Chemistry Module 4 Energy

1. Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of

energy.
Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy to
chemical energy and recall the raw materials for this purpose.
Photosynthesis is the process by light energy is trapped by the chlorophyll in the
plants leaves and is used to transform the raw materials of carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in all green plants and is
the source of life of all organisms. Without photosynthesis, no organism would be
able to use the suns energy, thus everything would perish.
Light
Carbon Dioxide Water !lucose "xygen
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction as it absorbs energy from sunlight
#t is the process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy which is
stored as glucose. #t occurs only in green plants.
When the above chemical reaction occurs, $%&'() of energy is absorbed per mole
of glucose formed. *hus the overall role of photosynthesis is to capture the light
energy of the sun and transform it into chemical energy which is stored in plants.
outline the role of the production of high energy carohydrates from
caron dio!ide as the important step in the stailisation of the sun"s
energy in a form that can e used y animals as well as plants.
Carbohydrates are compound of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Common
carbohydrates include glucose, starch and cellulose.
Photosynthesis is a complex multi+step reaction brought about by the chlorophyll
in the leaves plants. *hus the energy that is captured by the plant is chemically
stored in glucose.
Carbohydrates in plants are the energy source of animals. #n cellular respiration,
the stored chemical energy is made available to the organism through the
following e,uation-
!lucose "xygen Carbon Dioxide Water .nergy
*he amount of energy released during respiration is the same as was absorbed
during photosynthesis, namely $%&'() per mole of glucose. /ome of this energy
is used for daily activities whereas the ma0ority is dissipated as heat. 1 small
portion of this energy is transformed into protein and fat 2or lipids3.
Carbohydrates are considered to be high energy compounds because when they
react chemically as in respiration they release large amount of energy.
#ote$ 4irtually all the solar energy trapped by plants ends up as heat in the
environment to be re+radiated into space.
#ote$ *he longer the food chain, the more inefficient it is.
1ll forms of life on .arth are dependant upon sunlight for their supply of energy5
without the sun there would no life as we (now it. Production of carbohydrates by
photosynthesis is the main way in which solar energy is collected for use by plant.
%dentify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal&
petroleum and gas.
Plants harvest solar energy to live and grow, and animals live eating plants.
6ormally, when plants and animals die, they are decomposed and they are
converted bac( into carbon dioxide, water and nutrients which are released bac(
into the environment, so completing the materials and energy cycles that are part
of the living world.
7owever in certain locations, instead of being fully decomposed to carbon dioxide
and water, some plant and animal material was only partially decomposed and
remained stored in the .arth as energy+rich compounds. *hese are (nown as
fossil fuels. *hey were mainly formed due to intense pressure and extremely high
temperatures for millions of years.
Energy rich compounds are those that release large amounts of energy when
they undergo chemical reactions. *he stored energy is (nown as chemical
energy. 8y burning fossil fuels we are able to release the stored chemical energy
within them. *he common fossil fuels are coal, crude oil and natural gas.
Living matter is mainly made up of compounds of carbon. *herefore fossil fuels
were naturally synthesi9ed by geological processes acting upon compounds of
carbon. *hus it is not surprising when we see that fossil fuels themselves are
compounds of carbon.
'ead (lants and )nimals
*nderground +emperature and (ressure for millions of years
,ithout -acterial )ction ,ith -acterial )ction
Coal ./olid0 Crude Oil .li1uid0
#atural 2as .2as0
*he origin of chemical energy in fossil fuels in form the sun. Living organisms
obtain energy directly or indirectly from the sun via photosynthesis.
process and present information from secondary sources on the range of
compounds found in either coal& petroleum or natural gas and on the
location of deposits of the selected fossil fuel in )ustralia
3uel Ma4or )ustralian 5esources
8lac( coal 8owen 8asin in :ld *here is very little coal in the
/ydney 8asin in 6/W western half of the continent.
8rown coal Latrobe 4alley in 4ictoria
6atural !as !ippsland 8asin ; 4ictoria
Cooper 8asin ; /outh 1ustralia
Crude "il 8ass /trait in 4ictoria 2will be exhausted in a few decades3.
Coal is a particularly important fossil fuel 6/W as we use it to generate most of
our electricity. 8urning coal produced steam which drives the turbines to ma(e
electricity. Coal is found in every state in 1ustralia, but 6sw, 4ic and :ld are our
main producers.
Coal is a rot consisting mainly of carbon 2<'+=%>3, some hydrogen 2&+?&>3 and
oxygen. Coal can also contain small amount of other elements such as sulfur and
nitrogen. 1ustralian coal generally has low sulfur content and most of 1ustralias
coal is found in < basins ; /ydney, 8owen, Clarence+@orton, /urat ad !ippsland.
6. +here is a wide variety of caron compounds.
%dentify the position of caron in the periodic tale and descrie
its electron configuration.
*he element Carbon is located in group A of the periodic table. #t is also located in
period $ and has atomic number of B. Carbons electron configuration is $,A
indicating the presence of four valence electrons. Carbon is a non+metal but is
able to conduct electricity when in the form of graphite.
'escrie the structure of the diamond and graphite allotropes and
account for their physical properties in terms of onding.
When an element exists as more than one crystalline form, those forms are
(nown as allotropes. 1llotropes are forms of the one elements 2in the same
physical state3 which have significantly different physical properties 2such as
density, hardness, electrical conductivity and colour3. *here are eight main
allotropes of carbon-
%. Diamond
%%. graphite
%%%. lonsdaleite
%7. single+walled carbon nanotube 2also (nown as buc(ytube3
7. 8uc(minsterfullerene 2also (nown as buc(yball3
7%. C
<A'
7%%. C
C'
7%%%. 1morphous carbon
'iamond$
Diamond has a three+dimensional crystal structure, which consists of an infinite
array of carbon atoms, each of which forms a structure in which each of the
bonds ma(es e,ual angles with its neighbours. *he ends of the bonds are
connected, and the structure formed is that of a tetrahedron. .very carbon atom
is covalently bonded at the four corners of the tetrahedron to four other carbon
atoms 2by single bonds3.
*his arrangement of layers of carbon atoms explains some of diamonds
properties. #t is extremely difficult to destroy such an arrangement of covalent
bonds especially when the covalent bonds are extended throughout the lattice.
*his means that a extreme amount of energy is re,uired to brea( the bonds
between the carbon atoms in diamonds three dimensional lattical structure5 thus
giving diamond extreme hardness, high melting and boiling points, reduced
chemical reactivity 2since the electrons are tightly bound within the covalent
bonds, they are unable to move or be transferred to other elements thus
minimi9ing reactivity3, non+conductor of electricity 2no free electrons3.
Durthermore due to the covalent networ( bonding present in diamond, it is
transparent and high light reflective index. *his is simply because the atoms are
arranged in an orderly fashion 2as can be seen in the image on the previous
page3, this gives diamond its transparency as light is able to pass between the
space between the particles.
-elow is a summary of the properties of 'iamond$
(roperty E!planation in terms of onding
8ard *hree+dimensional lattical structure 2the tetrahedral arrangement of the carbon
atoms arranged systematically in layers that are not flat3 and strong covalent
bonds between the carbon atoms that extend across the lattice, give strong
intermolecular bonds which are extremely difficult to brea( ensuring hardness of
diamond.
8igh M.(. and
-.(. #t re,uires huge amounts of energy to rupture the strong intermolecular bonds
between the carbon atoms due to its covalent networ( structure in which strong
covalent bonds are extended throughout the lattice, the melting points and boiling
points must be high.
+ransparency *he carbon atoms are arranged in orderly fashion throughout the entire crystal.
*his gives the diamond its transparency as light is able to pass between the atoms
giving the diamond its colourless appearance and high light+refractive index
ma(ing it extremely attractive.
#on9
conductor of
electricity
Diamond is a covalent networ( substance, this means that the bonds between the
carbon atoms are covalent bonds. *his means that the valence electrons of the
carbon atoms are not free to move and since there are no mobile electron there is
no conduction of electricity.
Minimal
chemical
reactivity
#n order for substances to be reactive they must be able to transfer their electrons
easily. #n diamond, the electrons are tightly bound due to the covalent bonds,
therefore they are unable to move or be transferred to other elements, giving
diamond a very low reactivity.
8igh 'ensity *he structure of the diamond shows that the atoms are tightly bound in a strong
three dimensional lattical structure. 1lso the six+membered rings are stac(ed on
top of one another, giving diamond a high density 2&.<gEmL3
%nsolule in
all solvents
Diamond is a very hard and extremely unreactive substance. Due to this
unreactive state it has because of its covalent networ( structure 2as there are no
free electrons3, it is insoluble in all solvents. *his simply means that no substance
will be able to chemically react with diamond when the solvent is an a,ueous state.
E!cellent
+hermal
conductor
1ll carbon atoms in diamond are strongly bonded via covalent bonds. *he diamond
crystal has a symmetric cubic structure. *he atoms in diamond are precisely
aligned. *hus diamond is (nown as an ideal crystal. 1toms in the crystal lattices in
solids vibrate. *hese are called the atomic vibrations which allow for thermal
conduction in solids. #n an ideal crystal, the lattices are aligned so that they dont
interact with each other. *herefore an ideal crystal conducts heat better than a
non+ideal crystal. Diamond being an ideal crystal is a good thermal conductor.
*he structure of graphite is significantly different to the structure of diamond and
thus its physical and chemical properties are different as well. !raphite is also a
covalent networ( solid 2covalent lattice3 li(e diamond but in this case each carbon
atom is only three other carbon atoms 2in diamond it was bound to four3. *his
forms a planar structure as shown in the figure above.
.ach ring consists of six carbon atoms which is also evident from the diagram.
/ince each carbon atom only has three other carbon atoms attached to it, it must
mean that one electron is not covalently bonded 2i.e it is free3. *hese extra
valence electrons form a sea of delocalised electrons similar to that in metals. #t
is the presence of the sea of delocalised electrons which ma(es graphite an
electrical conductor 2since the electrons can move when influence by an applied
voltage similar to that in metals3. 7owever, electricity is only conducted along the
plane of layers, graphite does not conduct electricity at =' degrees to the plane.
*his is simply because the sea of delocalised electrons are only able to move
across the planes and not 0ump from one plane to another.
#t can also be seen that the two+dimensional lattices are pac(ed one upon the
other as shown in the figure above. /ince, there are only wea( intermolecular
forces between the layers, they can easily slide across one another, and this
explains the slippery+ness of graphite and its good lubricating characteristics.
1nother phenomenon when it comes to graphite is that every second layer is
stac(ed identically upon each other. :*he crystal structure of graphite amounts to
a parallel stac(ing of layers of carbon atoms. Within each layer the carbon atoms
lie in fused hexagonal rings that extend infinitely in two dimensions. *he stac(ing
pattern of the layers is 18181...5 that is, each layer separates two identically
oriented layers.;
1
8elow is a /ummary of the properties of graphite$
(roperty E!planation in terms of -onding
/lippery
.2ood Luricant0
1s previosuly explains, the carbon atoms in graphite are connected in
hexagonal rings which connect to form a layer. *hese layers are then
piled one on top of the other. *he forces that hold these layers
together are (nown as the van der Waals forces. *hese forces are
extremely wea( and the layers are seperated by a large distance. Due
to these two factors the layers can slip over each other easy giving
graphite its slippery nature and ma(ing it a good lubricant.
1
Fcarbon.F .ncyclopGdia 8ritannica. $''=. .ncyclopGdia 8ritannica "nline. 'C )un. $''=
HIL- http-EEwww.britannica.comE.8chec(edEtopicE=AC&$Ecarbon
E!tremely soft
sustance
*he structure of graphite explains why it an extremely soft substance .
*his is because despite having strong covalent bonds between carbon
atoms in each layer, the forces between layers are extremely wea(
24an de Waals forces3. *his allows layers of carbon to slide over each
other in graphite ma(ing the substance very soft and greasy.
Medium 'ensity
.6.< g=mL0
!raphites density is less than that of diamond. *his is due to the
structural layout. *he layers are seperated by large distances due to
the wea( van der Waals forces which are unable to tightly bind the
layers together. Due to this the carbon atoms are more spread out,
reducing graphites density.
8igh M.(. and -.(.
!raphite can be considered as a covalent networ( substance despite
no bonding in the vertical direction. *he carbon atoms are connected
via strong covalent bonds which extend throughout the hori9ontal
lattice. *hese intermolecular bonds are hard to brea( and thus more
energy is re,uired to brea( them. Conse,uently, the melting and
boiling points of graphite are high.
2ood Electrical
Conductor
#n graphite, each carbon atom only has three other carbon atoms
bound to it via single bonds. *herefore it must mean that one electron
is not covalently bound 2i.e it is free3. *hese extra valence electrons
form a sea of delocalised electrons similar to that in metals. #t is the
presence of the sea of delocalised electrons which ma(es graphite an
electrical conductor 2since the electrons can move when influence by
an applied voltage similar to that in metals3. 7owever, electricity is
only conducted along the plane of layers, graphite does not conduct
electricity at =' degrees to the plane. *his is simply because the sea of
delocalised electrons are only able to move across the planes and not
0ump from one plane to another.
#ote$
:.ffect of heat- it is the most stable allotrope of carbon. 1t a temperature of $<''
degree Celsius, it can be transformed into diamond. 1t about C'' degree Celsius
it burns in pure oxygen forming carbon dioxide.
Chemical activity- it is slightly more reactive than diamond. *his is because the
reactants are able to penetrate between the hexagonal layers of carbon atoms in
graphite. #t is unaffected by ordinary solvents, dilute acids, or fused al(alis.
7owever, chromic acid oxidises it to carbon dioxide.;
6
(rocess and present information from secondary sources on the
uses of diamond and graphite and relate their uses to their
physical properties
*ses of 'iamond
2
:1llotropes of carbonJ Wi(ipedia ?
st
)une $''= ; 1ccessed ?' )une $''=
HIL- http-EEen.wi(ipedia.orgEwi(iE1llotropesKofKcarbon
*se (roperty.ies0 related to use
>ewellery Lustrous, 7igh Light Iefractive #ndex, /cratch resistant, 7ard,
*ransparent
%ndustrial purposes
like cutting tools
7ardest (nown substance on .arth which means it can cut through any
substance, high melting point also allows it to be used in hot
environments.
8eat sinks
7ighest thermal conductivity of any substance which allows it to ,uic(ly
extract heat from sensitive areas eg. Computer chips have a diamond
layer that is able to ,uic(ly remove heat from the area. 1lso, high
melting point.
)rasives 7ard, /cratch resistant
,ear resistant parts Iesistant to corrosion, low chemical reactivity
Low friction
microearings
*hese are needed in extremely small mechanical devices. Diamond
bearings are used when extreme abrasion resistance and durability are
essential.
'iamond windows transparent, very durable and resistant to heat and abrasion, hard
2security3
'iamond /peaker
'omes
4ery stiff material 2hard3, also rapid vibrations will not cause
deformation, therefore it enhances the performance of high ,uality
spea(ers.
*ses of 2raphite
*se (roperty.ies0 related to use
:Lead; (encils /oft and slippery nature, layers can easily be separated
5efractory cruciles 7igh melting and boiling points, when mixed with other substances it
can become extremely hard.
Electrodes !ood electrical conductivity, high melting point
(olishes and paints /oft, slippery nature, metallic luster
Luricant in machines /lippery nature, high melting points, greasy nature since layers can be
easily separated.
Electrotypes for
printing
!ood electrical conductivity, high melting point, soft nature so can be
made into a fine powder that is still able to induce an electrical current.
'ry cell atteries !ood electrical conductivity, high melting point
%dentify that caron can form single& doule or triple covalent
onds with other caron atoms.
Carbon atoms are able to form single, double or triple covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms.
When one pair of electrons is being shared it is (nown as a single bond.
When two pairs of electrons are being shared it is (nown as a double bond.
When three pairs of electrons are being shared it is (nown as a triple bond.
When a hydrocarbon contains only single bonds it is (nown as an al(ane and its
molecular formula can be calculated using C
n
7
$n$
where Ln is the number of
carbon atoms.
When a hydrocarbon contains one or more double bonds it is (nown as an al(ene
and its molecular formula may be calculated using C
n
7
$n
When a hydrocarbon contains one or more triple bonds it is (nown as an al(yne
and its molecular formula may be calculated using C
n
7
$n+$
#ote$ #f a hydrocarbon is in the form of a ring it is (nown as a cyclic
hydrocarbon. Dor example pentane in cyclic form would be (nown as
cyclopentane.
E!plain the relationship etween caron?s comining power and
aility to form a variety of onds and the e!istence of a large
numer of caron compounds.
Carbon forms a huge range of compounds. *here are more compounds of carbon
than of any other element 2despite hydrogen because it is almost always present
in carbon compounds3. *here are eight main explanations why the ma0ority of
compounds (nown to chemists are carbon compounds. *hese are-
- Carbon readily forms carbon+carbon bonds
- *hese bonds may be either single, double or triple or a combination of
them
- Carbon forms cyclic compounds as well as straight and branched chain
compounds.
- *he intramolecular bonds 2covalent bonds3 combining the atoms in carbon
compounds are strong. *hese strong intramolecular bonds can help the
formation of millions, and even billions of (inds of molecules.
- Carbon is able to form compounds that are stable and durable. Dor this
reason it is able to form a vast array of compounds.
- Due to the formation of isotopes, there may be many carbon compounds
with the same molecular formula, yet have different structural formulae.
*hus they are regarded as different substances or different compounds.
- *here is no limit to the amount of carbon atoms in a chain they bond
indefinitely due to the high combining power of carbon.
- Carbon it is able to form four covalent bonds which can arise in different
directions allowing for complex organic compounds to be created.
Hnder all circumstances, carbon always forms four covalent bonds. *he fact that it
has four valence electrons means that it is able to lose or gain electrons. *his
means that it can readily combine with both non+metals and metals.
<. ) variety of caron compounds are e!tracted from organic sources
'escrie the use of fractional distillation to separate the components of
petroleum and identify the uses of each fraction otained.
Crude Oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons formed by geological action on
decayed a,uatic plant and animal matter over millions of years. "il accumulates
under domes of impervious roc( hundreds to thousands of meters below the
.arths surface. #t has to be refined before it can be used.
*he first step in oil refining is fractional distillation. Dor separating components
of crude oil it is carried out in large steel towers up to A' meters high. *hus,
during this process, the components of oil are separated according to their boiling
points. /ince boiling point increases as the molecular weight increases, the
separation is roughly in order of increasing molecular weights. Crude oil is
vapori9ed and then fed into a fractionating column. *he temperature falls as the
vapour rises up through the column. *hus the least volatile components condense
near the bottom. *hese li,uids are collected at various heights and these are
(nown as the various LDractions.
3raction -.(. C atoms=molecule *ses
!ases M&' ?+A Li,uefied Petroleum !as 2LP!3
Petroleum .ther &'+%' <+B #ndustrial /olvents
!asoline C'+$'' B+?$ @otor fuel
Nerosene ?C<+$<' ?$+?B )et fuel, domestic heating
!as oil $<'+&<' ?<+?% Diesel fuel, industrial heating
Lubricating oil &<' ?%+$< @otor oils
!rease O&<' O$' Lubrication
8itumen Iesidue O$< Ioad ma(ing, roofing.
+he composition of crude oil varies from one oil field to another. *he oil
product in greatest demand is gasoline, which is the fuel for vehicles. 7owever,
the proportion of straight+run gasoline obtained from fractional distillation is not
high enough to meet demand.
*hus a process (nown as cracking is used. Crac(ing is the process in which
heavy fractions 2long carbon chains3 of crude oil are bro(en 2crac(ed3 into smaller
fractions for production of high demand products such as petrol.
*here are two main types of crac(ing- +hermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
%dentify and use the %*()C nomenclature for descriing straight chained
alkanes and alkenes from C1 C@.
#o. 9 Caron )tom )lkane )lkene )lkyne
? @ethane
$ .thane .thene .thyne
& Propane Propene Propyne
A 8utane 8utene 8utyne
< Pentane Pentene Pentyne
B 7exane 7exene 7exyne
C 7eptane 7eptene 7eptyne
% "ctane "ctene "ctyne
7ydrocarbons in which all the bonds are single bonds are called al(anes.
*here is a whole family of al(anes made up of different numbers of carbon atoms
0oined together to from a single chain. *hey are called straight+chained al(anes
meaning that all the continuous string. /traight chain al(anes have all carbon
atoms 0oined together in one string so that no carbon atom is 0oined to more than
two other carbon atoms.
#n addition there are branched+chain al(anes with carbon s(eletons where one
carbon atom is attached to at least three other carbon atoms.
Compare and contrast the properties of alkanes and alkenes C1 C@ and
use the term homologous series to descrie a series with the same
functional group.
1 family of compounds which can be represented by one general molecular
formula is called an homologous series.
)lkanes$
*he simplest al(anes 2C?+ CA3 are gases at room temperature. 1l(anes with <+?%
carbon atoms per molecule are colourless li,uids, while compounds which exceed
$' carbon atoms per molecules are waxy solids.
+he melting and oiling points of alkanes increase as the molecular
weight increases .i.e. #umer of caron atoms per molecule increases0
*he densities of both li,uid and solid al(anes are significantly less than that of
water. 1l(anes are also insoluble in water and do not conduct electricity.
.ven though not all al(anes are strictly symmetrical, al(anes are still (nown as
non+polar molecules. *his is because C+C bonds are non+polar, C+7 bonds are
slightly polar but they are mostly cancelled out due to the structure of the al(ane.
*hus the only intermolecular forces between al(ane molecules are dispersion
forces. *hese are ,uite wea(, thus it is easy to separate the molecules. *hus
al(anes have low melting and boiling points.
#ote$ 'ispersion forces increase as molecular weight increases.
*he 7olatility of a substance is the ease with which it can be converted to a
vapour. 4olatility increases as boiling point decreases. /o for al(anes, volatility
decreases as molecular weight increases.
)lkenes$
7ydrocarbons which contain a double bond a pair of carbon atoms are called
al(enes.
*he straight chain al(enes have similar physical properties to the al(anes. *he
C$+CA al(enes are gases while the C< to C?C ones are li,uids with boiling
increasing as molecular weight increases. 8oiling points of al(enes are slightly
lower than those or corresponding al(anes. Densities are similar to those of
corresponding al(anes. Li(e al(anes, they are also insoluble in water and do not
conduct electricity.
*hey are also non polar molecules as C++C bonds are non polar, li(e C+C bonds.
*hus their only intermolecular force is wea( dispersion forces, giving them low
melting and boiling points.
7owever, al(enes and al(anes are different in that al(anes are saturated 2contain
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that the particular carbon s(eleton can
accommodate3 where as al(enes are unsaturated 2it is possible to attach more
hydrogen by brea(ing the double bond and forming single bonds to extra
hydrogen atoms i.e converting them to al(anes3.
1l(anes are generally more reactive than al(anes.
e!plain the relationship etween the melting point& oiling point and
volatility of the aove hydrocarons& and their non9polar nature and
intermolecular forces .dispersion forces0
Look in above dot point.
5ecap$
.ven though not all al(anes are strictly symmetrical, al(anes are still (nown as
non+polar molecules. *his is because C+C bonds are non+polar, C+7 bonds are
slightly polar but they are mostly cancelled out due to the structure of the al(ane.
*his lac( of polarity accounts for al(anes being insoluble in water 2a polar
solvent3.
*hus the only intermolecular forces between al(ane molecules are dispersion
forces. *hese are ,uite wea(, thus it is easy to separate the molecules. *hus
al(anes have low melting and boiling points.
#ote$ 'ispersion forces increase as molecular weight increases.
*he 7olatility of a substance is the ease with which it can be converted to a
vapour. 4olatility increases as boiling point decreases. /o for al(anes, volatility
decreases as molecular weight increases.
*he straight chained al(enes have similar physical properties to the al(anes.
)ssess the safety issues associated with the storage of alkanes C19C@ in
view of their weak intermolecular forces .dispersion forces0.
1l(anes, particularly low molecular weight ones such as C?+C% are extremely
flammable. #n addition at high concentrations they can be toxic 2poisonous3. 1n
added ha9ard is the high volatility 2low boiling points3 of the li,uid ones, which
means that if a container is left open to the atmosphere, the li,uid ,uic(ly
evaporates and forms a flammable or explosive mixture in the air.
/afety (recautions include$
+ Well maintained cylinders and fittings for gaseous hydrocarbons.
@ethane and ethane are non+condensable gases ate room temperature
and are therefore stored in high pressure cylinders which provide enough
pressure to overcome the boiling effect and (eep them as a li,uid.
+ 1dd odours that are pungent in order to ,uic(ly detect if there is a lea(.
+ /turdy 2preferably metal3 containers for li,uids stored in a well
ventilated area in case of a lea(age.
+ @inimi9e the ,uantity in use. *his will ensure that there is minimal ris( of
a ha9ardous situation arising. 1lso, if large amounts are being used, they
should be stored away from populated areas and in a located that is well
maintained and ventilated
+ Neep al(anes away from na(ed flames or spar(s. *he al(anes must be
stored in areas where there is no instance of a na(ed flame or hot
filaments. *his is to ensure that no accidental combustion occurs as it
could be potentially dangerous. 1lso, ensure that all electrical e,uipment
being used does not produce spar(s.
+ 1lways handle in well ventilated areas. Due to the poisonous nature of
these substances it is dangerous to use them in confined areas. *hey
should be handled outdoors when ever possible.
+ransportation$
9 *he fuel tan( is located at the end remote from the hot engine and is
outside the main shell of the vehicle.
9 *he fuel tan( has narrow inlet and outlet pipes, which are both at the top
of the tan( to minimi9e chances of lea(age during accidents5 fuel has to
be pumped from the tan( by the engine so that in most cars even a fuel
line rupture will not cause rapid lea(age of petrol.
9 When the petrol is transported by road or rail, heavy steel tan(s are
used. *hese are well sealed and are designed to withstand most
collisions or overturnings without rupture of the tan(.
9 Deatures are placed in vehicles to dissipate or prevent any build up of
static electricity.
9 *he fuels are also dyed for easy identification in case of lea(s. .g.
Hnleaded petrol is colored blue.
4. Comustion provides another opportunity to e!amine the
conditions under which chemical reactions occur.
'escrie the indicators of chemical reactions
Chemical changes are also called chemical reactions. Common indicators that a
chemical reaction has occurred are-
- %f a gas is produced. Dor example when copper carbonate is decomposed
under the influence of heat it produces carbon dioxide whose presence can be
detected using the limewater test.
- %f a precipitate is formed. Dor example when two solutions are mixed, such
as sodium chloride and silver nitrate, silver chloride, which is a white solid
forms.
- %f there is a permanent colour change. Dor example when potassium
permanganate solution 2which is originally purple3 is combined with hydrogen
peroxide, the mixture produced is colourless, indicating a chemical reaction.
- +emperature change in the mi!ture is 1uite significant. Dor example
when magnesium ribbon is burnt in air, the metal becomes extremely hot
- 'isappearance of a solid. *his is not 0ust the dissolution of one solid in a
particular solvent but rather a complete re+arrangement of elements in order
to produce new substances. Dor example when magnesium hydroxide powder
is combined with hydrochloric acid, a clear solution is produced.
- #ew sustances are created. Dor example the electrolysis of water. Where
water 27$'3 is decomposed into hydrogen gas 27$3 and "xygen gas 2"$3
- 8eat or light is given off. Dor example, when a piece of magnesium ribbon
is burnt in air, significant amounts of light and heat energy are emitted,
leaving a white powder behind.
- 'ifficult to reverse the process. Dor example when wood is burnt, it turns
into ash and gases evolve. 1fter the wood has completely burnt burned, it
cannot be restored to its original form.
- )n odour is produced. Dor example when sodium hydroxide is added to a
solution of ammonium chloride the pungent odour of ammonia is clear.
%dentify comustion as an e!othermic chemical reaction
:Comustion is a process in which a self sustaining chemical reaction occurs at
temperatures above those of the surroundings. @ore simply, combustion is
burning. .xplosions are also a form of combustion. 1ll combustion reactions
liberate large amounts of heat. *hey are called e!othermic reactions.J
<
Combusting 2burning3 is a process in which a self+sustaining chemical reaction
occurs at temperatures above those of the surroundings. #t is a chemical reaction
because we can detect, by using simple tests, the formation of water vapour and
carbon dioxide gas during the burning. Combustion cannot easily be reversed. #t
is an exothermic reaction because it releases much heat into the surroundings.
6ote- 1n endothermic reaction is one that absorbs heat ma(ing the reaction
much cooler than the surroundings.
Outline the changes in molecules during chemical reactions in
terms of ond reaking and ond making
3
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#n chemical reactions, some bonds in reactant molecules are bro(en and new
bonds are formed to ma(e the product molecules. *hese two activities occur
simultaneously in the mixture. 1toms are not created or destroyed during a
chemical reaction, they are 0ust simply rearranged.
.g ?3 De
2s3
$7Cl
2a,3
DeCl
$ 2a,3
7
$ 2g3
.g $3 1g6"
& 2a,3
6aCl
2a,3
1gCl
2s3
6a6"
& 2a,3
#n both examples we can see that the actual atoms are not destroyed. Whatever
is on the reactant side of the chemical e,uation must be present on the products
side. *his is (nown as the law of conservation of matter, which states that matter
cannot be created nor destroyed, but 0ust simply transformed from one form to
another. *herefore, the intramolecular bonds between the compounds are bro(en
and new bonds are made depending on the valencies and attractions of the
particular elements within the chemical reaction.
.nergy must be inputted in order to brea( chemical bonds. Dorming chemical
bonds releases energy.
Common Ieactions
a3 @etal 1cid /alt 7ydrogen gas
b3 @etal Water @etal hydroxide hydrogen
c3 @etal /alt 6ew /alt @etal
d3 1cid 8ase /alt Water
e3 1cid Carbonate /alt Carbon dioxide water
f3 /alt salt 6ew salts
g3 @etal "xide water 1cid
h3 Combustion
i. .lement "xygen .lement "xide
ii. 7ydrocarbon "xygen Carbon dioxide Water
i3 7eat Carbonate @etal "xide Carbon Dioxide
03 Decomposition reaction-
7eating
4isible light or H4
.lectrolysis
(3 /ingle displacement reaction-
l3 Combination reaction-
m3 Double displacement reaction-
E!plain that energy is re1uired to reak onds and energy is
released when onds are formed
.nergy must be inputted in order to brea( chemical bonds. Dorming chemical
bonds releases energy. #n chemical terms, this means that an exothermic reaction
occurs when ma(ing bonds, whereas an endothermic reaction occurs when
brea(ing bonds.
#n any substance, energy is stored in the intermolecular bonds that hold the
molecules together in a substance, and also in the intramolecular bonds that hold
the individual atoms together in a molecule.
.very chemical reaction involves changes that result in certain bonds being
bro(en and others being formed. When a chemical e,uation is written that
includes energy change, this e,uation shows the net difference in energy
change
.xothermic reactions result in a net release of energy. #.e. @ore energy is given
off rather than absorbed.
"ne example of this is when hydrogen and fluorine gas combine in order to result
in hydrogen fluoride.
7$2g3 D$2g3 $ 7D2g3 <AB()
#n the above chemical reaction, the 7+7 as well as the D+D bonds have to be
bro(en whereas 7+D bonds must be formed. 1s can be seen the products side has
more energy than the reactants side, indicating that more energy is given off
rather than absorbed. 7ere the energy produced when forming 7+D bonds is
greater than the total energy absorbed when brea(ing 7+7 E D+D bonds.
"n the other hand, endothermic reactions are those that re,uire a net input of
energy. #.e. @ore energy is needed to brea( the bonds than create new ones.
"ne example of this is when sulfur trioxide decomposes to produce sulfur dioxide
and oxygen gas.
$ /"&2g3 ?=%() $ /"$2g3 "$2g3
#t can be clearly seen from the above e,uation that there is more energy on the
left hand side of the e,uation 2reactants3 than the right hand side 2products3.
*his indicates that more energy is re,uired to brea( bonds, when compared with
energy re,uire to ma(e the new ones.
7 P Qenergy re,uired to brea( bonds in reactantsR ; Qenergy re,uired to ma(e bonds for
productsR
'escrie the energy needed to egin a chemical reaction as
activation energy
*he reason why many reactions do not occur spontaneously is that there is often
an energy barrier between reactants and products.
*he activation energy 2.13 of a reaction is the minimum amount of energy
reactant molecules must possess in order to form products. 1 substantial amount
of energy is often necessary for a chemical reaction to occur, this is mainly due to
the intramolecular bonds that have to bro(en. *hus an energy barrier has to be
surpassed in order for the reaction to occur. *he energy re,uired to surpass the
energy barrier is (nown as the activation energy.
*hus activation energy can be defined as the energy needed to begin a chemical
reaction. *he activation energy barrier is essential because it prevents most
reactions from ta(ing place which prevents the decomposition of highly complex
natural molecules, thus ensuring a stable environment for all organisms.
6ote- 1ctivation energy is expressed in () E mol. 1lso for exothermic reactions,
once they begin, they are self sustaining. .ndothermic reactions however, need a
continuous energy supply in order to operate.
'escrie the energy profile diagram for oth endothermic and
e!othermic reactions
*he below figures show graphically the relation between enthalpies of products
and reactants, and 7 for endothermic 2right3 and exothermic 2left3 reactions.
3or endothermic reactions$
9 *he products have more energy contents than the reactants.
+ *he energy level has increased so the change in enthalpy is said to be
positive
3or e!othermic reactions$
9 *he products have less energy contents than the reactants
+ *he energy level has dropped so the change in enthalpy is said to be
negative
#ote$ *he difference between the energy of the reactants and the pea( is (nown
as the activation energy. 1lso, the difference between the energy of reactants
and that of the products is (nown as 8.
7
7
E!plain the relationship etween ignition temperature and
activation energy
*he ignition temperature of a fuel air mixture is the minimum temperature to
which the mixture 2or part of it3 must be heated in order for combustion to occur
spontaneously.
*he greater the activation energy, the higher the ignition temperature.
#ote$ :#t is not necessary to heat all of the fuel air+mixture to the ignition
temperature5 it is often sufficient to heat 0ust a small portion to the re,uired
temperature. *his is because the combustion reaction, being exothermic, once
started at one sport, soon spreads throughout the whole mixture.;
4
Petrol has a high ignition temperature, this is why it is suitable as fuel for
vehicles, because it can be placed in open air, without the ris( of a spontaneous
reaction occurring.
%dentify the sources of pollution which accompany the comustion
of organic compounds and e!plain how these can e avoided
*he combustion of fossil fuels in factories, homes, vehicles and so on are the
main sources of pollution on .arth.
*here are four main types of pollution that result from the combustion of fossil
fuels-
10 Caron pollution$
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas. #t is toxic because it combines
with the haemoglobin in red blood cells in preference to oxygen, reducing the
ability of blood to transport oxygen. #t is produced by incomplete combustion
when the oxygen supply is limited.
.g- $C%7?%2l3 ?C"$2g3 ?BC"2g3 ?%7$"2l3
#f there is insufficient air for the complete combustion of fuel, then some soot
2solid carbon3 may be formed.
.g- C<7?$2g3 A"$2g3 &C2s3 $C"2g3 B7$"2g3
Carbon monoxide production is prominent in petrol engines where the air to fuel
ration is very minimal. Diesel engines and electricity generating stations have a
high air to fuel ratio, and thus produced very little carbon monoxide, however, if
badly designed they can produced a lot of soot.
7owever, these production of carbon monoxide and soot can be minimised and
this is by allowing the incorporation of excess air into the reaction. #.e. *o ensure
that the air to fuel ratio is high. #n some engines this is not possible 2such as
petrol where ignition then becomes too difficult3. *herefore, the minimi9ation of
these substances can be done using a catalyst in the exhaust pipe with is able to
convert and carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. +hus ensuring complete
comustion.
4
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60 /ulfur pollutants
/ulfur dioxide is formed by the combustion of sulfur in fossil fuels. *his is mainly
due to the impurities in the fuel ; mostly from coal. When the combustion of coal
occurs, the sulfur combines with the oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide which is a
pungent gas that can cause breathing difficulties at low concentrations.
/2s3 "$2g3 /"$2g3
/ulfur dioxide in the atmosphere then forms acid rain-
$/"$2s3 "$2g3 $/"&2g3
/"&2s3 7$"2l3 7$/"A2a,3
*he way to reduce the emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere is to use
low sulfur coals whenever possible. 1lso, sulfur dioxide can be removed from the
exhaust gas at factories E power stations, but this is generally very expensive to
do.
<0 (articulates
Particulates are very small droplets of li,uids or small solid particles that result
from the incomplete combustion of fuels. 4ehicles produce limited amounts of
particulates, but the main contributors are power generators and industrial
factories. Drom oil and coal, the particulates rise from the incomplete combustion
of the fuel.
7owever, these particulates emitted from power stations and industrial factories
can be minimised through the use of electrostatic precipitators. *hese devices can
generate a high voltage, causing the small particulates to combine with one
another to produce large amounts of substance, which are then easily filtered out
of the exhaust gas.
40 O!ides of #itrogen
"xygen ; nitrogen reactions only occur at extremely high temperatures 2above
?''' degrees Celsius3, in order to produce nitric oxide-
6$2g3 "$2g3 $6"2g3
*he next step occurs, when nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to produce nitrogen
dioxide-
$6"2g3 "$2g3 $6"$2g3
Petrol and diesel engines along with power stations and industrial factories are
the main contributors. *he main concern with the production of nitrogen dioxide
is that under the influence of sunlight it can lead to the production of o9one,
which is a very dangerous substance ; it is (nown as a photochemical smog.
6itrogen oxides can cause respiratory problems and also contribute to the
formation of acid rain.
Laws are in place to minimise production of nitrogen oxides from petrol E diesel
engines. 1lso relocation of power stations from population centres. 1lso using
catalysts to remove oxides of nitrogen from exhaust gas of power stations. Dinally
lowering combustion temperatures to prevent the formation of those oxides.
E!tra$ (ollution due to Caron 'io!ide +he 2reenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide is not considered as a pollutant ; this is mainly because it has no
damaging affect on humans or any other living organism, and does not spoil any
aspect of the environment. Carbon dioxide is a necessary substance on .arth and
without it there would be no life.
7owever, the excessive release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere contributes
to what is (nown as the greenhouse effect. *his is when a layer 2which is
constantly increasing3 of carbon dioxide and other gases surround the earth,
causing the .arth to heat up since they reflect heat bac( to .arth. *his is believed
to cause significant climate changes such as rising levels of oceans.
Combustion of fossil fuels is the most significant contributor to global warming
and the only way to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is
to reduce the need for fossil fuels, by creating more efficient vehicles E industries.
'escrie chemical reactions y using full alanced chemical
e1uations to summarise e!amples of complete and incomplete
comustion
#n complete combustion, the only products formed are that of water and carbon
dioxide. Dor example-
10 C<7?$2g3 %"$2g3 <C"$2g3 B7$"2g3
60 $C%7?%2l3 $<"$2g3 ?BC"$2g3 ?%7$"2l3
<0 C7A2g3 $"$2g3 C"$2g3 $7$"2l3
40 C$7A2g3 &"$2g3 $C"$2g3 $7$"2l3
A0 $CA7?'2g3 ?&"$2g3 %C"$2g3 ?'7$"2l3
#n all of the above examples, it is clear that the products formed will always be
carbon dioxide and water ; thus obeying the meaning of complete combustion.
#n incomplete combustion 2due to lac( of oxygen3, carbon monoxide andEor
carbon 2soot3 may from instead of or in addition to carbon dioxide.
10 C<7?$2g3 A"$2g3 &C2s3 $C"2g3 B7$"2g3
60 $C%7?%2l3 ?C"$2g3 ?BC"2g3 ?%7$"2l3
<0 C<7?$2g3 B"$2g3 C"$2g3 AC"2g3 B7$"2g3
40 $C$7$2g3 &"$2g3 AC"2g3 $7$"2g3
A0 C&7%2g3 $"$2g3 &C2s3 A7$"2g3
#n all of the above examples, it is clear that the products formed will have other
substances than carbon dioxide and water ; thus obeying the meaning of
incomplete combustion.
identify the changes of state involved in comustion of a urning candle
1 solid fuel, such as the large chain hydrocarbons that ma(e up candle wax, must
be melted and vapori9ed 2two changes of state3 in order to burn.
*he wax melts, the molten wax moves up the wic( and then this molten wax
vapori9es. *he wax vapour around the wic( is what actually burns.
1 solid wax cannot be burned directly by a small flame due to its high activation
energy 2and thus high ignition temperature3. *he burning wic( melts the wax and
the li,uid wax is fed up the wic( via capillary action.
*he burning wic( provides energy to heat this small li,uid and vapori9es it. *he
vapour wax due to sufficient energy starts a combustion. *he heat energy
released from the combustion of the vapour wax hasten further combustion
reactions. *he reaction is therefore self+sustaining.
A. +he rate of energy release is affected y factors such as types of reactant
'escrie comustion in terms of slow& spontaneous and e!plosive
reactions and e!plain the conditions under which these occur.
*he combustion reactions we use in everyday life proceed at very different rates.
+ /low Combustion ; *his refers to situations such as stove tops where
large lumps of wood may ta(e many hours to burn.
+ Dast Combustion ; *his may be the burning of methane in heating
appliances
+ .xplosive combustion ; *his is in the cylinders of petrol engines in cars.
1ll of the chemical reactions involved in these combustion processes are (nown as
spontaneous reactions. *his means that once the reaction has started they will
continue to operate without any further assistance 2energy input3, and will remain
continuous until all the fuel is used up.
/low comustion occurs when we use big lumps of fuel and limit the supply of
air. *his means that burning only occurs on the surface of the lump and its speed
is controlled by the limited supply of air.
3ast comustion occurs when fuel 2eg coal3 is ground into very small particles
that are sprayed into a plentiful supply of air. *here is a large surface area of fuel
exposed to an excess of oxygen and there is good mixing to stop oxygen
concentrations becoming depleted near the surface of the particles.
)n e!plosion is 0ust an extremely rapid reaction ; one that goes to completion
within a few microseconds. .xplosions occur when there are high concentrations
of gases or finely divided solid particles of materials that can undergo combustion
E!plain the importance of collisions etween reacting particles as a
criterion for determining reaction rates.
*he 5ate of 5eaction is the rater of change of concentration with time.
1lternatively, the average rate of reaction over a small time interval is the
change in concentration divided by the time ta(en for the change to occur.
#n terms of a concentration versus time graph, the rate of reaction at any
particular time is the magnitude of the slope 2gradient3 of the curve at that time.
Ieaction rates decrease as the reaction proceeds.
%ncreasing the concentration of a reactant generally increases the rate of
reaction.
+he rate of reaction increases as the temperature is increased.
/ubstances that increase the rate of a reaction without undergoing permanent
chemical change in the reaction are called Catalysts.
5eactions that occur uniformly throughout a solution are called
homogeneous reactions along with reactions that occur uniformly
throughout the whole gaseous mi!ture.
*here are many reactions that occur at the interface between two phases5 such
reactions are called heterogeneous reactions.
7eterogeneous reactions are dependant upon a further two factors-
+ +he state of division of the solid
+ +he rate of stirring which is used.
3or some reactions& the rate depends upon the intensity .rightness0 of
visile or ultraviolet light shining upon the reactants.
3or a reaction to occur the reactant particles .atoms& molecules or ions0&
must collide.
1nything that increases the rate at which collisions occur will increase the rate of
reaction. #ncreasing the concentration of reactants, state of division of a solid
reactant, or rate of stirring increases the rate of collision and so the rate of
reaction.
Concentration$ *his measures the number of particles of a particular substance
per unit volume. #ncreasing the concentration puts more particles in unit volume
and so increases the chance of collision between particles of one reactant and
those of another reactant, which increases the reaction rate.
/tate of 'ivision of a solid$ 8rea(ing big lumps of solid into smaller pieces
increases the surface area of the solid. *he greater the area of the solid, the more
collisions that can occur in a given time, so the reaction rate increases.
/tirring$ *his has two effects-
+ 10 #t (eeps the solid suspended in the solution so the maximum surface
is exposed to the solute E gas.
+ 60 Dor reactions in solution, stirring ,uic(ly replaces solution in which the
reactant has been used up with fresh solution, so ensuring that there is
always plenty of solute for the solid to react with.
E!plain the relationship etween temperature and the kinetic energy of
particles.
)s the temperature increases& the average kinetic energy .and so the
speed0 of particles increases.
*his means that the rate of collisions will increase, which will cause an increase in
reaction rate.
%n order for a reaction to proceed& it is necessary not only for the
reactant molecules to collide& ut also for the colliding molecules to
possess a certain minimum amount of kinetic energy so that they can
reach the top of the energy arrier.
#f the colliding molecules have insufficient , they 0ust bounce apart and stay as
reactants. Ninetic energy is energy of motion- the faster the particles are moving,
the higher is their (inetic energy.
#f the temperature is increased, not only is the average (inetic energy of the
molecules increased, but also the fraction of the molecules having more than
enough (inetic energy to scale the energy barrier is dramatically increased, thus
the reaction rate increases.
Ieactions with greater activation energy will have a smaller reaction rate. 8ut
reactions with the higher activation energy will have more rapid reaction rate
increases as the temperature is increases.
@any reactions have ,uite small activation energies so proceed ,uite rapidly at
room temperature.
'escrie the role of catalysts in chemical reactions& using a named
industrial catalyst as an e!ample.
Catalysts increase the reaction rate. Catalysts may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous. 1 catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical
reaction without being used up by the reaction. 1 catalyst only changes the rate
at which a reaction occurs. #t can speed up a reaction by providing an alternate
pathway for the reaction that needs lower activation energy.
8omogeneous Catalysts wor( throughout the bul( of the reaction mixture 2gas
or solution3. 6itrogen dioxide is a homogeneous catalyst for the reaction between
sulfur dioxide and oxygen.
8eterogeneous Catalysts provide a surface on which the reaction occurs more
rapidly than it does in the bul( of the reaction mixture. Dinely divided nic(el
catalyses the reaction between al(enes and hydrogen to form al(anes. *he nic(el
is a heterogeneous catalyst. *he reaction occurs between gaseous hydrogen and
the li,uid or gaseous al(ene on the surface of the solid nic(el particles.
8aer?s (rocess Magnetite 8eterogeneous Catalyst 3e<O4
#6.g0 B <86.g0 O!ides of %ron 6#8<.g0
8ow do heterogeneous catalysts workC
*he solid heterogeneous catalyst provides the surface for the reactants to be
absorbed. 1s the reacting particles are absorbed on the surface of the catalysts,
their chemical bonds are wea(ened, resulting in more chance for successful
collision to occur. Durthermore, the surface of the catalyst provides a direct route
of contact between the particles ; more than what would occur naturally.
E!plain the role of catalysts in changing the activation energy and hence
the rate of chemical reaction
Catalysts are particularly useful when the uncatalysed reaction has a very high
activation energy 2and is therefore very slow3. *he catalyst usually provides a
pathway of lower activation energy.

)lthough catalysts decrease the activation energy of reactions& they have
asolutely no effect upon 8& the enthalpy change for the reaction.
*he reason for this is that the reactants and the products are exactly the same
for both the catalysed and uncatalysed reactions.
analyse information and use the availale evidence to relate the
conditions under which e!plosions occur to the need for safety in work
environments where fine particles mi! with air
E!plosions occur when the reactions become extremely rapid. *his usually
happens when there is good contact between reactant particles and when the
reaction is highly exothermic with high activation energy.
"nce the reaction is initiated, it liberates energy, which heats up the reaction
mixture. *his ma(es the reaction go faster, releasing energy more ,uic(ly, so
there is an extremely rapid escalation in temperature and reaction rate, causing
an explosion. #n order for the rate to increase this way there must be a good
supply of oxygen available to fuel, otherwise a limiting amount of oxygen will slow
down the reaction.
Large lumps of fuel such as coal rarely explode because they rapidly use up the
oxygen available ate their surfaces. 7owever, very small particles of flammable
material dispersed through a volume of air have great potential for causing
explosions. *he total surface area of the particles is large and each particle has a
ready supply of oxygen.
Conse,uently, one aspect of providing safe wor(ing conditions is ensuring that
there can be no build up of concentrations of flammable substances. Dormation of
flammable dust should be minimised, and what does form must be efficiently
removed from the air.