9/3/2014 Lesson4:CoagulationandFlocculation

http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/env110/Lesson4_print.htm 1/10
Lesson4:
CoagulationandFlocculation
Objective
Inthislessonwewillanswerthefollowingquestions:
Howdocoagulationandflocculationfitintothewatertreatmentprocess?
Whichchemicalprinciplesinfluencecoagulationandflocculation?
Whichchemicalsareusedincoagulation?
Whatfactorsinfluencecoagulationandflocculation?
ReadingAssignment
Alongwiththeonlinelesson,readChapter4:CoagulationandFlocculation,inyourtextbook
OperationofWaterTreatmentPlantsVolumeI.
Lecture
OverviewoftheProcess
LocationintheTreatmentPlant
Afterthesourcewaterhasbeenscreenedandhaspassedthroughtheoptionalstepsofpre
chlorinationandaeration,itisreadyforcoagulationandflocculation.

Intheoryandatthechemicallevel,coagulationandflocculationisathreestepprocess,consistingof
flashmixing,coagulation,andflocculation.However,inpracticeinthetreatmentplant,thereare
onlytwostepsinthecoagulation/flocculationprocessthewaterfirstflowsintotheflashmix
chamber,andthenenterstheflocculationbasin.
Inthislesson,wewillprimarilybeconcernedwiththetheorybehindcoagulation/flocculation.In
laterlessons,wewillconsiderthepracticeinmoredetail.

9/3/2014 Lesson4:CoagulationandFlocculation
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Purpose
Theprimarypurposeofthecoagulation/flocculationprocessistheremovalofturbidityfromthe
water.Turbidityisacloudyappearanceofwatercausedbysmallparticlessuspendedtherein.
Waterwithlittleornoturbiditywillbeclear.

Turbidityisnotonlyanaestheticprobleminwater.Waterwithahighturbiditycanbeverydifficult
orimpossibletoproperlydisinfect.Asaresult,themaximumallowablelevelofturbidityinwateris
0.5NTU,whiletherecommendedlevelisabout0.1NTU.(NTU,orTU,standsfornephelometric
turbidityunits,ameasurementoftheturbidityofwater.)
Inadditiontoremovingturbidityfromthewater,coagulationandflocculationisbeneficialinother
ways.Theprocessremovesmanybacteriawhicharesuspendedinthewaterandcanbeusedto
removecolorfromthewater.
Turbidityandcoloraremuchmorecommoninsurfacewaterthaningroundwater.Assurfacewater
flowsoverthegroundtostreams,throughstreams,andthenthroughrivers,thewaterpicksupalarge
quantityofparticles.Asaresult,whileaerationismorecommonlyrequiredforgroundwater,
treatmentinvolvingcoagulationandflocculationistypicalofsurfacewater.

ThreeSteps
AsImentionedabove,thechemistryofcoagulation/flocculationconsistsofthreeprocessesflash
mix,coagulation,andflocculation.Eachoftheseprocessesisbrieflyexplainedbelow.
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Intheflashmixer,coagulantchemicalsareaddedtothewaterandthewaterismixedquicklyand
violently.Thepurposeofthisstepistoevenlydistributethechemicalsthroughthewater.Flash
mixingtypicallylastsaminuteorless.Ifthewaterismixedforlessthanthirtyseconds,thenthe
chemicalswillnotbeproperlymixedintothewater.However,ifthewaterismixedformorethan
sixtyseconds,thenthemixerbladeswillshearthenewlyformingflocbackintosmallparticles.
Afterflashmixing,coagulationoccurs.Duringcoagulation,thecoagulantchemicalsneutralizethe
electricalchargesofthefineparticlesinthewater,allowingtheparticlestocomeclosertogetherand
formlargeclumps.Youmayalreadybefamiliarwiththeprocessofcoagulationfromcooking.You
canseecoagulationoccurringwhenpreparinggelatin(jello)orwhencookinganeggwhite.
Thefinalstepisflocculation.Duringflocculation,aprocessofgentlemixingbringsthefine
particlesformedbycoagulationintocontactwitheachother.Flocculationtypicallylastsforabout
thirtytofortyfiveminutes.Theflocculationbasinoftenhasanumberofcompartmentswith
decreasingmixingspeedsasthewateradvancesthroughthebasin.Thiscompartmentalizedchamber
allowsincreasinglylargefloctoformwithoutbeingbrokenapartbythemixingblades.

Floc
Theendproductofawellregulatedcoagulation/flocculationprocessiswaterinwhichthemajority
oftheturbidityhasbeencollectedintofloc,clumpsofbacteriaandparticulateimpuritiesthathave
cometogetherandformedacluster.Theflocwillthensettleoutinthesedimentationbasin,with
remainingflocbeingremovedinthefilter.

Thebestflocsizeis0.1to3mm.Largerflocdoesnotsettleaswellandismoresubjecttobreakup
intheflocculationbasin.Smallerflocalsomaynotsettle.

9/3/2014 Lesson4:CoagulationandFlocculation
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Chemistry
Introduction
Whydoweneedsuchacomplexprocesstoremoveparticlesfromwater?Someparticleswould
settleoutofthewaterontheirown,givenenoughtime.Butotherparticleswouldresistsettlingfor
daysormonthsduetosmallparticlesizeandtoelectricalchargesbetweentheparticles.
Wewillconsiderthechemicalprocesseswhichpreventandaidsettlingbelow.Butfirst,wewilllist
thethreetypesofobjectswhichcanbefoundinwater.

ParticlesinWater
Therearethreetypesofobjectswhichcanbefoundinwater.Inorderfromsmallesttolargest,these
objectsarechemicalsinsolution,colloidalsolids,andsuspendedsolids.Coagulation/flocculation
willremovecolloidalandsuspendedsolidsfromwater.
Chemicalsinsolutionhavebeencompletelydissolvedinthewater.Theyareelectricallycharged
andcaninteractwiththewater,sotheyarecompletelystableandwillneversettleoutofthewater.
Chemicalsinsolutionarenotvisible,eitherusingthenakedeyeorusingamicroscope,andareless
than1Muinsize.(AMu,ormillimicron,isequalto0.000000039inches.)Anexampleofa
chemicalinsolutionissugarinwater.
Colloidalsolids,alsoknownasnonsettleablesolids,donotdissolveinwateralthoughtheyare
electricallycharged.Still,theparticlesaresosmallthattheywillnotsettleoutofthewatereven
afterseveralyearsandtheycannotberemovedbyfiltrationalone.Colloidalsolidsrangebetween1
and500Muinsizeandcanbeseenonlywithahighpoweredmicroscope.Examplesinclude
bacteria,fineclays,andsilts.Colloidalsolidsoftencausecoloredwater,suchasthe"teacolor"of
swampwater.
Finally,suspended,orsettleable,solidswillsettleoutofwaterovertime,thoughthismaybeso
slowthatitisimpracticaltomerelyallowtheparticlestosettleoutinawatertreatmentplant.The
particlesaremorethan1,000Muinsizeandcanbeseenwithamicroscopeor,sometimes,withthe
nakedeye.Examplesofsuspendedsolidsincludesandandheavysilts.

ElectricalCharges
Thechemistryofcoagulationandflocculationisprimarilybasedonelectricity.Electricityisthe
behaviorofnegativeandpositivelychargedparticlesduetotheirattractionandrepulsion.Like
charges(twonegativelychargedparticlesortwopositivelychargedparticles)repeleachotherwhile
oppositecharges(apositivelychargedparticleandanegativelychargedparticle)attract.
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Negativelychargedparticlesrepeleachotherduetoelectricity.
Mostparticlesdissolvedinwaterhaveanegativecharge,sotheytendtorepeleachother.Asa
result,theystaydispersedanddissolvedorcolloidalinthewater,asshownabove.
Thepurposeofmostcoagulantchemicalsistoneutralizethenegativechargesontheturbidity
particlestopreventthoseparticlesfromrepellingeachother.Theamountofcoagulantwhichshould
beaddedtothewaterwilldependonthezetapotential,ameasurementofthemagnitudeof
electricalchargesurroundingthecolloidalparticles.Youcanthinkofthezetapotentialasthe
amountofrepulsiveforcewhichkeepstheparticlesinthewater.Ifthezetapotentialislarge,then
morecoagulantswillbeneeded.
Coagulantstendtobepositivelycharged.Duetotheirpositivecharge,theyareattractedtothe
negativeparticlesinthewater,asshownbelow.

Positivelychargedcoagulantsattracttonegatively
chargedparticlesduetoelectricity.
Thecombinationofpositiveandnegativechargeresultsinaneutral,orlack,ofcharge.Asaresult,
theparticlesnolongerrepeleachother.
ThenextforcewhichwillaffecttheparticlesisknownasvanderWaal'sforces.VanderWaal's
forcesrefertothetendencyofparticlesinnaturetoattracteachotherweaklyiftheyhavenocharge.
9/3/2014 Lesson4:CoagulationandFlocculation
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NeutrallychargedparticlesattractduetovanderWaal'sforces.
Oncetheparticlesinwaterarenotrepellingeachother,vanderWaal'sforcesmaketheparticlesdrift
towardeachotherandjointogetherintoagroup.Whenenoughparticleshavejoinedtogether,they
becomeflocandwillsettleoutofthewater.

Particlesandcoagulantsjoin
togetherintofloc.

CoagulantChemicals
TypesofCoagulants
Coagulantchemicalscomeintwomaintypesprimarycoagulantsandcoagulantaids.Primary
coagulantsneutralizetheelectricalchargesofparticlesinthewaterwhichcausestheparticlesto
clumptogether.Coagulantaidsadddensitytoslowsettlingflocsandaddtoughnesstotheflocsso
thattheywillnotbreakupduringthemixingandsettlingprocesses.
Primarycoagulantsarealwaysusedinthecoagulation/flocculationprocess.Coagulantaids,in
contrast,arenotalwaysrequiredandaregenerallyusedtoreduceflocculationtime.
Chemically,coagulantchemicalsareeithermetallicsalts(suchasalum)orpolymers.Polymersare
manmadeorganiccompoundsmadeupofalongchainofsmallermolecules.Polymerscanbeeither
cationic(positivelycharged),anionic(negativelycharged),ornonionic(neutrallycharged.)The
tablebelowshowsmanyofthecommoncoagulantchemicalsandlistswhethertheyareusedas
primarycoagulantsorascoagulantaids.
Differentsourcesofwaterneeddifferentcoagulants,butthemostcommonlyusedarealumandferric
sulfate.
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ChemicalName ChemicalFormula PrimaryCoagulant CoagulantAid
Aluminumsulfate(Alum) Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
14H
2
O X
Ferroussulfate FeSO
4
7H
2
O X
Ferricsulfate Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
9H
2
O X
Ferricchloride FeCl
3
6H
2
O X
Cationicpolymer Various X X
Calciumhydroxide(Lime) Ca(OH)
2
X* X
Calciumoxide(Quicklime) CaO X* X
Sodiumaluminate Na
2
Al
2
O
4
X* X
Bentonite Clay X
Calciumcarbonate CaCO
3
X
Sodiumsilicate Na
2
SiO
3
X
Anionicpolymer Various X
Nonionicpolymer Various X
*Usedasaprimarycoagulantonlyinwatersofteningprocesses.

Alum
Thereareavarietyofprimarycoagulantswhichcanbeusedinawatertreatmentplant.Oneofthe
earliest,andstillthemostextensivelyused,isaluminumsulfate,alsoknownasalum.Alumcanbe
boughtinliquidformwithaconcentrationof8.3%,orindryformwithaconcentrationof17%.
Whenalumisaddedtowater,itreactswiththewaterandresultsinpositivelychargedions.

CoagulantAids
Nearlyallcoagulantaidsareveryexpensive,socaremustbetakentousetheproperamountofthese
chemicals.Inmanycases,coagulantaidsarenotrequiredduringthenormaloperationofthe
treatmentplant,butareusedduringemergencytreatmentofwaterwhichhasnotbeenadequately
treatedintheflocculationandsedimentationbasin.Acoupleofcoagulantaidswillbeconsidered
below.
Limeisacoagulantaidusedtoincreasethealkalinityofthewater.Theincreaseinalkalinityresults
inanincreaseinions(electricallychargedparticles)inthewater,someofwhicharepositively
charged.Thesepositivelychargedparticlesattractthecolloidalparticlesinthewater,formingfloc.
Bentoniteisatypeofclayusedasaweightingagentinwaterhighincolorandlowinturbidityand
mineralcontent.Thistypeofwaterusuallywouldnotformfloclargeenoughtosettleoutofthe
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water.Thebentonitejoinswiththesmallfloc,makingtheflocheavierandthusmakingitsettlemore
quickly.

FactorsInfluencingCoagulation
Introduction
Inawellrunwatertreatmentplant,adjustmentsareoftennecessaryinordertomaximizethe
coagulation/flocculationprocess.Theseadjustmentsareareactiontochangesintherawwater
enteringtheplant.Coagulationwillbeaffectedbychangesinthewater'spH,alkalinity,temperature,
time,velocityandzetapotential.
TheeffectivenessofacoagulantisgenerallypHdependent.Waterwithacolorwillcoagulatebetter
atlowpH(4.46)withalum.
Alkalinityisneededtoprovideanions,suchas(OH)forforminginsolublecompoundstoprecipitate
themout.Itcouldbenaturallypresentinthewaterorneededtobeaddedashydroxides,carbonates,
orbicarbonates.Generally1partalumuses0.5partsalkalinityforpropercoagulation.
Thehigherthetemperature,thefasterthereaction,andthemoreeffectiveisthecoagulation.Winter
temperaturewillslowdownthereactionrate,whichcanbehelpedbyanextendeddetentiontime.
Mostly,itisnaturallyprovidedduetolowerwaterdemandinwinter.
Timeisanimportantfactoraswell.Propermixinganddetentiontimesareveryimportantto
coagulation.
Thehighervelocitycausestheshearingorbreakingofflocparticles,andlowervelocitywillletthem
settleintheflocculationbasins.Velocityaround1ft/secintheflocculationbasinsshouldbe
maintained.
Zetapotentialisthechargeattheboundaryofthecolloidalturbidityparticleandthesurrounding
water.Thehigherthechargethemoreistherepulsionbetweentheturbidityparticles,lessthe
coagulation,andviceversa.Higherzetapotentialrequiresthehighercoagulantdose.Aneffective
coagulationisaimedatreducingzetapotentialchargetoalmost0.

Coagulant
Thepropertypeandconcentrationofcoagulantareessentialtothecoagulationprocess.The
coagulantchoicewilldependontheconditionsattheplant.Theconcentrationofcoagulantalso
dependsonthewaterconditions,andajartestcanbeusedtodeterminethecorrectconcentrationto
useatanygiventime.
Coagulantsareusuallyfedintothewaterusingagravimetricfeederorameteringpump.A
gravimetricfeederfeedsdrychemicalsintothewaterbyweight.Ameteringpumpfeedsawet
solution(aliquid)intothewaterbypumpingavolumeofsolutionwitheachstrokeorrotation.
Impropercoagulationrelatedtocoagulantmayresultfrom:
Usingoldchemicals
Usingthewrongcoagulant
Usingthewrongconcentrationofcoagulant.Thismayresultfromsettingthewrongfeedrate
onthegravimetricfeederormeteringpumporfromamalfunctionoftheequipment.
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CommonCoagulationandFlocculationProblems
Review
Coagulation/flocculationisaprocessusedtoremoveturbidity,color,andsomebacteriafromwater.
Intheflashmixchamber,chemicalsareaddedtothewaterandmixedviolentlyforlessthana
minute.Thesecoagulantsconsistofprimarycoagulantsand/orcoagulantaids.Then,inthe
flocculationbasin,thewaterisgentlystirredfor30to45minutestogivethechemicalstimetoact
andtopromoteflocformation.Theflocthensettlesoutinthesedimentationbasin.
Coagulationremovescolloidsandsuspendedsolidsfromthewater.Theseparticleshaveanegative
charge,sothepositivelychargedcoagulantchemicalsneutralizethemduringcoagulation.Then,
duringflocculation,theparticlesaredrawntogetherbyvanderWaal'sforces,formingfloc.The
coagulation/flocculationprocessisaffectedbypH,salts,alkalinity,turbidity,temperature,mixing,
andcoagulantchemicals.
References
AlabamaDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagement.1989.WaterWorksOperatorManual.
BelmontWaterTreatmentAssociation.1997.Coagulation.
Nearlyallofthesection"FactorsInfluencingCoagulation"isdrawndirectlyfromthis
site.
Kerri,K.D.2002.WaterTreatmentPlantOperation.CaliforniaStateUniversity:Sacramento.
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Assignments
Readaboutdetentiontimesonpage110ofyourtextandanswerthefollowingquestion:(25
points)
1. Awatertreatmentplanttreatsaflowof1.7MGD.Theflocculationbasinis6feetdeep,17feet
wideand40feetlong.Calculatethedetentiontimeinminutes.
Readaboutchemicalfeedersettingsonpage117ofyourtextandanswerthefollowing
question:(25points)
2. Theoptimumliquidalumdosefromthejartestsis10mg/L.Determinethesettingonthe
liquidalumchemicalfeederingallonsperdaywhentheflowis2.8MGD.Theliquidalum
deliveredtotheplantcontains4.83poundsofalumpergallonofliquidsolution.

3. Workthefollowingcrosswordpuzzlethatcomesfromdefinitionsinyourtextbook.Youmay
eitherprintthepuzzleout,completeitandmailorfaxbacktotheinstructororyoumaysend
anemailwiththecorrectanswersnumberedaccordingly.(50points)
Labs
Readthefollowingjartestlabprocedure.Youmayhavetestquestionscomefromthislab.

Quiz
AnswerthequestionsintheLesson4quiz.Whenyouhavegottenalltheanswerscorrect,printthe
pageandeithermailorfaxittotheinstructor.Youmayalsotakethequizonlineandsubmityour
gradedirectlyintothedatabaseforgradingpurposes.