Hydraulics Prof. B.S.

Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
5. Secondary Current and Spiral Flow
The curve of constant velocity for rectangular and triangular cross-section obtained by
Nikuradse are shown in Figures 1 and 2. In all cases the velocities at the corners are
comparatively very large with stems from the fact that in all straight pipes of non-circular
cross-section there exist secondary flows. These are such that the fluid flows towards
the corner along the bisectrix of the angle and then outwards in both directions. The
secondary flows continuously transport momentum from the centre to the corners and
generate high velocities there. Schematic diagrams of secondary flows in triangular and
rectangular pipes are shown in Fig. 3. It is seen that the secondary flow in the
rectangular cross-section which proceeds from the wall inwards in the neighborhood of
the ends of the larger sides and of the middle of the shorter sides creates zones of low
velocity. They appear very clearly in the picture of curves of constant velocity in Fig1.
Such secondary flows come into play also in open channels, as evidenced by the
pattern of curves of constant velocity in Fig. 4. The maximum velocity does not occur
near the free surface but at about one fifth of the depth down of the free surface.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Fig. 1. Curves of constant velocity for pipe of rectangular cross-section,
after Nikuradse
Fig. 2. Curves of constant velocity for a pipe of equilateral triangular
cross-section after Nikuradse

a b
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of Secondary flows in pipes
of triangular and rectangular (open channel) cross-section

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
water level
Fig. 4. Curves of constant velocity for a rectangular
open channel after Nikuradse

Secondary circulation is that flow wherein the velocity can be resolved into two
components, one in the longitudinal direction of the channel and the other in transverse
to the direction of the channel. The transverse component of the velocity gives rise to
the secondary circulation. It can occur in both straight and curved channels and for
different reasons. Secondary circulation is affected by temperature gradients, sediment,
turbulence, non-uniformity of boundary shear, and the curvature of streamlines.
Secondary circulation has been associated with turbulent flow in prismatic channels
wherein the shear at the boundary is not constant. In straight circular pipes as shear at
the boundary is constant for both laminar and turbulent flow the secondary circulation
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
has not been observed. When secondary circulation does occur, it seems to take place
in an even number of cells as depicted in Figure 5. The non-uniformity of sediment
across a channel has been associated with secondary circulation.
Fig. 5. Secondary circulation in straight channel

Secondary current is the flow taking place in transverse direction of the main flow. The
secondary currents are of four types viz.
1. The 'weak' secondary currents in straight-non-circular channel sections and in pipes
due to boundary resistance (figure 5).
2. Secondary flow developed due to non-uniform bed configuration as in case of alluvial
channels.
3. The ' strong ' currents caused in bends due to centrifugal force.

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
SPIRAL FLOW
O
y
OUTSIDE WALL
INSIDE
SECTION ON A-A
ILLUSTRATION OF SECONDARY FLOW AND SPIRAL CURRENTS
IN A 90 BEND

4. Secondary currents due to the unsteadiness of the oscillating boundary layer.
The occurrence of the maximum velocity filament in a straight channel just below the
free surface (see figure below) to the findings of secondary current.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Secondary
currents
Isovels
(a) Open channel
(b) Equivalent closed conduit
Comparison of Open Channel Flow with Closed-Conduit Flow
The lens shaped figure is drawn such that it is orthogonal to each isovel. It may be noted
that the maximum velocity occurs slightly below the free surface. On the lens shaped line
no velocity gradient exist. The shear on the free surface is negligible and their is no shear
resistance to balance the component of the weight of the prism along the main flow
direction. The equivalent closed conduit is symmetrical about the central line and the
shear stress is distributed along the boundary line.
0.750ySo
0.750ySo
0.970ySo
y
4y
Side Slope, m: 1 = 1.5 : 1
Tractive force distribution obtained using membrane analogy
This distribution varies depending on the cross section and material

Gibson, explained the origination of the secondary current. Darcy, Cunningham, Sterns,
Moseley, Francis and Wood (Thandaveswara, 1969) recognized the presence of this
secondary current and superposition of the main flow leads to spiral flow. If there is any
slight disturbance in approach flow conditions instead of double spiral, then single spiral
exists. Kennedy and Fulton established that the secondary current has a definite effect
on the frictional resistance of the channel.
The second type of secondary currents were observed by Schlichting, J acob, Schultz
Grunov. The projection of spheres from the surface is just similar to the spherical sand
particles fixed uniformly over the surface, then this type of secondary current can be
expected when the sand roughness is used.
The flow pattern which exists behind an obstacle placed in the boundary layer near a
wall differs markedly from that behind an obstacle placed in the free stream. This
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
circumstance emerges clearly from an experiment performed by Schlichting and shown
in figure. The experiment consisted in the measurement of the velocity field behind a
row of spheres placed on a smooth flat surface. The pattern of curves of constant
velocity clearly shows a kind of negative wake effect. The smallest velocities have been
measured in the free gaps in which no spheres are present over the whole length of the
plate; on the other hand, the largest velocities have been measured behind the rows of
spheres where precisely the smaller velocities.
d
5d
1
2
3
3
2
1
10d
10d
10d
5d
6.00
5.75
5.50
5.25
5.00
4.75
4.50
4.25
4.00
V
[m/s)
measuring
station
Isovels behind a row of spheres as measured by Schlichting. Secondary flow
in the boundary layer is marked behind (1), as calculated by K. Schultz-Grunow.
In the neighbourhood of the wall, the velocity behind the spheres is larger than
that in the gaps. The spheres produce a "negative wake effect" which is explained
by the existence of secondary flow. Diameter of spheres d= 4mm

When the spacing of roughness is close, the wavy water surface will not exist as the
formation of vortices will be confined to roughness elements and forms a pseudo-wall
and does not affect the main flow.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
s
y
k
Isolated - roughness flow (k/s) - Form drag dominates
s
The wake and the vortex are dissipated before the next element
is reached. The ratio of (k/s) is a significant parameter for
this type of flow

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
s s
Wake interference flow (y/s)
j
j
j
Quasi smooth flow - k/s or j/s becomes significant acts as Pseudo wall
s
y
k
y
k
s s
s
j
k is surface roughness height
s is the spacing of the elements
j is the groove width
y is the depth of flow
Concept of three basic types of rough surface flow
When the roughness elements are placed closer, the wake and the vortex
at each element will interfere with those developed by the following
element and results in complex vorticity and turbulent mixing. The height
of the roughness is not important, but the spacing becomes an important
parameter. The depth 'y' controls the vertical extent of the surface region of
high level turbulence. (y/s) is an important correlating parameter.
Quasi smooth flow is also known as skimming flow. The roughness elements
are so closed placed. The fluid that fills in the groove acts as a pseudo wall
and hence flow essentially skims the surface of roughness elements. In such
a flow (k/s) or (j/s) play a significant role.

In the following paragraphs 3rd type of secondary current has been discussed briefly.
The third type of secondary currents will come into picture while the fluid flows in a
curved channel. The fluid in a curved channel will be subjected to centrifugal force. Due
to this centrifugal force, a pressure gradient normal to the direction of the main flow is
created. Then the particles near the inside wall are thrown outside and they reach the
outside boundary moving in transverse direction. Thus a sort of centripetal lift will be
created causing the heaving up of the fluid. If the flow is irrotational and the fluid enters
with uniform velocity into bend, then it is analogous to the potential vortex.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN POTENTIAL FLOW
IN A CURVED CHANNEL
r
Vr =CONSTANT
O
r
i
r
c
B
v
r
0

But in actual case due to the presence of shear stress at the boundary, the velocity of
main flow decreases abruptly at the boundary setting a velocity gradient in the boundary
layer. It may be observed that the energy in the boundary regions is less than in the
potential zone. It follows that at the outside of the bend the pressure intensity falls away
abruptly towards the wall, unless a secondary flow takes place in the direction of outer
wall. Continuity equation requires an inward flow along the side walls to compensate
since the pressure gradient normal to the wall is exactly opposite to that of potential
motion.
The spiral flow motion induced by the centrifugal force is very pronounced and irregular
in the bend. The complicated pattern of flow is caused by the superposition of
secondary current in the bend over the spiral flow of the approach channel. The spiral
flow of bend begins as a lateral boundary current near the point where the stream line
curvature begins and at the bottom inside corner of the bend.
This type of spiral motion also called helicoidal flow and was recognized by Thomson in
1876 and was demonstrated by him in the laboratory in an 180 circular bend with
rectangular channel section in 1879. This was supported further by Engles, Beyerhams
and others. During 1883 to 1990 several researchers while investigating the flow
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
characteristics in meanderings observed the action of scouring and deposition in the
river bends.
Several investigators (refer to Thandaveswara's Thesis, 1969) mostly conducted the
experiments in channel whose aspect ratios were of the same order of magnitude. Thus
the mean flow occurring was essentially three dimensional in character.
But Betz, Wilcken, Maccol and Wattendrof conducted experiments in two dimensional
channel (rectangular conduit). Watterdrof showed the potential character of the spiral
flow and drew the following conclusions.
(i). There is only slight increase in channel resistance due to the presence of bends as
indicated in pipe bends.
(ii). The velocity distribution follows free vortex law.
(iii). Rayleigh's stability criterion based on the calculation of mixing length and exchange
factor showed the instability and increased mixing at the outer walls of the curved
channels and decreasing mixing and stability at the inner wall.
(iv). If the depth to breadth ratio is large enough so that the lateral currents occupy only
a relatively small part of the area of the cross-section near the bottom and if form losses
are ignored near the bend, then the bend loss scarcely exists.
5.1 Strength of spiral
The term "Strength of Spiral" is defined as the percentage ratio of the mean kinetic
energy of the lateral motion to the kinetic energy of flow and is denoted by
xy
S .
( )
2
xy
2
xy
m m
xy
2 2
V
2g V
S = * 100 = * 100
V V
2g









The strength of secondary current can be qualitatively estimated to be proportional to
the extent of distortion of isovels. The concentration of velocity near boundary means
the secondary flow concentration near boundary. This bears the hypothesis that the
mechanism of secondary motion arises out of the boundary shear turbulence.
It may be noted that the approach flow plays an important role and has a direct effect on
the number of spirals, strength of spiral and other characteristics of spiral flow.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Following equations relate the deflection angle
1
along the centre line of bed, geometry
of the channel and the hydraulic properties of flow, in channel bends.

(i) For a smooth rectangular bend
(ii)
1
1
c
1 e
0.25
e
P
r
tan =17.4 for 2000 R 45000
R







(iii) For a smooth triangular channel
1
1
c
1 e
0.25
e
P
r
tan =13.4 for 2000 R 15000
R







In general,
1
c
1 3
0.25
e
P
r
tan =K
R







If the channel is wide then
1
0 5
c
1 4
0.25
e
y
r
tan =K
R
.




But Russian authors found that for a rectangular wide channel
1
c
y
tan =11
r




In general for a wide rectangular channel,
( )
1
1 0 e
c
b
tan =K R
r
for smooth flow
1 0
c s
b y
tan =K
r K



for rough flow
a
1 0
c
b
tan =K f
r




Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara










Indian Institute of Technology Madras
where f =friction coefficient and "a" is an exponent >1. The last equation can be
expressed in Chezy terms of coefficient
8g
C=
f




in the form
a
1 0
2
c
8g b
tan K
r
C


=




The value of
1
tan can be assumed to indicate the strength spiral to some scale.
Reference:
Thandaveswara B.S., "Characteristics of flow around a 90 open channel bend",
M.Sc (Engineering), Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, 1969.