Sensory design of easy-to-chew food

for elderly
-Ingredients and manufacturing
conditions with focus on meat and carrot
literature review
Svenja Kaufmann
This review is a student work and a part of the VINNOVA-funded project
"Konsistensoptimering och sensorisk design fr h!"sa och v!"#efinnande
hos !"dre"
Supervisors$ %unnar &a"" and Karin 'endin
SIK( The Swedish Institute for )ood and *iotechno"og+
%te#org( ,--.
SIK-/apport Nr 012
IS*N 32-0,3--,13-4
Sensory design of easy-to-chew food for elderly
-Ingredients and manufacturing conditions with focus on meat and carrot
1. Introduction
2. Elderly and Food Consumption
,52 The inf"uence of ageing on taste
,5, 6emands of the e"der"+
,51 Swa""ow and 6+sphagia
,57 8reparation of food for d+sphagic persons
3. Taste Fla!our and Te"ture
152 8erception of taste( f"avour and te9ture
15, Ingredients to modif+ taste( f"avour and te9ture
15,52 )"avour enhancement
15,5, )at
15,51 :gg
15,57 Thickeners
15,5. Starch
#. Sensory test methods
752 Ana"+tica" test methods
75, ;onsumer test
751 Time-intensit+ studies
$. %egeta&le System
.52 ;arrots
.5252 ;omposition
.525, 8rocessing ;arrots
.5, ;arrot 8roducts
.5,52 ;arrot <uice
.5,5, ;arrot 8uree
.51 :"der"+ opinions on vegeta#"es
'. (eat System
452 8rocessing =eat
45, *eef
451 'armed over f"avour
457 :"der"+ opinion on meat
). *eferences
1. Introduction
It is estimated that 1-> of the e"der"+ popu"ation are suffering from 6+sphagia5 The
most common treatment of patients with eating- and swa""owing disorders is to offer
them te9ture modified diets5 The aim of te9ture modified diets is to provide mea"s of a
consistenc+ that the patient can to"erate safe"+ which provides ade?uate nutritiona"
intake of ca"ories( protein( vitamins and minera"s5 Actua" intake of modified
consistenc+ diets is often reported to #e poor5 There are a num#er of pro#"ems
associated with modified consistenc+ diets and these inc"ude the consistenc+(
appearance( nutritiona" ade?uac+ and ps+cho"ogica" effects to the patients5 /egu"ar
mea"s that are minced in a mi9er fre?uent"+ do not meet nutritiona" re?uirements due
to the addition of e9tra f"uid during the production process that di"utes nutrition
content5 :ven when these mea"s do meet nutritiona" re?uirements( their pa"ata#i"it+ is
usua""+ "imited @8ace et al.( ,--,A5
Since pa"ata#i"it+ is often "imited tests to improve ?ua"it+ have #een done5 :5g5 a
surve+ at Northampton %enera" &ospita" showed that after introducing a shaped and
thickened( more appetiBing pureed diet on an a "a carte menu( food intake had
increase @Thornton( ,--,A5
The food industries that are producing te9ture modified foods are ver+ aware of the
need for te9ture modified food that is visua""+ appea"ing5 A wide range of products
suita#"e for peop"e with chewing and swa""owing pro#"ems is offered5 To improve the
product range and offer e9tensive know"edge to the food industr+ it is important to
stud+ a"" re"evant factors5
This "iterature review( #ased on pu#"ications avai"a#"e toda+ @,--7A( is a#out how and
with which ingredients it is possi#"e to produce pa"ata#"e food for e"der"+ suffering
from 6+sphagia5 The report descri#es the e"der"+ and their food consumption5 This
inc"udes the inf"uence of ageing on taste( the demands of the e"der"+ and definition of
6+sphagia as we"" as an overview of the present know"edge a#out preparation of
modified food5 ;ommon taste( f"avour and te9ture modifiers "ike fat and egg are
discussed whereas great importance was attached to common"+ thickener used in
the 6+sphagia diet and their inf"uence in sensor+ perception5 'ith sensor+ tests it is
possi#"e to o#tain important information of wh+ food tastes good or not5 Two parts of
sensor+ eva"uation are descri#ed( consumer tests and ana"+tica" tests( inc"uding Time
intensit+ studies5 )ina""+( a carrot s+stem and a meat s+stem are discussed5
;haracteristics( processing methods and interactions #etween the ingredients of
these foods are descri#ed as we"" as e"der"+ opinions5

This "iterature review is financia" supported #+ Vinnova5
2. Elderly and Food Consumption
The proportion of the popu"ation over the age of 4- increases and wi"" #e over ,.> in
:urope within the ne9t ,. +ears5 This group is a growing market with specia"
demands and interests @*engtBon( ,--1C )i"ion and Ki"cast( ,--2A5 In ,-.- the group
of peop"e over 47 +ears wi"" represent ,1 > of the Swedish popu"ation @S;*( ,--7A5
'ith getting o"der( man+ peop"e suffer from decreasing ph+sio"ogica" functions( such
as denta" and muscu"ar d+sfunctions( s"ower gastric empt+( deteriorated function of
senses which resu"t in a "ower interest in food-re"ated activities and a"so a"tered
a#i"it+ to process foods in the mouth5 This often "eads to an inade?uate dietar+
pattern @&utten#auer( ,--7C /oininen et al.( ,--1aC 6rewnowski and Shu"tB ,--2C
Schiffmann( 233DA5 6rewnowski and Shu"tB @,--2A found "ower intake of ca"cium(
iron( Binc( * vitamins and vitamin : which increase the risk of diet-re"ated i""ness5
)urther the+ found that the o"der peop"e consume too "itt"e fruits and vegeta#"es5 The
recommendations for vegeta#"es consumption were met #+ "ess than one in three
e"der"+ and "ess than ha"f met the recommendations for fruit5
2.1 The influence of ageing on taste and smell
Norma" parts in the ageing process of some peop"e are diminished taste and sme""
a#i"ities5 The taste thresho"d increases due to a reduced num#er of taste receptors
and changes in taste ce"" mem#ranes @Ng et al.( ,--7C Ohr( ,---A5 *engtBon @,--1A
found decreased taste perception in the e"der"+5 Age group differences in optimum
concentrations have #een investigated in severa" studies( with var+ing resu"ts5 =ojet
et al. @,--2A studied gender differences in e"der"+5 O"der women tended to #e more
sensitive for sucrose and acetic acid than o"der men5 The+ a"so found differences
#etween e"der"+ and +oung5 Thresho"d increases most for the sa"t+ and the umami
taste5 Ng et al. @,--7A reported( that e"der"+ preferring high sa"t concentration and
high sucrose concentration5 There is an increased preference for #itter vegeta#"e
#ecause of reduced perception of #itter taste @6rewnowski and Shu"tB( ,--2A5
Taste can a"so #e inf"uenced #+ different common"+ drugs @Ng et al.( ,--7C =ojet et
al.( ,--2A5 A reduced perception in tasting often resu"ts in dissatisfaction with food(
diminished appetite and "ost motivation to eat @Ng et al.( ,--7C 6onini et al.( ,--1C
Ohr( ,---A5
Eosses in o"factor+ sensitivit+ tend to #e re"ative"+ uniform( affecting responses to a""
or most odour stimu"i @;owart( 23D3A5 Stevens et al @23D7A came to the conc"usion
that the sense of sme"" seems to dec"ine more with age than the sense of taste5
Studies have shown that more than ha"f of peop"e aged 4--D- had a major o"factor+
impairment( whi"e three-?uarters showed o"factor+ impairment after the age of D-
@6ot+( 23D3A5 Impaired food identification #+ the e"der"+ appears to #e "inked to
o"factor+ deficits( as opposed to #asic tastes @Schiffman( 2300A5 O"factor+ d+sfunction
has #een associated with "ower interest in food-re"ated activities @e5g5 eating out(
shopping in specia"t+ food stores( cookingA( "ower preference for sourF#itter foods and
with "ower intakes of "ow-fat dair+ products @6uff+ et al.( 233.A5 The e"der"+ are often
unaware of their sensor+ "oss and note no decrease in their appreciation of foods and
their a#i"it+ to sme"" @/o""s and 6rewnowski( 2334A5
2.2 +emands of the elderly
'hen designing foods for the e"der"+ it is ver+ important to #e in "ine with their
re?uirements5 Nutritiona" re?uirements shou"d #e reached with nutrient-dense food
that give ade?uate energ+ and nutrient intakes @)i"ion and Ki"cast( ,--2C Ohr( ,---A5
/educed perception in tasting and sme""ing and demands for specia" designed and
high tast+ foods shou"d #e respected @*engtBon( ,--1C Ohr( ,---A5 )"avour
enhancers and specific food f"avours can he"p to reo#tain "ost appetite and hunger(
and a"so increase the enjo+ment of food @Ng et al.( ,--7C =athe+ et al.( ,--2C de
%raaf et al.( 2337A5 =athe+ et al. @,--2A found increased dietar+ intake and #od+
weight when f"avour-enhanced cooked mea"s were served5 =ea" shou"d contain
components that correspond to the ha#its of e"der"+ @/ousset and <o"ivet( ,--,A5
:"der"+ are receptive for functiona" foods( #ut the food shou"d a"so #e traditiona" and
one has to consider its cu"tura" and emotiona" va"ues @6onini et al.( ,--1C Ohr( ,---A5
:"der"+ prefer convenience food possi#"e to prepare for one or two persons and so"d
in individua" packages5 6ue to motor deficits the packaging shou"d #e eas+ to open5
:"der+ with vision disorders demand for "arge prints @)i"ion and Ki"cast( ,--2C Ohr(
,---A5 =an+ e"der"+ are una#"e to consume food in its conventiona" form #ecause of
chewing and swa""owing pro#"ems @&utten#auer( 8atent( ,--7A5
2.3 Swallow and +ysphagia
Swa""owing is an important #od+ function which is essentia" for hea"th @/aut et al.(
,--2A5 The first step when eating is chewing and mi9ing with sa"iva @*ender and
*ender( ,---A5 After mastication and mechanica" and chemica" stimu"ations of the
phar+ngea" and "ar+ngea" mucosa the food can #e swa""owed @Kajii et al.( ,--,A5
The s+mptom of suffering from difficu"ties in the swa""owing process is ca""ed
6+sphagia5 8atients comp"ain a#out difficu"ties in chewing( swa""owing( speaking and
Gerostomia @dr+( #urning mouthA5 It often occurs in neuro"ogica" or mechanica"
d+sfunctions affecting the head( throat and oesophagus that the food can not #e
consumed in its conventiona" form @&utten#auer( 8atent( ,--7C 8ace et al.( ,--,A5
There are a "ot of severa" causes reported5 Throat dr+ness re"ated to a progressive
atroph+ of the sa"ivar+ g"ands is often a resu"t of radiation therap+ for head and neck
ma"ignancies( "ack of nutrients such as Binc( drug use andFor autoimmune diseases
@6onini et al.( ,--1C 6usek et al.( 2334A5
6rinking whi"e eating( cutting food into sma""er portions and avoiding certain foods
are common changes in #ehaviour of 6+sphagia patients @6usek et al.( 2334A5
Thickened "i?uids of puree consistenc+ are often recommended @/aut et al.( ,--2A5
2.# ,reparation of food for +ysphagic persons
8rocessed and formed conventiona" so"id food can #e consumed #+ individua"s
suffering from chewing and swa""owing difficu"ties5 The desired te9ture shou"d #e
eas+ to swa""ow #ut not have too "ow viscosit+ as causing aspiration5 'hen passing
the mouth and throat( the portion shou"d #e sta+ing together5 To increase the
enjo+ment of food and the acceptance and to prevent unsavour+ shape the product
shou"d retain the aesthetic and sensor+ characteristics of the de"ivered food5 8ureed
food "ooks often unappetiBing and can #e "ump+ andFor runn+5 8ace et al. @,--,A
found that visua""+ appea"ing food he"ps patients to enjo+ their mea"s and further that
intake increases5

An+ t+pe of conventiona" food can #e prepared to #etter fit persons suffering from
6+sphagia5 The first step is the reduction of the partic"e siBe to a siBe of a#out ,mm
#ecause ingestion without mastication shou"d #e possi#"e5 It is important to make
sure that the comminuted food is free of a"" chunks greater than a#out ,mm #+
contro""ing and sieving out5 Then the food is thickened with an+ "u#ricant or thickener(
depending of the food materia"5 )oods containing more water need more thickener5
After adding f"avours( seasons and supp"ements the food might #e transferred into a
shape that mimics the origina" food and then packed after freeBing or pasteurisation5
The food is heated #efore serving @&utten#auer( 8atent( ,--7C =odite9 )ood Etd5(
*u"mer( 8atent( ,--1A5
3. Taste Fla!our and Te"ture
3.1 ,erception of taste fla!our and te"ture
)"avour is one of the ke+ determinants of the pa"ata#i"it+ of food @6onini et al.( ,--1A
and means the overa"" impression of aroma( taste( te9ture and mouthfee"5
If food is chewed( the structure of the matri9 changes and f"avour compounds interact
with o"factor+ receptors in the nose @odourFaromaA and with "ingua" receptors in the
mouth @tasteA5 This inf"uences the ?ua"it+( ?uantit+( sta#i"it+ and the u"timate
perception of f"avour in food5 To perceive f"avour certain thresho"ds must #e reached
@&arrison( 233DC K"ahorst( 2330C Ta+"or( 2334A5
In the mouth( taste components are genera""+ transported to the taste receptor ce""s
#+ the sa"iva or food f"uids @=i""er( 233.A5 )ive separate tastes can #e distinguished$
sweet( sa"t( sour( #itter and savour+ @umamiA5 The different tastes have different
transduction mechanisms @*ender and *ender( ,---A5 The re"ease #ehaviour
depends on the ph+sicochemica" properties and the food matri9 @van /uth et al.(
,--,A5 An ade?uate vo"ume and composition of sa"iva is important for #oth taste and
aroma re"ease @van /uth et al.( ,--2A5
In the nose a sme"" sensation is the #inding of su#stances having odour properties5
The sense of sme"" in man resu"ts from stimu"ation of chemoreceptors of the
o"factor+( trigemina"( and possi#"+ termina" nerves @Eove"" et al., 23D,A5
Odorants are re"eased from the food during mastication and are transported
retronasa" to the nasa" cavit+ where the+ interact with the o"factor+ receptor ce""s5
After transforming of the sensor+ information the e"ectrica" signa"s are transported to
the #rain @Eaing and <inks( 2334A5

The te9ture of foods is the com#ination of the perception of vision( hearing(
somesthesis and kinesthesis @'i"kinson et al.( ,---A5 6ifferences in te9ture resu"t in
different chewing time( moistening and siBes of partic"e after mastication @&oe#"er et
al.( ,---A5 Te9ture is important for f"avour re"ease and perception5 So"id foods that are
chewed need "onger time than drinks that are consumed a"most immediate"+ and
spend on"+ seconds in the mouth5 The forming of a thin fi"m in the ora" cavit+ is
important for f"avour perception @&arrison( 233DC K"ahorst( 2330A5
3.2 Ingredients to modify taste fla!our and te"ture
3.2.1 Flavour enhancement
)"avour enhancement is addition of f"avours to improve food pa"ata#i"it+ and
acceptance5 It is not on"+ the traditiona" method to increase f"avour with spices( her#s
and sa"t @Schiffmann( ,---A5 HNatura" f"avoursI are natura""+ occurring f"avours or
formed #+ heating( ageing or fermentation5 S+nthesiBed( natura""+ occurring f"avours
are considered Hnature-identica"I f"avours5 )"avours that are s+nthesiBed #ut not
e9isting in nature are ca""ed Hartificia" f"avoursI @K"ahorst( 2330A5
)"avour enhancement a"so increases sa"iva f"ow which is important for hea"th
@Schiffmann( ,---A5
=S%( the sodium sa"t of the amino acid g"utamic acid has uni?ue taste ?ua"ities5 In
the <apanese "anguage it is ca""ed umami @Schiffmann( ,---A5 =S% is a common
food additive used to enhance f"avour @Schiffmann( ,---C *est( 233,A5 *est @233,A
found s+nerg+ in mi9tures with .J-nuc"eotides @inosine-.J-monophosphate @I=8A and
guanosine-.J-monophosphate @%=8AA5
3.2.2 Fat
)at is ver+ important to f"avour and te9ture5 =ost aroma compounds are fu""+ or part"+
so"u#"e in fat which inf"uences the mouth fee" and the intensit+ of perceived
thickness5 )at act as so"vent of "ipophi"ic f"avour compounds and there #+ suppress
the re"ease of such compounds5 )urther fat has an a#i"it+ to depress man+ off-
f"avours5 @;hung et al.( ,--1C 'endin( ,--2A5 According to K"ahorst @2330A
trig"+cerides in foods can attract f"avour compounds( depending on the fatt+-acid
"ength and degree of unsaturated compound of the fat5 Trig"+cerides with on"+
unsaturated o"eic acid #ind more f"avour than those with on"+ saturated fatt+ acids5
This is not in "ine with /o#erts et al. @,--1A who found no re"ease-differences in "ipids
with different fatt+ acid compositions5 )urther( the+ found increased f"avour re"ease
with increased so"id fat content5 Trius and Se#ranek @2334A found that fat in meat
products has a great impact on tenderness( juiciness( and overa"" appearance5
3.2.3 Egg
:ggs offer severa" functiona" properties to #e used in the food industr+5 One of the
most important processes to improve te9ture is coagu"ation during heating5 'ith
com#ining different ?ua"ities of egg products @egg white( egg +o"k and comp"ete eggA
it is possi#"e to get different te9ture grades5 :ggs are a"so used as emu"sifier or
foaming agent @Stade"amn and ;otteri""( 233.C =ine( 233.C &ammershj and
Andersen( ,--,A5
)urther eggs contri#ute to a high nutritious diet and suits we"" the increased
nutritiona" re?uirement of e"der"+ peop"e5 :ggs contain nutrients such as fo"ate(
ri#of"avin( se"enium( cho"ine( and vitamins * 2,( A( K and 65 The "a#i"e protein poo"
#enefits from the high #io"ogica" va"ue of egg protein @&erron and )ernandeB( ,--7A5
The composition of eggs is shown in Ta&le 15 It is a"so shown that egg can make a
contri#ution to the nutrition of the e"der"+5
Table 1 - ;omposition of 2-- g IstandardI egg comparative /6I to vitamines och minera"s @'atson(
,--,A
Kuantit+F2-- g /6I@>A

Vitamin *
2,
@LgA ,5.- 2,.
*iotin @LgA ,-5--
<od @LgA .15-- .1
Vitamin 6 @LgA 250. 2D
/i#of"avin @mgA -570 13
)o"ate @LgA .-5-- 20
Vit A /: @LgA 23-5-- ,2
8hosphorus @mgA ,--5-- 11
Vitamin : @mgA 2522 22
:ggs with content in higher "eve"s of the po"+unsaturated fatt+ acid are ca""ed omega
1 eggs5 &ens( fed with a specia" diet of micro a"ga( fish oi" or fish mea" produce eggs
that are higher in omega 1 fatt+-acids5 Studies have shown that consumption of
omega 1 egg can resu"t in decreased #"ood pressure and "ower #"ood trig"+ceride
"eve"s5 Omega 1 eggs provide a dietar+ a"ternative to fish and seafood( where
Omega 1 fatt+-acids are common"+ found @Surai and Sparks( ,--2A5
Adding Vitamin : to the hensM diet( the produced eggs can a"so provide an additiona"
source of this important antio9idant5
Eutein-:nhanced :ggs are from hens fed an enhanced diet containing higher "eve"s
of Eutein5 Eutein is a carotenoid that has #enefits for e+e5 Its antio9idant mechanism
reduces harmfu" free radica"s5 Eutein is found in green vegeta#"es such as spinach
and #rocco"i( 4-D mg of "utein per da+ is recommended5 =ost e"der"+ do not get
enough "utein in their diets #ut the+ can not increase their intake of these vegeta#"es5
Eutein enriched eggs are a good a"ternative and studies have shown( that "utein from
egg is more usefu" than "utein from vegeta#"es @&ouse et al.( ,--,C &ande"man et al.(
2333A5
3.2.4 Thickeners
Thickeners are used to modif+ the consistenc+ of foods5 Traditiona""+( starch and
ge"atine have #een used5 Toda+( a wide diversit+ of h+droco""oids is avai"a#"e( for
e9amp"e ge"atine( starch( pectin and carrageen5 To add e9tra ca"ories to a product(
starch-#ased thickeners are used5 Thickeners ma+ a"so act as a fortifier for vitamins(
minera"s and protein @8ace et al.( ,--,C ;oste"" et al.( 233.C Imeson( 233,A5 :ach
thickener produces its own characteristic te9ture( depending on the #ase food
@Eotong et al.( ,--1A5 K!"vi!ninen et al. @,---A found hardest te9ture in starch
samp"es( e"astic te9ture in ge"atine samp"es( and fragi"e te9ture in pectin samp"es5
6epending on food s+stem and other ingredients( thickeners can a"so affect f"avour
perception and re"ease @K!"vi!ninen et al.( ,---A even in "ow concentrations @*+"aite
et al.( ,--7A5 K"ahorst @2330A found that f"avour components #ound to different
po"+saccharides in var+ing degrees5 'ith constant f"avour concentration and
increasing "eve" of po"+saccharides the perception of aroma and taste decreases5
Eotong et al. @,--1A found that starch increased #itter( meta""ic and astringent
properties whi"e the main f"avour of the #ase food was suppressed5 <aime et al.
@2331A found significant effects on perceived f"avour and aroma #+ using ge"atine(
whi"e 'endin et al. @2330A found unaffected perceived intensit+ of ma"to" and
depressed sourness5 'ith the addition of h+droco""oids ;ook et al. @,--1A found a
reduction in perceived sa"t( gar"ic and mushroom f"avours and recommend therefore
an increased addition of f"avouring( sa"t and fat5

Nsed in d+sphagia diet( thickeners improve the products mouth fee" properties(
hand"ing( and sta#i"it+ characteristics @Imeson( 233,A5 The risk of aspiration reduces5
)urther( pureed food can #e presented in food shapes so the food is visua""+
appea"ing @8ace et al.( ,--,A5 'ith modified consistenc+( swa""owing time ma+ #e
"onger than with "i?uid consistenc+( which imp"ies that sensor+ characteristics might
#e changed5 This might affect accepta#i"it+ and comp"iance in patient use @Eotong et
al.( ,--1A5 Thickeners that have #een used in the preparation of foodstuff for
6+sphagic patients are$ +am f"our( rice f"our( g"ucomannan( wheat f"our( tapioca( corn
starch( pectins( so+ f"our( natura" gums( ge"atines( ce""u"ose( inu"in( oat fi#re( whe+(
and potato starch( or a mi9ture of those materia"s( depending on the food materia"
@&utten#auer( 8atent( ,--7A5 &orme" )ood ;ooperation( She"don @8atent( ,---A used
modified food starch to thicken a h+dro"+te isotonic #everage #ecause this thickener
provided the necessar+ viscosit+5 Simp"+ Thick E"c5( &o"ahan @,--7A patented
improved thickened #everages for 6+sphagia patients and preferred the thickener
9anthan gum #ecause it is a so"u#"e food fi#re and provides therefore few ca"ories to
the food5 It does not contain g"uten which makes it suita#"e for patients with a""ergies5
;ompared to commercia""+ avai"a#"e thickeners( which are #ased on starch( the+
found that 9anthan gum gave "ower ca"ories( higher food fi#res( "ower car#oh+drates(
#etter overa"" taste and #etter overa"" appearance5 The+ c"aimed that starch-#ased
thickeners provide a mi"k+( c"oud+ appearance( starch+( meta""ic taste and do not
thick ever+ #everage( for e9amp"e a"coho"ic #everages and car#onated #everages5 In
food thickened with 9anthan gum the+ did not find negative off-f"avour #ut a c"ear
so"ution5 'endin et al. @2330A found depressed sweetness in 9anthan-thickened mi"k
products5
3.2.5 Starch
The po"+saccharide starch is present in most parts of p"ants( for e9amp"e in "eafs(
roots( corms and fruit from most green p"ants5 Important sources of commercia"
production of starch are potatoes( corn( tapioca and wheat5
Starch is #ased on g"ucose repeat units5 8otato starch contains ca ,-> am+"ose and
D-> am+"opectin5 It consists of a "ong-chain of g"ucose residues( am+"ose is #ased
on "inear chains @un#ranchedA( am+"opectin is "inkaged to #ranches @#ranched
g"ucose su#unitsA5 Starch is stored in p"ants in the form of granu"ates which are
e9tracted during the production process5 The thickening effect in water is #ased upon
the a#sorption and #inding a#i"ities of the swe""ed granu"ates @E+cke#+ ;u"inar A*(
,--1A5
#. Sensory test methods
Sensor+ test methods are divided in two main groups( consumer and ana"+tica" test5
;onsumer tests can #e usefu" to determine the pa"ata#i"it+ and acceptance of food
products in the e"der"+5 The eating ?ua"it+ of a"" kinds of food can #e measured
direct"+ #+ sensor+ methods5

#.1 Consumer test
;onsumer tests are used to e9p"ore the consumersM preferences5 ;onsumers
descri#e their su#jective impressions either in ?ua"itative tests e5g5 focus group
discussing or in ?uantitative tests where common"+ a hedonic sca"e is used @for
e9amp"e$ dis"ike e9treme"+ much O "ike e9treme"+ muchA @Eundgren( 23D2A5

#.2 .nalytical test methods
This term comprises two su#groups$ 6ifference tests and descriptive tests5 The
difference tests are used to identif+ an+ difference #etween two or more samp"es5
:9amp"es of difference test methods are triang"e test( paired comparison test and
duo-trio-test5 The descriptive tests are used to discover the difference #etween
samp"es and to descri#e characterises of samp"es #+ a trained sensor+ pane"
@Eundgren( 23D2A and have for e9amp"e #een used to stud+ the effect of thickening
agents on sensor+ ?ua"ities( inc"uding viscosit+ and f"avour characterises @Eotong et
al.( ,--1A5
4.2.1 Time-intensity studies
Time Intensit+ @TIA studies can #e descri#ed as an ana"+tica" test-method5 It is used to
stud+ time-re"ated aspects in the f"avour perception of foods and #everages( the
duration or intensit+ of perception of a particu"ar factor is measured5 The resu"t of a
time-intensit+ stud+ is a curve which genera""+ increases to a ma9imum "eve" and
then in proportion to decreased perceived intensit+ the curve dec"ines unti" it reach
Beros @'endin( ,--2A5
$. %egeta&le System
$.1 Carrots
;arrots are cu"tivated a"" over the wor"d5 In the :N the production increases ,(0>
ever+ +ear5 ;arrots are stora#"e which imp"ies that fresh carrots are avai"a#"e a"" the
+ear round5 ;arrots are common"+ used in severa" products( inc"uding froBen foods(
tinned food( juice and #a#+ food5 )ift+ percent of the carrots are consumed raw(
consumers "ike particu"ar"+ the sweet taste and the content of essentia" oi"s @Scha""er
et al.( 233DA5
5.1.1 om!osition
An important constituent in carrots are carotenes which are precursors of fat-so"u#"e
vitamin A5 The overa"" composition of carrots is shown in Ta&le 25
Table 2" ;omposition of 2--g edi#"e portion @Eivsmede"sta#e""( Eivsmede"sverket( ,--2A
'ater
@>A
:nerg+
@e9c"5
fi#reA
8rotein
@gA
)at
@gA
;ar#oh+drates
@gA
Vitamin A
@LgA
Vitamin ;
@mgA
DD 240 K<F
7- kca"
-(4 -(, D(0 4D-- 4
5.1.2 #rocessing carrots
The main ?ua"it+ characteristics of raw carrots are shape( co"our and te9ture5 SiBe
and te9ture depend on the desired product5 *right orange stands for #est ?ua"it+ and
high content in vitamin A5 A #"and( sweet f"avour is desired @Smith et al.( 2330A5 A
major pro#"em for vegeta#"e processors is the #itter off-taste of carrots5 This is a"so
often the reason for consumersM rejection5 After removing the pee" and sorting out
green and dark parts the #itter taste can #e reduced5 )urther the cu"tivars are
important #ecause some produce more #itter compounds than other @;Bepa and
&ofmann( ,--7A5 Scha""er et al. @233DA found corre"ation #etween taste and nitrogen
ferti"iBation5 Nitrogen ferti"iBation inf"uences the amount and composition of essentia"
oi"5 ;arrots with "ower nitrogen app"ication contain more essentia" oi"s and more
sugar5 The taste is more intensive( fruitier( sweeter and "ess #itter5 =echanica" stress
after harvest effects higher content of isocumarin( which is responsi#"e for #itter taste(
and "ower "eve"s of sugar @Se"jPnsen et al.( ,--2A5 Another undesired off-taste is
ca""ed Hfuse" oi"I @Smith et al.( 2330A5 Ta"cott et al. @,---A found improved overa""
?ua"it+ with reduced heating steps( such as pheno"ic acid concentration( o9idation
compounds and puree co"our5 )urther the+ studied processing carrots without the
remova" of periderm tissue( #ecause in the periderm are numerous pheno"ic
compounds "ocated5 6eaeration treatments to reduce vo"ati"e terpenoids #efore
heating can #e a possi#i"it+ to reduce undesira#"e f"avours associated with periderm
tissue5 Another undesired sensor+ characterise is HharshnessI( which is a"so a reason
of decreased desira#"e taste and f"avour of carrots @Se"jPsen et al.( ,--2A5
In fruit and vegeta#"es potato starch is traditiona" used to gain c"ear and transparent
appearance( for e9amp"e in creamFge" and jam5 The common used starches are
h+dro9+prop+" starch :277, and acet+" starch :27275 The average of h+dro9+prop+"
starch is a higher viscosit+ after freeBingFdefrost that "ess starch is needed @E+cke#+
;u"inar A*( ,--1A5

$.2. Carrot ,roducts
Various processing methods have #een deve"oped for different products5 To preserve
carrots( deh+dration is one of the common"+ used methods5 Suman and Krishna
Kumari @,--,A found consumer acceptance in products made of deh+drated carrots5
)urther( the+ found good she"f "ife and uti"isation during emergenc+ periods and off-
seasons in these products5 )urther( carrot powder has man+ app"ication areas and
enriches food with #eta-carotene5 Is"am et al. @,--1A found that heat can destro+
carotene in carrot and a"ters te9ture and co"our5 A com#ination of "ong-time
h+drostatic pressure and moderate heat cou"d #e a #etter processing method for
carrot5 This is in "ine with Si"a et al. @,--7A who found improved te9ture of carrots
during therma" processing after high-pressure pre-treatments5 6e *e"ie et al. @,--,A
found that cooking time was the major factor for sensor+ attri#utes sweet odour(
sweet taste( juiciness( hardness and crispness5 It was shown that cooking for up to
2. min decreased the intensit+ of these attri#utes5
5.2.1 arrot $uice
;arrot juice is a re"ative"+ good source of #eta-carotene5 ;onsumers "ike carrot juice
#ecause of its convenience( co"our( aromatic compounds and refreshing
characteristics @;hinprahast et al.( ,--,C Qadernowski et al.( 2330C Sims et al.( 2331A5
;onventiona" manufacturing process of carrot juice inc"udes first heating or #"anching
then juice e9traction5 &eating is important to deactivation of pectinesterase activit+
and co"our sta#i"it+5 &ighest juice co"our and sta#i"it+ was achieved #+ heating who"e
carrots( mi""ing( acidif+ing to p& . or 7( enB+me treatment( and pressing @Sims et al.(
2331A5 ;"oud partic"e coagu"ation is undesired and can #e avoided #+ acidification of
the coarse mash prior to juice e9traction5 8asteuriBation cou"d not prevent c"oud
coagu"ation @/eiter et al.( ,--1A5 Reguda+ev @,--,A patented a natura" carrot juice
thickened with vegeta#"e thickening agents( for e9amp"e guar gum5 Vegeta#"e
thickening agents are rich in fi#res which contri#ute to the nutritiona" va"ue5
;hinprahast et al. @,--,A deve"oped a je""+ high fi#re drink5 The+ mi9ed carrot juice
and pineapp"e juice in the ratio 1$0 and added ,-> pumpkin puree5 =ore ingredients
were sugar( carrageen and sodium #enBoate5 8ectin he"ped to form and strengthen
the ge" structure and resu"ted in a #etter attainment of "i?uid5 Qadernowski et al.
@2330A found high viscosit+ in carrot juice added with app"e puree5 Taste impression
and nutrition va"ue were inf"uenced #+ dr+ ingredients( such as sugars( pectins and
fi#res5 Euth and %ancendo-EorenBo @2332A found that heating temperature main"+
inf"uenced the consistenc+ of tomato juice5

5.2.2 arrot #uree
6owne+ @,--,A found reduced drip "osses in fresh and thawed carrot purees
manufactured with guar( 9anthan( carrageen and pectin( whi"e pectin #eing "east
effective5
$.3 Elderly opinions on !egeta&les
/oininen et al. @,--1#A found that o"der su#jects va"ue the te9tura" attri#utes in
vegeta#"es( #ut a"so the preparation time was important5 :"der"+ rated hard root
vegeta#"es as trou#"esome-to-eat5 Nndesired characteristics were hard( fi#rous(
adhere to teeth and contained pee"5 A re?uired preparation was a"so perceived as
trou#"esome5 As eas+-to-eat were perceived vegeta#"es that were crisp+( juic+( soft+
@#ecause eas+ to #ite intoA and eas+ to chew and swa""ow( furthermore such that
needed no or "itt"e preparation time5 Te9tures that were perceived as too eas+ to
chew and swa""ow were not "iked5 6+sphagia patients avoid eating fresh carrots
#ecause the+ are perceived as difficu"t to chew @6usek et al.( 2334A5
'. (eat System
'.1 ,rocessing (eat
=eat is a comp"e9 s+stem of components( such as musc"e tissue( connective tissue(
fat( and water5 Numerous interactions occur among these components( which are
responsi#"e for the functiona" properties of the meat s+stem @Trius and Se#ranek(
2334A5 =eat products are an important protein-source in the diet @/ousset and
<o"ivet( ,---A5 In the production of minced-meat products a"so non-meat products are
important5 So+ protein( egg( cerea" f"ours( starch( fat and fat rep"acers p"a+ a
significant ro"e in the modification of functiona" properties such as emu"sification(
water and fat #inding capacities and te9tura" properties @Singh-%ujra" et al.( ,--,A5
Trius and Se#ranek @2334A found that carrageen can #e used as te9ture modifier
#ecause of its a#i"it+ to retain water and contri#ute to ge" formation in meat s+stems5
)urther( the+ provide dietar+ fi#re to the product5 Nitsch @,--1A tested carrot fi#re as
a water #inding agent in the canning of meat products5 In read+-to-eat mea"s and
convenience products #ased on minced meat the carrot fi#re can #e used up to 1>
for reducing je""+ separation without a decrease of the sensor+ ?ua"it+5 )risco-)indus
A%( &annson @2331A patented a preparation s+stem of froBen mea"s containing meat
and used thickening agents that #reak down during freeBing and reheating for
consumption such as gums( starch or ge"atine5 Shehata et al5 @2337A used agar agar
ge"s for thickening canned corned #eef and got e9treme"+ so"id and strong te9ture
and white wa9+ co"our5 The+ a"so tested app"e pectin ge" and conc"uded that it can
not #e recommended #ecause of its app"e f"avour5 'hen using carrageen the desired
firmness cou"d not #e reached5 The+ found that ge"atine and vidogum E 20. @2 part
kappa carrageen p"us 2 part of "ocust #ean gumA and S8 20. @2 part kappa carageen
p"us 2 part tarakernmeh"A( produced #+ Nni-8ectin( SwitBer"and( gave firm( sta#"e
ge"s5
&utten#auer @,--7A patented a method of making formed food puree products and
gave an e9amp"e using #eef5 &e used a thickening mi9ture @7> of the #eefA of
g"ucomannan and modified starch and a spice package comprised of th+me( sa"t(
pepper( gar"ic powder( cocoa( onion powder and carame" powder5 The partic"e siBe of
the #eef mi9 is reduced to a#out -54mm in diameter5
Starch is used in meat products to #ind water( increase juiciness( contri#utes the
te9ture and support process5 6uring the denaturising process of meat water is
re"eased5 Starch contri#utes to #ind this water5 It is important to use starch in
adaptation of temperature5 The properties of potato starch suit we"" with meat
products5 At .-S; whi"e the denaturising process of meat #egins( potato starch starts
to react and #inds water5 The swe""ing ma9imum of potato starch is reached at 0-S;(
a norma" used heating temperature of meat products5 Other starches have different
swe""ing properties and are not usefu" in meat products @E+cke#+ ;u"inar A*( ,--1A5
'.2 /eef
*eef f"avour is ver+ comp"e9 and it contains more than 4-- car#on+"-( heteroc+c"ic-(
su"phur- and nitrogen containing compounds @'ettasinghe et al.( ,--2A5
'.3 0armed o!er fla!our
'O) is the term to descri#e the off-f"avour of heated again meat which is often
perceived as #itter or meta""ic5 The cause is the o9idation of unsaturated fatt+ acids
from disrupted musc"e tissue ce"" mem#ranes5 *ecause 'O) is dis"iked #+ the
consumers the meat industr+ shou"d #e aware of this pro#"em @*r+hni et al.( ,--1A5

'.# Elderly opinion on meat
/ousset and <o"ivet @,---A studied the favourite prepared meat dish of )rench
e"der"+5 Thirt+-nine percent stated #eef @#eef steak( ri# steak( #eef ri#( roast #eefA5 In
#eef( the+ found higher stated e9pected accepta#i"it+ during an interview than taste
accepta#i"it+ after tasting5 ;ompared to other food products( it was not as tender as
e9pected5 *r+hni et al. @,--1A found a higher preference for pork in the o"der peop"e
and ma"es5 The highest consumption fre?uenc+ of pork in Scandinavia was found in
Sweden and 6anmark( peop"e there reported to eat pork 2-1 times a week5
). *eferences
*engtBon A5 @,--1A 6ifferences in sensor+ perceptions and preferences #etween
e"der"+ and +oung consumers5 SIK( %othen#urg5 pp ,D-,3
*ender 65A5 and *ender A5:5 @,---A *endersJ dictionar+ of nutrition and food
techno"og+5 'oodhead 8u#"ishing Eimited( ;am#ridge( :ng"and
*est 65 @233,A )"avour modification5 Prepared Foods 242( .-( .,( .7
*r+hni :5A( *+rne 65V5(/Td#otten =( =T""er S5( ;"audi-=agnussen ;5( Kar"sson A5(
Agerhem &5( <ohansson =5 and =artens =5 @,--1A ;onsumer and sensor+
investigations in re"ation to ph+sica"Fchemica" aspects of cooked pork in Scandinavia5
Meat Science 4.( 010-07D
*+"aite :5( I"gunaite Q5( =e+er A5S5 and Ad"er-Nissen <5 @,--7A Inf"uence of "amda-
carrageenan on the re"ease of s+stematic series of vo"ati"e f"avour compounds from
viscous food mode" s+stems5 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry .,( 1.7,-
1.73
;hinprahast N5( Tangsuphoom N5( 8tairahong 85 and 6uangrat V5 @,--,A =i9ed
vegeta#"e and high fi#re je""+ drink$ effects of carrot( pineapp"e and pumpkin
proportions on ph+sica"( chemica" and sensor+ characteristics5 Thai Journal of
Agricultural Science 1.( ,21-,,,
;hung S5-<5( &e+mann &5 and %rUn I5N5 @,--1A Tempora" re"ease of f"avour
compounds from "ow-fat and high-fat ice cream during eating5 Journal of Food
Science 4D( ,2.--,2.4
;ook 65<5( Einforth /5S5T5 and Ta+"or A5<5 @,--1A :ffects of h+droco""oid thickeners on
the perception of savour+ f"avours5 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry .2(
1-40-1-0,
;oste"" :5( Truji""o ;5( 6amasoi =5&5 and 6uran E5 @233.A Te9ture of sweet orange
ge"s #+ free-choice profi"ing5 Journal of Sensory Studies 2-( 241-203

;owart *5<5@23D3A /e"ationship #etween taste and sme"" across the adu"t "ife span5
In$ ;5 =urph+( '5S5 ;ain and 65=5 &egsted, utrition and the chemical senses in
aging! "ecent advances and current research needs @pp5 13-..A5 The New Rork
Academ+ of Sciences( New Rork5
;Bepa A5 and &ofmann T5 @,--7A Kuantitative studies and sensor+ ana"+sis on the
inf"uence of cu"tivar( spatia" tissue distri#ution( and industria" processing on the #itter
off-taste of carrots @6aucus carota E5A and carrot products5 Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry .,( 7.-D-7.27
;Bepa A5 and &ofmann T5 @,--1A Structura" and sensor+ characteriBation of
compound contri#uting to the #itter off-taste of carrots @6aucus carota E5A and carrot
puree5 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry .2( 1D4.-1D01
de *e"ie N( Eaustsen A5=5( =artens =5( *ro /5 and de *aerdemaeker <5 @,--,A Nse
of ph+sio-chemica" methods for assessment of sensor+ changes in carrot te9ture and
sweetness during cooking5 Journal of Te#ture Studies 11( 140-1DD
de %raaf ;5( 8o"et 85( van Stavaren '5A5 @2337A Sensor+ perception and
p"easentness of food f"avours in e"der"+ su#jects5 The Journals of $erontology 73(
31-33
6onini E5=5( Savina ; and ;anne""a ; @,--1A :ating ha#its and appetite contro" in
the e"der"+$ the anore9ia of ageing5 %nternational Psychogeriatrics 2.( 01-D0
6ot+ /5E5 @23D3A Inf"uence of age and age-re"ated diseases on o"factor+ function5
Annals of the ew &or' Academy of Sciences 42( 04-D4

6owne+ %5 @,--,A Kua"it+ changes in froBen and thawed( cooked purVed vegeta#"es
conaining h+droco""oids( gums and dair+ powders5 %nternational Journal of Food
Science and Technology 10( D43-D00
6rewnowski A5 and Shu"tB <5=5 @,--2A Impact of aging on eating #ehaviours( food
choices( nutrition( and hea"th status5 The Journal of utrition, (ealth and Aging .( 0.-
03
6uff+ V5*5( *ackstrand <5/5 and )erris A5=5 @233.A O"factor+ d+sfunction and re"ated
nutritiona" risk in free-"iving( e"der"+ women5 Journal of The American )ietetic
Association 3.( D03-DD7
6usek =5( Simmons <5( *uschang 85&5( a"-&ashimi I5 @2334A =asticator+ function in
patients with 9erostomia5 $erodontology 21( 1-D
)i""ion E5 and Ki"cast 65 @,--2A )ood te9ture and eating difficu"ties in the e"der"+5 Food
%ndustry Journal 7( ,0-11
)risco-)indus A%( &ansson( A5( Patent @2331A ;ooked and froBen meat mea"5
&ammershj =5 and Andersen <5 @,--,A :gg processing- focus on the functiona"
properties of egg a"#umen powder5 8ou"tr+ Internationa" 72( 2D-,.
&ande"mann %5<5( Nightinga"e Q565( Eichtenstein A5&5 Schaefer :5<5 and *"um#erg
<5*5 @2333A Eutein and Bea9anthin concentrations in p"asma after dietar+
supp"ementation with egg +o"k5 American Journal of Clinical utrition 0-( ,70-,.2
&arrison =5 @233DA :ffect of #reathing and sa"iva f"ow on f"avour re"ease from "i?uid
foods5 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 74( ,0,0-,01.
&erron K5E5 and )ernandeB =5E5 @,--7A Are the current dietar+ guide"ines regarding
egg consumption appropriateW The *ritish Journal of utrition 32( 0D3-034
&oe#"er ;5( 6evau9 =5)5( Karinthi A5( *e""evi""e ;5 and *arr+ <5E5 @,---A 8artic"e siBe
of so"id food after human mastication and in vitro simu"ation of ora" #reakdown5
%nternational Journal of Food Sciences and utrition .2( 1.1-144
&orme" )oods ;ooperation( She"don K5E5( Patent @,---A Thickened h+dro"+te isotonic
#everage5
&ouse <565( *raun K5( *a"ance 65=5( OJ;onnor ;585 and %uenter '5 @,--,A The
enrichment of eggs with fo"ic acid through supp"ementation of the "a+ing hen diet5
Poultry Science D2( 211,-2110
&utten#auer S585( Patent @,--7A =ethod of making formed food puree products5
Imeson A5 @233,A Thickening and ge""ing agents for food5 *"ackie Academic and
8rofessiona"( Eondon
Is"am S5( Igura N5( Shimoda =5 and &a+akawa I5 @,--1A :ffects of "ow h+drostatic
pressure and moderate heat on te9ture( pectic su#stances and co"or of carrot5
+uropean Food "esearch and Technology ,20( 17-1D
<aime I5( =e"a 65<5 and *ratche"" N5 @2331A A stud+ of te9ture-f"avour interactions
using free-choice profi"ing5 Journal of Sensory Studies D( 200-2DD
Kajii R5( Shingai T5( Takahashi R5( Taguchi R5( Noda T5 and Ramada R5 @,--,A Sour
taste stimu"ation faci"itates ref"e9 swa""owing from the phar+n9 and "ar+n9 in the rat5
Physiology and *ehaviour 00( 1,2-1,.
K"ahorst S5<5 @2330A %etting a reaction$ the comp"e9 wor"d of f"avours5 Food Product
)esign 0( 13-7-( 71( 74( 73-.-( .1( .4( .D( 41-47( 44-40
K!"vi!inen N5( /oininen K and Tuori"a &5 @,---A Sensor+ characterisation of te9ture
and f"avour in high viscosit+ ge"s made with different thickeners5 Journal of Te#ture
Studies 12( 7-0-7,-
Eaing 65%5 and <inks A5 @2334A )"avour perception mechanisms5 Trends in Food
Science and Technology 0( 1D0-1D3

Eivsmede"sverket @,--2A ,ivsmedelsta-ell +nergi och .rings.mnen /00/5 Nppsa"a5
pp 1--12
Eotong V5( ;hun S5S5( ;ham#ers :5 and %arcia <5=5 @,--1A Te9ture and f"avour
characteristics of #everages containing commercia" thickening agents for d+sphagia
diets5 Journal of Food Science 4D( 2.10-2.72
Eove"" =5A5( <afek *5'5( =oran 65T5 and /ow"e+ <5;5 @23D,A *iops+ of human
o"factor+ mucosa$ An instrument and a techni?ue5 Arch. 1ctolaryngol5 2-D( ,70-,73
Eundgren *5 @23D2A (and-o' i Sensori' Analys5 SIK Svenska Eivsmede"sinstitutet(
%te#org5 pp 0-2-
Euth *5S5 and %ancendo-EorenBo =5&5 @2332A 6ie :rha"tung von *a""aststoffen5
;e""u"ose und 8ektin #ei Tomatensaft in 6osen5 Fl2ssiges 1-st .D( .73-..7
E+cke#+ ;u"inar A* @,--1A INt#i"dning i st!rke"se och derivatkemiI( ut#i"dning och
informationsmateria"

=athe+ =5)5( Sie#e"ink :5 de %raaf ;5 and van Staveren '5A5 @,--2A )"avour
enhancement of food improves dietar+ intake and nutritiona" status of e"der"+ nursing
home residents5 The Journals of $erontology .4( ,---,-.
=i""er I5<5 @233.A Anatom+ of the periphera" taste s+stem5 In$ (and-oo' of 1lfaction
and $ustation( 6ot+ /E( editor5 New Rork$ =arce" 6ekker( Inc5( 233.( .,2-.70
=ine R5 @233.A /ecent advances in the understanding of egg white protein
functiona"it+5 Trends in Food Science and Technology 4( ,,.-,1,
=odite9 )ood Etd5( *u"mer <5:5( 8atent @,--1A )oodstuff for a d+sphagic person
=ojet <5( ;hrist-&aBe"hof :5 and &eidema <5 @,--2A Taste perception with age$
%eneric or specific "osses in thresho"d sensitivit+ to the five #asic tastesW Chemical3
Senses ,4( D7.-D4-
Ng K5( 'oo <5( Kwan =5( Sea =5( 'ang A5( Eo /5( ;han A5 and &enr+ ;5<5K5 @,--7A
:ffect of age and disease on taste perception5 Journal of Pain and Symptom
Management ,D( ,D-17
Nitsch 85 @,--1A ;arrot fi#res as water #inding agents in canning of meat products5
Mitteilungs-latt der *undesanstalt f2r Fleischforschung 4ulm-ach 7,( 2.-,-

Ohr E5 =5( @,---A Aging gracefu""+5 Prepared Foods 243( 13-77( 7,( 77
8ace K5( Stevens S5 and Tucker K5 @,--,A An investigation in to #est practice for the
provision of modified consistenc+ diets in acute and communit+ hospita"s5 )ysphagia
Clinical Practice $roup( 7
/aut V5V( =cKee %5<5 and <ohnston *5T5 @,--2A :ffect of #o"us consistenc+ on
swa""owing O does a"tering consistenc+ he"pW +uropean archives of oto3rhino3
laryngology( ,.D( 73-.1
/eiter =5( Stuparic =5( Neidhart S5 and ;ar"e /5 @,--1A5 The ro"e of process
techno"og+ in carrot juice c"oud sta#i"it+5 ,e-ensmittel 5issenschaft und Technologie
,4( 24.-20,
/o#erts 6565( 8o""ien 85 and 'atBke *5 @,--1A :9perimenta" and mode"ing studies
showing the effect of "ipid t+pe and "eve" on f"avour re"ease from mi"k-#ased "i?uid
emu"sions5 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry .2( 2D3-23.
/o""s *5<5 and 6rewnowski A5 @2334A 6iet and nutrition5 In$ +ncyclopedia of
$erontology, Vo"5 25 Academic 8ress( 2334
/oininen K5( )i""ion E5( Ki"cast 65 and E!hteenm!ki E5 @,--1aA :9p"oring difficu"t
te9tura" properties of fruit and vegeta#"es for the e"der"+ in )in"and and Nnited
Kingdom5 Food 6uality and Preference 2.( .20-.1-
/oininen K5( )i""ion E5( Ki"cast 65 and E!hteenm!ki E5 @,--1#A 8erceived eating
difficu"ties and preferences for various te9tures of raw and cooked carrots in +oung
and e"der"+ su#jects5 Journal of Sensory Studies 2D( 710-7.2
/ousset S5 and <o"ivet 85 @,---A 6iscrepanc+ #etween the e9pected and actua"
accepta#i"it+ of meat products( eggs and fish$ The Case of 1lder Consumers Journal
of Sensory Studies( 20( 42-0.
S;* @,--7A http$FFwww5ssd5sc#5se
Scha""er /5%5( *roda S5 and SchnitB"er '5&5 @233DA ;hemica"( chemo-sensoria" and
human-sensoria" e9periments on taste and f"avour of carrots5 ahrung 7,( 7---7-.
Schiffman S5S5 @2300A )ood recognition #+ the e"der"+5 The Journals of $erontology
1,( .D4-.3,
Schiffman S5S5 @233DA Sensor+ enhancement of foods for the e"der"+ with
monosodium g"utamate and f"avours5 Food "eviews %nternational 27( 1,2-111
Schiffman S5S5 @,---A Intensification of sensor+ properties of foods for the e"der"+5
The Journal of utrition 21-( 3,0-31-
Se"jPsen /5( *engtsson %5*5( &oftun &5 and Vogt %5 @,--2A Sensor+ and chemica"
changes in five varieties of carrot @6aucus carota EA in response to mechanica" stress
at harvest and post-harvest5 Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture D2( 714-
770

Shehata &5A5( Sha"a#+ =5T5 and &assan A5=5 @2337A %e"atin and some other natura"
thickening agents for use in canned corned #eef5 Journal of Food Science and
Technology 12( ,3D-1-2
Si"a 65N5( Smout ;5( Vu T5S5 and &endrick9 =5:5 @,--7A :ffects of high-pressure
pretreatment and ca"cium soaking on the te9ture degradation kinetics of carrots
during therma" processing5 Journal of Food Science 43( :,-.-:,2-
Simp"+ Thick E"c5( &o"ahan <5E5( Patent @,--7A Improved thickened #everages for
d+sphagia5
Sims ;5A5( *a"a#an =5O5 and =atthews /5)5 @2331A OptimiBation of carrot juice
co"our and c"oud sta#i"it+5 Journal of Food Science .D( 22,3-2212
Singh-%ujra" &5( Amrit-Kaur( Narpinder-Singh and Singh-Sodhi N5 @,--,A :ffect of
"i?uid who"e egg( fat and te9tured so+ protein on the te9tura" and cooking properties
of raw and #aked patties from goat meat5 Journal of Food +ngineering .1( 100-1D.
Smith 65S5( ;ash <5N5( Nip '5-K5 and &ui R5&5 @2330A Processing vegeta-les science
and technology5 Technomic 8u#"ishing ;ompan+( Inc5( Eancaster( NSA5 pp 220-2,3

Stade"amn '5<5 and ;otteri"" O5<5 @233.A :gg science and techno"og+5 )ourth edition5
The &aworth 8ress( Inc
Stevens <5;5( *artoshuk E5=5 and ;ain '5S5 @23D7A ;hemica" senses and aging$
taste versus sme""5 Chemical Senses 3,( 240-203
Suman =5 and Krishna-Kumari K5 @,--,A A stud+ on sensor+ eva"uation( #eta-
carotene retention and she"f-"ife of deh+drated carrot products5 Journal of Food
Science and Technology 13( 400-4D2
Surai 85)5 and Sparks N5&5;5 @,--2A 6esigner eggs$ )rom improvement of egg
composition to functiona" food5 Trends in Food Science and Technology 2,( 0-24
Ta"cott S5T5( &oward E5/5 and *renes ;5&5 @,---A Antio9idant changes and sensor+
properties of carrot puree processed with and without periderm tissue5 Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 7D( 212.-21,2
Ta+"or A5<5 @2334A Vo"ati"e f"avour re"ease during eating5 Critical "eviews in Food
Science and utrition 14( 04.-0D7
Thornton( S5 @,--,A Improving food appearance and choice improves patient intake
and cuts hospita" wastage5 Around )ysphagia 3 )ysarthira 7 )ysphonia( , - 1
Trius A5 and Se#ranek <5%5 @2334A ;arrageenans and their use in meat products5
Critical "eviews in Food Science and utrition 14( 43-D.
van /uth S5=5( de Vries %5( %ear+ =5 and %iannou"i 85 @,--,A Inf"uence of
composition and structure of oi"-in-water emu"sions on retention of aroma
compounds5 Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture D,( 2-,D-2-1.
van /uth S5=5( %rossmann I5( %ear+ =5 and 6e"ahunt+ ;5=5 @,--2A Interactions
#etween artificia" sa"iva and ,- aroma compounds in water and oi" mode" s+stems5
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 89, /8093/8:;
'atson /5/5 @,--,A :gg and hea"th promotion5 Iowa State 8ress

'endin K5 @,--2A Sensor+ d+namics in emu"sion products differing in fat content5
SIK( %othen#urg( p 27( 72
'endin K5( So"heim /5( A""mere T5 and <ohansson E5 @2330A )"avour and te9ture in
sourmi"k affected #+ thickeners and fat content5 Food 6uality and Preference D( ,D2-
,32

'i"kinson ;5( 6ijksterhuis %5*5 and =inekus =5 @,---A )rom food structure to te9ture5
Trends in Food Science and Technology 22( 77,-7.-
'ettasinghe =5( Vasanthan T5( Teme""i )5 and Swa""ow K5 @,--2A Vo"ati"e f"avour
composition of cooked #+-product #"ends of ;hicken( *eef and 8ork$ A ?uantitative
%;-=S investigation5 Food "esearch %nternational 17( 273-2.D
Reguda+ev R5( Patent @,--,A ;arrot juice sweetened with natura" hone+5
Qadernowski /5( =arkiewicB K5( NesterowicB <5 and 8ierB+nowska-Korniak %5 @2330A
8h+sica" and chemica" characteristics of pu"p+ juices5 Fruit Processing 0( 772-777