, however, all the factors change at
the same time, so we use the entire e.uation.
,e need to become familiar with the term &T4 &tandard Temperature and
4ressure
The nature of gases is that they can expand freely, and so their volumes very
sensitive to changes in temperature. Thus, it is normal, when comparing gases, to
convert them to ;T:.
&tandard Temperature is >?-
&tandard 4ressure is 7 atmosphere, which is @A> mm:g (millimeters of
mercury) or 7>7>>pascals or 7>7 kilopascals. There is no need to know what
these things mean, since in calculations, they will cancel out. /ny one of them can
be used.
Here is an example0
##
8
&$B*I3 (G J)
@
T (I3)
o / cylinder of propane gas at $G
o
3 exerted a pressure of D.=
atmospheres. ,hen exposed to sunlight it warmed up to $D
o
3. ,hat
pressure does the container side now experience7
To solve this, display all known !gures in a list; temperatures have to be converted
to Jelvin
:# K D.= atm. :$ K 7
@# K @$ K @#
(The cylinder only expands a little, so the change in volume can be ignored
T# K $G
o
3 K $B* L $G K $F*J T$ K$D
o
3 K $B* L $D K *G#J
:$ is what you are trying to !nd, so go back to the e.uation for the universal gas law
and make :$ the subAect of the formula.
/n extension of the Jinetic theory is the -ollision Theory. & reactions occur as a
result of collision between atoms and molecules in gases and li.uids.
The collision theory says that the more collisions in a system, the more likely
combinations of molecules will happen. If there are a higher number of collisions in
a system, more combinations of molecules will occur. The reaction will go faster,
and the rate of that reaction will be higher.
Meactions happen, no matter what. 3hemicals are always combining or breaking
down. The reactions happen over and over but not always at the same speed. / few
things a'ect the overall speed of the reaction and the number of collisions that can
occur.
-oncentration0 If there is more of a substance in
a system, there is a greater chance that molecules
will collide and speed up the rate of the reaction. If
there is less of something, there will be fewer
collisions and the reaction will probably happen at
a slower speed.
Temperature0 ,hen you raise the temperature of
a system, the molecules bounce around a lot more
(because they have more energy). ,hen they
bounce around more, they are more likely to
collide. That fact means they are also more likely to combine. ,hen you lower the
temperature, the molecules are slower and collide less. That temperature drop
lowers the rate of the reaction.
4ressure0 :ressure a'ects the rate of reaction, especially when you look at gases.
,hen you increase the pressure, the molecules have less space in which they can
#$
move. That greater concentration of molecules increases the number of collisions.
,hen you decrease the pressure, molecules donCt hit each other as often. The lower
pressure decreases the rate of reaction.
#*