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Deposition systems
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Vacuum seals and connections
Low and medi um vacuum el astomeri c O-
ri ngs
Qui ck-connect (KF) fl anges si mpli fy
mul ti pl e and compl ex connecti ons
Hi gh vacuum, l ow vapor pressure
greases used
Hi gh and ultra-hi gh vacuum: no grease or
elastomers!
high puri ty (OFHC) copper gaskets
kni fe-edge Conflat flanges
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Things to Watch for in Vacuum Systems
Real Leaks
Virtual Leaks
Water Leaks
Oil Contamination
Finger Prints
Organic Materials that Outgas
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Equipment configuration in an
evaporation deposition system
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5
Various thermal evaporators
Tungsten wire coils and baskets are very simple -- liquid is
held in place by surface tension
Useful for flash evaporation, but precise control is difficult
A dimpled boat (usually W, Ta or Mo) offers somewhat
more control (cutouts provide high resistance regions)
Both have the problem of metallic contamination
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Evaporation
First level: steady state streams pressure for anyone
materials is equal to
If Pressure known => Evaporation Temperature obtained.
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7
Evaporation -- 2
*******************
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Energy of interacting atoms
Gases and solids
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9
Evaporation -- 3
q
chem
>q
phys
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P-V-T behavior of a fixed
amount of a pure material
shows a characteristic
behavior (right)
evaporation (L V )
sublimation (S V )
The vapor pressure over a
liquid is given by:

=

NkT
H
T C P
v
e
exp
2 1 2 3
0
surface tension enthalpy of evaporation
Evaporation processes
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11
Deposition rates --1
The impingement rate (molecules cm
-2
sec
-1
) was given by
MkT
P
J

=
2
developed from the kinetic theory of
gases, but perfectly applicable to
evaporation from a solid or liquid source
The mass evaporation rate (g cm
-2
sec
-1
) is
e M
P
kT
M
R

=
2
this is the evaporation rate at the source

what is the rate at the receiving surface?

The mass loss rate of the source (g sec
-1
) is given by
A
T
P
k
M
dA
T
P
k
M
R
e e
ML

=

2 2
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Deposition rates --2
The net deposition rate is
given by
2 2
4 2 r
A
T
P
k
M
R
e
d

=
density of
the film
materials
properties
of the film
temperature
and
vapor pressure
geometry of the
deposition
chamber
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Deposition rates --3
So much for the source -- how about the substrate?
Conditions that enhance the deposition rate
Wafers facing the source
Wafers directly above the source
Wafers close to the source
The obvious solution to obtain a high deposition
rate, put a wafer in close proximity to the source!
Problem -- we dont want to deposit onto a single wafer
How can we uniformly deposit onto multiple wafers?
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Evaporation
Evaporation rate (flux) from kinetic theory :
Where : P
vap
= vapor pressure (Torr)
M = molecular weight
cm
2
=> area of source
can be converted to mass flux:
Example: at P
vap
= 10
-2
torr, mass flux = 10
-4
grams/cm
2
sec
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15
Material transport to surface
line of sight deposition
want to avoid collisions in gas
long mean free path
good vacuum
let source to substrate distance (h)
for h of 10 - 100 cm, want P < 10
-5
torr
bigger h => lower P
Particles have energies comparable to
evaporation temperature
1000
O
C is about 0.2 eV
distribution of evaporant
depends on geometry of source
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Source geometry --1
Point Source
= tilt of dA
S
from radial direction
projection of dA
S
onto sphere of radius r = dA
S
cos
dM
S
= mass hitting dA
S
M
e
= total evaporated mass
Distribution depends on r and !!!
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Source geometry --2
Surface Source
This is equivalent to
Knudsen cell
if directions are random, only dA
S
cos/4r
2
are headed in right direction integrate over
time and source:
Distribution depends on horizontal position.
Greater n => more directed evaporation
Experimentally observe:
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Thickness --1
Since dM/dA
s
depends on r, , f, so does film thickness (d)
consider flat substrate, perpendicular to source
for this geometry: q = f , cos = h/r , r = (h
2
+ l
2
)
1/2
=>
10
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Thickness --2
Point source: Surface source:
Surface source has slightly poorer thickness uniformity
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Improve thickness uniformity
use multiple sources
move substrate during deposition
use rotating mask
(to reduce evaporate near center)
Put source and
substrate on the same
sphere surface
oNo dependence on , f, or r !!!
decrease sample size (l)
increase distance to substrate (h)
need bigger chamber
need better vacuum
wastes evaporant
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The geometry of deposition
R r
r

arbitrary orientation
deposition rate depends on
R, and f
wafers placed on
spherical surface
cos = cos f = R/2r
geometric effects cancel!
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The geometry of deposition -- 2
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Step coverage
Evaporation is a line-of-sight process that can lead
to poor coverage of surface topographic features
per fect step cover age poor cover age (thin layer ) poor cover age (thick layer )
incident flux
direction
Shadowing due to surface topography leads to non-
uniform deposition in thin layers
Thick layers may exhibit self-shadowing as excess
material builds up at edges
Can be improved by rotating the substrate and heating
it during deposition (enhancing surface diffusion)
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Sputter deposition
More widely used than evaporative processes (high
deposition rates, large number of materials that can
be deposited, better step coverage)
Glow discharge plasmas (DC and RF) are
universally used to perform the sputtering process
Subjects to be covered:
review of the physics of sputtering
sputtering methods (especially magnetron)
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Diode Sputtering
Potential distribution
Ionization
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Plasmas -- the DC Glow Discharge
The interactions between electrons and ions, the fact
that they have much different masses, and various
requirements based in electrodynamics results in a
series of both glowing and dark spaces in the normal
glow regime of a DC discharge
cathode
anode
positive column --
most near ly like a
simple plasma
cathode glow -- incoming
dischar ge ions and positive
ion produced at the cathode
ar e neutr alized
cathode (Cr ooke) dar k space --
secondar y electrons r epelled by
the cathode gener ate a sheath
of positive ions
negative glow -- electrons
r epelled by the cathode and
ions r ecombine
anode dar k space -- anode
is a sink for electrons, so
little emission occur s
Far aday dar k space -- a
near ly field-fr ee r egion;
electr ically connects the
negative glow to the
positive column
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DC glow discharge
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DC sputter deposition
A DC sputtering system is similar
to a plasma etching system
two electrodes (anode &
cathode)
low pressure gas (usually Ar
+
for
sputtering)
power supply
In an etching system the material
to be etched is placed at the
cathode
In a sputter deposition system
the sputter target is placed at the
cathode, and the wafers being
deposited are at the anode
cathode
anode
reduced
pressure gas
Schematic of a DC
sputtering system
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DC planar diode sputter source
Consider the operation of a simple DC planar diode
sputter source:
Electrons emitted by the cathode by
ion bombardment enter the negative
glow region and produce ions that
sustain the discharge
At low pressures, ions are produced
far from the cathode and are lost
At high pressures, the transport of
sputtered ions is reduced by gas-
phase scattering
Thus the maximum deposition rate
that can be achieved is limited by
the physics of the glow discharge
cathode (target)
anode
e
-
e
-
e
-
e
-
Schematic illustration of some
of the most important processes
in planar diode sputtering
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At radio frequencies (13.56 MHz) the
powered electrode will develop a net
negative charge (the self-bias) due
to the difference in the mobilities
between electrons and ions
Positive ions will bombard the
powered electrode, thus leading to
sputtering of this target
The substrates to be coated are then
placed at the grounded electrode (or
anywhere else in the chamber)
RF sputter deposition
AC power source
blocking capacitor
to prevent current
flow (important!)
electrons
ions
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Magnetrons
A magnetron is a diode sputtering source
in which magnetic fields are used in concert
with the cathode surface to form electron
traps
These traps are configured so the EB
electron drift currents close on themselves
Magnetrons offer numerous advantages as
sputter sources and are almost universally
used in all phases of semiconductor
materials processing
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Diode magnetron schematic
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Properties of sputter-deposited films
The basic model for the structure of sputter-deposited
metallic films was developed by Movchan and Demchishin
(modified by Thornton)
homologous temperature
T/T
m
(in K, not C)
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Electron-Beam Evaporation
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Pulsed Laser Deposition --1
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Pulsed Laser Deposition --2
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MBE reactor system schematic
liquid N
2
in
liquid N
2
out
effusion cells
shutter
substrate
heater
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MBE system characteristics
ultra-high vacuum deposition (base pressure
~10
-10
torr)
ion pumps, cryopumps, turbomolecular
pumps
liquid nitrogen cryopanels
physical vapor deposition from effusion cells or
e-beam evaporators
high purity elemental sources
sample heating and temperature monitoring
in situ diagnostics (in situ = in its natural or
original position)
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A typical III-V MBE system (front view)
load lock
RHEED
screen
UHV transfer
mechanism
ion pump
cabinet
quadrupole mass
spectrometer
extra port
(e-beam)
analysis/prep
chamber
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Chemical vapor depozition
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Typical CVD reactions
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Film growth
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Ultra-high vacuum chemical vapor
deposition (UHV-CVD)
UHV-CVD growth of silicon is performed in systems
with a base pressure of better than 10
-9
torr
Growth takes place at a pressure ~10
-3
torr using
SiH
4
or GeH
4
UHV-CVD can produce high quality epitaxial
films at low temperatures (down to 450C!!)
less
interdiffusion
sharper
interfaces
better alloy
growth (SiGe)
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Halide VPE growth of GaAs
gas exhaust
Ga-source
heater
substrate
heater
AsCl
3
, H
2
AsCl
3
, H
2
Ga source
substrate
Halide vapor transport has been used to grow single crystal
GaAs since the early 1960s
Gallium is placed in a source boat at the high-temperature
(850C) entrance to reactor
One reaction: 4AsCl
3
+6H
2
12HCl + As
4
(forms high-purity
GaAs crust)
HCl then can react to form volatile GaCl:
GaAs(s) + HCl(g) GaCl(g) +H
2
(g) + As
4
(g)
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Hydride growth of GaAs
In the hydride process the GaCl is generated directly by
passing HCl over a liquid Ga source
Arsenic generated by thermal cracking of AsH
3
GaCl, H
2
and arsenic react to form GaAs and HCl
Supersaturation achieved by injection of AsH
3
and HCl,
so a thermodynamically-imposed thermal gradient is not
required
gas exhaust
substrate
heater
HCl, H
2
AsH
3
, H
2
Ga source
substrate
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Definitions and terminology
Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition is a
vapor-phase deposition process
The acronyms MOCVD OMCVD MOVPE
OMVPE are interchangeable and describe the same
process
The simplest reaction for III-V semiconductors can be
written as:
R
3
X + YH
3
XY + 3RH
where R is an organic radical (methyl, ethyl, butyl,
etc.), X is the Group III element (Ga, In, Al), and Y is
the Group V element (As, P, Sb)
Example: trimethylgallium and arsine:
(CH
3
)
3
Ga + AsH
3
GaAs + 3CH
4
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MOCVD reactor system schematic
(simplified schematic)
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A typical MOCVD reactor system
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Comparison of Typical Thin Film
Deposition Technology