Published on Machine Design (http://machinedesign.

com)
How tight is right?
by Stephen J. Mraz
Created 08/23/2001 - 03:00
Tension, not torque, indicates proper joint tightness.
Dave Miller
RS Technologies Ltd.
Farmington Hills, Mich.
Designers typically qualify clamp force of a bolted joint by the
amount of torque applied to fasteners holding it, either as they're
tightened or after the fact. The approach may be adequate for
many noncritical applications, though results depend strongly on
operator technique.
But torque only indicates work done on a joint by an installation
tool and not necessarily clamping force. This is because torque
must first overcome under-head and thread friction before clamp
loads build. In fact, friction can consume up to 95% of applied
torque in some cases, leaving just 5% for clamping. For critical
applications, also consider (in addition to torque) fastener
tension, rotation angle, and friction. Neglecting these items during
assembly can lead to loose or broken bolts in the field.
Tension and clamping force
Bolted assemblies act as two springs the fastener in tension
and the bolted components in compression. An elastic joint
results when a fastener flexes more than the clamped parts and
overcomes resistance to joint compression. Fastener tension is
measurable with various devices including strain-gaged bolts,
fastener-force washers, or with special ultrasonic
boltmeasurement techniques. Though these tools help during
research and engineering phases, they're often impractical or too
costly for production-level quality control. A simpler yet effective
measure of joint load is fastener rotation angle.
Fastener tension is proportional to fastener rotation angle after
parts come into firm contact. M-Alpha systems from RS
Technologies Ltd., Farmington Hills, Mich., record torque (M),
friction, and fastener rotational angle (Alpha) during assembly or
residual levels of these metrics in pretightened fasteners. Here's
how it works: A computer-controlled dc electric-motor drive inputs
An M-Alpha auditing system
from RS Technologies Ltd.
checks lug clamp loads on
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to a torque-angle sensor. The sensor output shaft couples to a
fastener (bolt portion) to be tested while a research head traps
the nut. The research head contains a torque sensor and an axial
load cell. The torque sensor indicates frictional loads and the
axial cell, clamp force.
Typically to establish a baseline there are several tests
performed on a joint with similar stiffness and friction qualities.
The resulting curves or torque-angle signatures contain four
distinct zones, each of which can be analyzed separately.
The rundown or prevailing torque zone comes before the bolt
head or nut contacts the bearing area. Prevailing torque is
basically thread friction and is often purposely boosted with nylon
inserts or deformed threads to prevent unintentional loosening.
Additional and undesirable sources of prevailing torque in the
rundown zone include frictional drag on the shank or threads from
misalignment of parts, chips, contamination, as well as
unintended interference from out-of-tolerance threads.
The second curve portion is the alignment or snugging zone.
Here, the torque-angle relationship is nonlinear as mating parts
draw together and fasteners bend because of nonparallel bearing
surfaces. Other factors shaping the curve here include fastener
coatings and plating, surface roughness, and deforming threads.
Next is a linear-elastic clamping zone. This portion of the
signature is considered most significant of the four because a
large portion of tightening energy is transferred from tool to
assembly. The curve's linear slope can give an accurate estimate
of fastener tension: Draw a line tangent to the curve back to zero
torque or to the prevailing torque level. The intersection with the
X axis is called the elastic origin. Fastener tension is proportional
to fastener rotation angle as measured from the elastic origin to
where tightening was stopped in the elastic clamping zone. This
allows, without direct measurement, accurate estimates of
fastener tension and clamping force.
Finally, the postyield zone begins with an inflection point at the
end of the elastic range. Although the shape of this curve portion
can indicate fastener yield, it's sometimes more influenced by
joint yield. Here, gaskets, relatively soft or plastic clamped
components, or yielding threads, all can contribute to total yield.
Friction
Applied torque must overcome friction before clamp load builds.
In other words, more friction lowers clamp force for a given
torque. The type and hardness of materials, surface finishes,
plating (thickness, condition, and type), thread percentage or fit,
lubricants, and temperatures, all can affect friction. Based on this,
some may conclude that a joint with less friction is better. But it is
an automobile rim.
A line drawn through two
points on the elastic portion
of the curve locates the
elastic origin.
In this test with a 100 N-m
applied torque, the
combined under-head and
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under-head and thread friction that keeps a fastener tight under
load. For better holding power, joint friction is often purposely
enhanced with a starred washer under the head or a patch or
nylon locking device on nut threads.
The basic elastic torque-tension equation helps analyze friction:
T= KDF
where: = torque (lb-in.), K = nut factor (typically 0.03 to 0.35), D = nominal diameter (in.), and F
= force (lb). The expression applies only to the linear elastic region of the torque-angle curve
and is solved for K, given torque and force. The K factor combines three other factors:
K = K1 + K2 + K3
where K1 = geometric function of fastener diameter and thread pitch, K2 = thread friction, and
K3 = function of under-head friction and surface contact area.
Published tables of K factors cover various combinations of materials, surface finishes, plating,
coatings, and lubricants. However, experience has shown them to be highly unreliable for a
specific fastener and assembly. It's often better to do a more detailed analysis of under-head
and thread friction factors when designing special fasteners or when solving a particular design
problem. Methods such as the German standard DIN 946 help estimate these friction
coefficients. Still, it is best to supplement calculations with torque-angle experiments. The first
step is to separate frictional torque from input torque. Large swings in friction levels may
indicate problems in the assembly process, especially with torque tools or methods. Impulse
tools, for instance, have wider torque scatter than tools with torque-angle or yield-point control.
Another issue is tool rotational speed. Excessive speeds may trigger stick-slip action and
torque peaks that are unrelated to clamp load. Tools momentarily seeing specified torque
levels can power down before fasteners are fully tightened. Tool rotational speed is just one of
200 different factors that may affect bolt tension for a given torque. The good news is, a formal
design review can help identify such issues before production begins. A review may include
design analysis, experimental testing, and assembly testing.
There are several design analysis methods to predict joint reliability ranging from simple
algebraic formulas to complex functional analysis. The German standard VDI 2230 introduced
in 1977 (revised 1988, 1998) is considered one of the better ways to determine joint stress. The
VDI standard is built into numerous software products, the most complete of which is SR1 from
Hexagon Industrial Software in Kirchheim, Germany. SR1 is distributed in North America by RS
Technologies. SR1 figures crucial joint stresses and safety factors based on geometry,
estimates of friction, loads, and on assembly tool scatter.
Consider a cap head screw joining a hydraulic piston and steel connecting rod. SR1 produces
a CAD-compatible assembly drawing and a table of inputted and calculated data including
dimensions, loads, friction, and safety factors. The VDI standard says acceptable safety factors
are 1.0 or greater. The analysis in this case showed all safety factors to be satisfactory except
for that evaluating thread strip at yield. The 0.93 value means it's possible to strip threads when
the fastener is taken near yield. This would be especially important when a tool applies
inconsistent torque levels. This type of analysis can identify suitable installation tools and help
users select fasteners in terms of size, grip length, and tensile strength.
After design analysis comes experimental testing. Assemble joints in a rig capable of
thread friction torque
absorbed 80 N-m, leaving
about 20 N-m to produce
clamp force.
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measuring applied torque, fastener rotation angle, clamp loads, and under-head and thread or
prevailing torque. Joints should accurately reflect features of actual hardware such as plating
and surface finishes, and thread geometry. To better predict real-world behavior, friction
coefficients derived from experiment are fed back into the simulation.
The assembly testing step fixtures actual assemblies and records torque-angle signatures. The
signatures are correlated to those obtained from experiment. This helps eliminate contributions
from the test equipment itself. But more importantly it provides a baseline for torque-angle
analysis of production joints. Data include prevailing torque in the rundown region, cold work
done on parts being brought into alignment, boundaries of the linear elastic clamping zone, and
possible joint yield and fastener embedment. The torque-angle and tension-angle coefficients
are then calculated. The statistical scatter of these coefficients brackets the range for
subsequent torque-angle (joint tension) audits.
Source URL: http://machinedesign.com/article/how-tight-is-right-0823
Putting M-Alpha to the test
M-Alpha is used to measure residual clamping forces on
automobile wheel rim joints subjected to heat cycling
from track tests. A residual torque audit of a wheel joint
still hot from testing adds a 9 audit angle to the existing
16clamp angle for a total of 25 at 66 lb-ft. A release
audit of the same wheel conducted at room temperature
shows that as the joint cools, residual torque decreases
slightly but the clamp angle remains unchanged,
indicating no loss of clamp load.
Yet another residual (release) torque audit on a similar
joint but at elevated temperature with a clamp angle of
18 and a 10 audit angle, gives a total angle of 28 at 45
lb-ft. The release audit at an elevated temperature broke
away at a slightly lower 40 lb-ft but at the same 28
release angle. This says that clamp load remains
unchanged despite a lower torque. This analysis shows
that joint temperature has relatively no effect on clamp
loads, and primarily impacts friction and slope of the
torque-angle curve, provided no additional torque is
applied to the joint.
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