Tanabe Why Is The Buddha Śākyamuni Accompanied by Hercules Vajrapā I

Why Is the Buddha kyamuni Accompanied by Hercules/Vajrapi?
Farewell to Yaka-theory
Author(s): Katsumi Tanabe
Reviewed work(s):
Source: East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pp. 363-381
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)
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Why
Is the Buddha
S?kyamuni Accompanied
by Hercules/Vajrap?ni?
Farewell to
Yaksa-theory
by
Katsumi Tanabe
Introductory
Remarks
In the Gandharan Buddhist
reliefs,
the Buddha
??kyamuni
is
represented,
as a
rule, accompanied
or
followed
by
a male
figure (Fig.
1)
holding
a
vajra (=
thunderbolt)
in his
hand, traditionally
called
Vajrap?ni
(thunderbolt-bearer).
This
male
figure
has attracted the attention of
many
scholars since the
discovery
of
Gandharan
sculptures
in the 19th
century.
A.
Cunningham
identified him as
Devadatta,
while A. Gr?nwedel
suggested
it was
possibly
Indra or M?ra
P?piy?n
or
Vajrap?ni (Cunningham
before
1893,
mentioned
by
Gr?nwedel 1893:
88;
1901:
87-95,
figs.
42-46;
Santoro 1979:
294,
n.
4). However,
Oldenburg
(1901: 223)
definitively
identified the male
figure
as
Vajrap?ni
(this
identification
was soon
followed
by
Senart
1905;
Vogel
1909 and Foucher 1905:
277;
1918:
48-64,
figs.
326
334).
Finally
Lamotte
(1966)
and Santoro
(1991)
contributed
a
long
exhaustive and
detailed article to
clarifying
many problems concerning
this
enigmatic Vajrap?ni.
Therefore,
it
might
be considered
pointless
for me to contribute
a short article to
solve the
problem
of Gandharan
Vajrap?ni.
However,
as
Santoro
(1991: 293)
correctly remarks,
the
problem
of the identification and function of Gandharan
Vajrap?ni
is still not
completely
solved. That is to
say,
the reason
why
the
image
of
Hercules
was
consciously
chosen and
intentionally exploited by
Gandharan
sculptors
in order to
depict Vajrap?ni
is not at all clear.
It
goes
without
saying
that the
physical type
of
Vajrap?ni
was
fundamentally
derived from that of Hercules.
However,
no
scholar has ever
given any convincing
explanation
of the most
important problem why
the
image
of Hercules was
preferred by
Gandharan
sculptors
to other Greek
gods, demi-gods
and heroes.
Needless to
say,
there
are several
proposed
solutions to this
problem (equating
the
function of Hercules with that of Yaksa
Vajrap?ni
=
Guhyak?dipati; familiarity
with
Hercules in Gandh?ra
as a
protector
of
legitimate kingship
and so
forth,
cf. Santoro
1979:
293-302). However,
in
my opinion,
all the
arguments
hitherto
put
forward
are
not
only excessively
Indian-oriented but also
exclusively preoccupied with,
if we
[i]
363
Fig.
1-
Vajrap?ni
beside the Buddha.
(Formerly
in Kabul Museum).
follow Santoro's
expression,
the bel?
licose and
quasi-martial
character of
Hercules. Needless to
say,
this charac?
teristic is desirable but not a
pre?
requisite
for the creation of
Vajrap?ni.
In
my opinion
this is indeed the
approach
that has led all the scholars in
the
wrong
direction. In this short
paper
dedicated to the
memory
of the late
Prof. Maurizio Taddei I take
a com?
pletely
different and
unprecedented
approach
to avoid the
age-old
mistake
and
give
a more
plausible
solution to
this
thorny problem.
1.
Types of Vajrap?ni
Typologically speaking,
there
are
several
types
of Gandharan
Vajrap?ni,
as
exemplified by
Gr?nwedel and
Foucher,
such
as
the
Silenus-type, Satyr
type, Eros-type, Zeus-type, Dionysos?
type, Pan-type, Hermes-type,
Hercules
type
and
lastly
Alexander the
Great-type
(Gr?nwedel
1901:
88,
fig.
42;
Foucher
1918:
figs.
326-32;
Fischer 1983:
68,
figs.
1-2;
Mustamandy
1984:
177,
figs.
1-5;
Tarzi
2000:
167-70,
pis.
3-4).
In addition to
these,
there is the
Kushan-type (Fig.
2),
which
is attested
by
some
Kapishan reliefs,
where
Vajrap?ni
wears Kushan dress
(Gaulier,
Jera-Bezard
& Maillard 1976:
figs.
16, 29).
Furthermore there are a
few
examples
of
Mathuran
Vajrap?ni (Klimburg-Salter
1995:
pi.
71)
which
might
have been
influenced
by
the Gandharan one
(Flood
1989:
18).
Although
there are various
types
of
Vajrap?ni,
the most
typical
and fundamental
physical
characteristics of this
acolyte
derived from those of Hercules whose
images
had been introduced into
Bactria and Gandh?ra
starting
with the invasions of Alexander the Great and the
Greco-Bactrians. This is
amply
attested
by
the tetradrachms of Alexander the Great
(beardless Hercules)
and also the ones
(Figs.
3-4)
issued
by Euthydemos
I
(bearded
Hercules
seated), Euthydemos
II
(beardless
Hercules
standing)
and Demetrios I
(beardless
Hercules
standing)
later followed
by
the
Indo-Scythians
(Maues, Azes)
and the Kushans
(Kujula-Kadphises,
Huviska) (Gardner
1886:
pis.
I
II,
XVI
5,
XIX
11,
XXI
9, 11-12,
XXV
1-4,
XXVII
15;
Rosenfield 1967:
77-78,
pis.
IV
73,
V
92;
Mitchiner 1979:
254-55;
Bopearachchi
1991:
pis.
2-5).
It is a
known fact that
some
of
the Gandharan
Vajrap?ni images
wear a
beard while others are beardless. The
364
[2]
Fig.
2
-
Vajrap?ni
beside the Buddha in nirvana.
(Formerly
in Kabul Museum).
Fig.
Fig.
1.3
;.4
-
Bearded Hercules
seated,
rev. of
Euthydemos
Fs tetradrachm.
-
Beardless Hercules
standing,
rev. of Demetrios Fs tetradrachm.
(Private collection).
(Private collection).
Fig.
5
-
The
Nativity
of the
Buddha,
Peshawar Museum.
(After Marshall 1960:
fig.
57).
existence of these two
types
of
Vajrap?ni images surely correspond
with the two
types
of Hercules of the Greco-Bactrians.
Therefore,
there is no doubt that the
image
of
Hercules/Vajrap?ni
is a new creation
properly
attributed to the Gandharan
Buddhist
art,
also
independently
of ancient Indian art and the
pre-Kushan
Buddhist
literary
sources,
as Senart
(1905: 316)
correctly
remarked.
The most
typical
attribute of the Gandharan and Mathuran
images
of
Vajrap?ni
is, apart
from the
lion-skin,
the so-called
vajra,
which
might
be
equated
with the
thunderbolt held
by
Zeus,
the
original thunder-god
(Czuma
1985:
pi.
15;
Bussagli
1996:
251-72;
Santoro 1991:
272-73). However,
this
weapon
must have first
belonged
to
Indra,
the most
powerful
warrior in Vedic times
(Fig. 5),
who is
considered
as a
thunder-god
and
rain-bringer
(Vrtrahan) (Konow
1930:
312-15;
Benveniste & Renou 1934:
128;
Renou & Filliozat 1947:
319, 492;
Zwalf 1996: 143
46,
pi.
136
depicting $ibi-]?taka). Although
the
vajra itself,
together
with its
unique
shape, might
have
originated
in Indian culture
(Stutley
1977:
320),
and is held
by
Indra in the relief
depicting
the latter
part
of the Visvantara
J?taka,
on the Northern
Gateway
of the Great
St?pa
at S?nchi and in other
episodes
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
and
j?takas
(Marshall 1960,
pi.
4,
fig.
6;
Lamotte 1966:
118),
it
by
no
means reveals all the secrets and riddles of
Vajrap?ni,
who
curiously accompanies
366
[4]
only
the Buddha
S?kyamuni
in the
Gandharan,
Mathuran and Central Asian
Buddhist arts
(Gaulier, Jera-Bezar
& Maillard 1976:
pi.
73),
but not in ancient
Indian Buddhist art.
Furthermore, however,
in
my opinion,
it is
partly
to the
point
that
Vajrap?ni
seems to be the
successor
and
secondary
form of Indra
(Coomaraswamy
1931:
pi.
3,
N?g?rjunakonda;
Lamotte 1966:
120, 159).
As far
as
the ancient Indian schools of art are
concerned,
there is no extant
example
of
Vajrap?ni
(at Bh?rhut, S?nchi, Bodh-gay?
etc.).
In the Mathuran art of
the Kushan
period Vajrap?ni
is
rarely depicted
around the
Buddha,
and not at all in
pre-Kushan
art
(New Delhi,
National
Museum,
L.
55.25;
van Lohuizen-de Leeuw
1949:
figs.
33, 51;
Czuma 1985:
pis.
12, 15;
Klimburg-Salter
1995:
pi.
71). Therefore,
these Mathuran
pieces might
have been influenced
by
the Gandharan art as F.B.
Flood
(1989: 18)
correctly suggests.
The same holds true of the arts of South
India,
for
instance,
of those of Amar?vati and
N?g?rjunakonda,
because the
origin
of these
arts is
posterior
to that of Gandh?ra
(Lamotte
1965:
138).
Compared
with the arts of the Indian Subcontinent
proper,
it is
only
in the
Gandharan Buddhist art that
Vajrap?ni
was
amply exploited
and
exclusively
popular. Consequently
it is
enough
for us to confine ourselves
to the
investigation
into the Gandharan
images
of
Vajrap?ni
so
that
we can
clarify
the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni.
It is not
necessary
for
us to take into consideration the relation of
Vajrap?ni
to
Yaksa,
or
Guhyak?dipati
to Yaksa
Vajrap?ni,
who has been
regarded
by
many
scholars
as
the
origin
of Gandharan
Vajrap?ni,
because
Vajrap?ni
and
Yaksa
Guhyak?dipati
are
rarely
involved in the
literary
life
story
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni,
and
ultimately
could not
inspire
Gandharan
sculptors.
In
my opinion
the idea of
connecting
the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni exclusively
with the
Indian culture is off the mark and has led
our
predecessors
in the
wrong
direction.
Why
can I
say
this? Because the Gandharan
images
of
Vajrap?ni
reveal that
they
have
no Indian or Yaksa influence from the
iconographic viewpoint, except
for the
Indian
styled
loin-cloth. As is well
known,
Yaksas
(kings
of
Yaksas)
are often
depicted
like
an Indian
prince
or
king
in ancient Indian art
(P?rkham, Patna,
Bh?rhut
etc.;
Rowland 1968:
pis.
12(A), 13, 14(B)).
So their status could be
comparatively high
and
worthy
of the
name
of
demi-god, prince
or
king.
However,
if
we
look at the Yaksa
images represented
in Gandharan
sculptures, they
are not
royal
personages
and therefore their status is lowered and somewhat
disgraced.
With their
naked
body they
seem to be
ordinary
labourers
or
slaves
(aborigines)
subordinate to
a
god.
For
instance,
in the Great
Departure
scenes
(Fig.
6)
they
are
nothing
more
than humiliated naked
supporters
of the four hooves of Kanthaka.
Therefore it is
apparent
that the Gandharans did not venerate Yaksas
as demi?
gods
but classified them
as lower-class subordinate
beings. According
to
Foucher,
in
Gandh?ra the Yaksas were rather notorious for their
blood-thirsty
and carnivorous
character,
and also for their
wine-drinking
and
consequently they
were
disgraced,
not to
say despised
(Foucher
1905:
42).
This decline of social status or
the
humiliation of Yaksas is
quite
natural and reasonable in Gandh?ra because its
[5]
367
Fig.
6
-
The Great
Departure,
Indian Museum.
(After
Klimburg-Salter
1996:
pi.
161).
geographical
situation and environmental
surroundings
are
quite
different from
those of India
proper.
In Gandh?ra there
are
only
a
few dense forests where Yaksas
were believed to live but it is instead surrounded
by
arid and barren mountains
unsuitable
as an environment for such
beings.
Secondly,
as
said
before,
there is no extant
example
of
a
Gandharan
Vajrap?ni
image represented
as an Indian
royal prince.
All the extant ones are
depicted
in the
guise
of Greek
gods, demi-gods
and heroes. On the other
hand,
Yaksas
are
depicted
as
being
like ferocious
savages
undeserving
of
any
kind of veneration
(Foucher
1905:
fig.
252;
1918:
fig.
323).
These facts
prove
that the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni
and his
image,
despite
the Indian
appellation,
has
nothing
to do with the Indian Yaksa cult and
culture.
Probably,
the
figural image
of
Vajrap?ni
was
first invented
by
Gandharan
sculptors
and
was
later
adopted by
the Buddhist
Samgha
and
incorporated
into the
literature
containing
the life
story
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni. Many
scholars have
hitherto believed that
Vajrap?ni
first
appeared
in the Buddhist literature and after
that its
images
were created
by
Gandharan and Mathuran
sculptors
who referred to
368
[6]
the
description
of
Vajrap?ni
in the Buddhist
literary
sources.
However,
this
assumption
is not based
on
any
concrete
literary
evidence and therefore their
viewpoint
should be
rejected.
On the other
hand,
there is no
iconographic
connection between
Vajrap?ni
and
the Iranian
or
Kushan war
god Verethragna
=
Ushlagno, although
a
few
Kapishan
Vajrap?ni images
wear
Kushan dress
(Fig.
2)
being
devoid of a falcon
depicted
on
the head of
Ushlagno
(Rosenfield
1967:
pi.
IX
167, 168;
Gobi 1984:
pi.
170
Orlagno
1).
As for the
relationship
between Hercules and
Ushlagno,
Hercules is
identified rather with Oesho
as
the earliest
gold
issue of Kaniska I
suggests (Cribb
1997:
36,
fig.
Gl;
Takeuchi 1998:
figs.
3a-4b),
although
Hercules
seems to be
identified with
Oshlagno
in one
unique type
of Huviska
gold
coin
(Rosenfied
1967:
77-78,
pi.
IV
73;
Gobi 1984:
pi.
20.269).
In
any case,
neither
Verethragna
nor
Ushlagno
can be considered
as
inspirational
models for the
image
of
Vajrap?ni
because the
Kapishan Vajrap?nis
are rather
exceptional
and
display
a
regional
variation,
in addition to the fact that
they
do not
belong
to the earliest
period
of
Gandharan
sculpture.
Another old view
proposed by Spooner
and
partly accepted
by Oldenburg,
that is to
say,
the Avestan
frawasi theory
of
Vajrap?ni,
should be
discarded
as well
as Senart's and
Bussagli's personification
of the
magical
power
of
vajra
and the Buddha
(Senart
1905:
130;
Spooner
1916;
Oldenburg
1917:
131;
Bussagli 1996:387-88,251).
From the
foregoing
it is clear and reasonable that the
right
way
to search for the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni
should be confined to the Greek
mythology
with
many gods,
demi-gods
and
heroes,
but not Yaksas.
2.
Vajrap?ni
in the
Life-story of
the Buddha
^?kyamuni
In Gandharan narrative stone reliefs
Vajrap?ni
does not
accompany
the Buddha
3?kyamuni
before His Renunciation and Great
Departure
from
Kapilavastu
(Foucher
1918:
48).
This fact is
very important
for
our
investigation.
In the relevant
reliefs
depicting
such
episodes
as the Descent from the Tusita
Heaven,
the
Nativity
(Fig.
5),
the Return to
Kapilavastu,
the School
days,
the Presentation of Yasodhar?
to the
prince
Siddh?rtha and
so
forth,
which occurred before the Great
Renunciation and
Departure (Fig.
6),
we
rarely
see
Vajrap?ni accompanying
the
prince Siddh?rtha, except
for
one extant relief that is said to
depict Vajrap?ni
in
the Presentation of Yasodhar? to the
prince
Siddh?rtha
(Lamotte
1965:
137).
As
this
piece,
excavated from Butkara I
by
the Italian
Mission,
was
probably produced
comparatively
late in
Gandh?ra,
we can
exclude it from our
discussion
(Faccenna
1962:
46, pi.
CLXII; however,
the
present
author could not
recognize Vajrap?ni
in
the left
corner of the relevant
relief).
In the
Nativity
scene
(Fig.
5)
it is not
Vajrap?ni
but Indra that is
depicted holding
a
vajra (Marshall
1960:
pis.
34-35),
although
in this relief Indra's role is not to
guard
nor to
protect
the infant
[7]
369
Siddh?rtha but is
temporarily present
in order to
glorify
him. In
my opinion,
this is
also
a
quite important
fact for
clarifying
the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni
and his
image
as is
stated below.
After the Great
Departure,
in the scenes of the
Exchange
of
Clothes,
the First
Sermon,
the Visit of
Indra,
and
so
forth,
until the
Mah?parinirv?na
the Buddha
S?kyamuni
is,
in most
cases,
accompanied by Vajrap?ni although
his
accompaniment
is
rarely
mentioned in the
literary life-story
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni.
Needless to
say,
the
subjugation episode
of the
Dragon (N?gar?ja)
in Swat mentions the
accompaniment
of
Vajrap?ni,
but this
episode
is
surely
a
later invention when the
Buddha
images already
existed and His life
story
in stone was
popular
(Lamotte
1966:
132-36). Therefore,
this kind of
episode
does not
prove
the
priority
of
Vajrap?ni
in the Buddhist
literary
sources.
Generally speaking,
the total absence of
Vajrap?ni
in the
pre-Renunciation
life of
the Siddh?rtha in stone tallies
perfectly
with that in His
literary life-story.
In the
Lalitavistaray
the
Mah?vastu,
the
Vinaya
of the
M?lasarv?stiv?dins,
the Buddhacarita
and
so
forth
we have
not,
as a
rule,
recognized
the
participation
of
Vajrap?ni
in the
episodes
of the
prince
Siddh?rtha
except
for the Great
Departure
narrated in the
Lalitavistaray Chapt.
XV:
Les dieux de la terre et de
l'atmosphere,
ainsi
que
les Gardiens du
monde,
Sakra le
maitre des dieux avec sa suit
[...]
Et le maitre
magnanime
des
Guhyakas,
lui
aussi,
portant
un foudre
br?lant,
se tient dans
Pair,
le
corps
revetu d'une
cuirasse,
doue
de
force,
[...]
tenat avec la main foudre etincelant.
(Foucaux
1884:
193;
Lamotte
1965:
121).
In this
description,
the existence of Yaksa
Guhyak?dipati holding
a
vajra
is
clearly
mentioned and this
might be,
at first
sight, satisfactory
evidence
confirming
that
Vajrap?ni appeared
in the Buddhist
literary
sources earlier than in
the Gandharan narrative reliefs.
However,
he is said to wear a suit of
armour.
None of the Gandharan and Mathuran
images
of
Vajrap?ni
wear
any
armour
(Gr?nwedel
1901:
88,
fig.
42). Therefore,
this
description
is
definitely
much later
and must be
a later
interpolation.
It is therefore not to be taken into
consideration,
because
Vajrap?ni
is not mentioned in the Great
Departure
of the
two Chinese versions of the
Lalitavistaray
the
Puyao jing
(translated
in
308)
and
the
Fangguang
da
zhuangyan jing
(translated
in
683) (Tais?
Tripitakay
Vol. 3: 504
506, 572-76).
The same
holds true for the relevant
passages
of the
Vinaya
of the
M?lasarv?stiv?dins and its Chinese
version,
the Genben shuo
yiqie youbu pinaiye
po sengshi
(translated
in the late 7th
or
early
8th
century
A.D.) (Gnoli
1977:
88-89;
Tais?
Tripitaka,
Vol. 24:
116-17).
In order to further corroborate
my interpretation,
I will take into account the
case of Kuvera/Vaisravana in the Great
Departure.
In the relevant
passage
of the
Vinaya
of the
M?lasarv?stiv?dins,
those who
guide
the
prince
Siddh?rtha and
Kanthaka are
Kuvera,
Indra and Brahm?
(m?rgam svayam darsayate
kuberah sakras
370
[8]
Fig.
7
-
The Great
Departure,
National Museum of Pakistan. (After
NHK 1998:
pi.
87).
tath?
brahmasahiya
eva,
Gnoli 1977:
89;
Tanabe 1993/94:
169;
2000:
1089).
The
same three deities are also mentioned in the Chinese version
(Genben
shuo
yiqie
youbu pinaiye po sengshi)
(Tais?
Tripitaka,
Vol. 24:
117a).
These three deities
are
depicted
in a Great
Departure
relief
(Fig.
7)
housed in the National Museum of
Pakistan in Karachi
(No.
N.M.P.
1982).
In this relief Kuvera
holding
a
bow in his
left hand and
showing
the
way
with his
right,
is
depicted
in front of
Kanthaka,
while
Brahma without
a
turban and Indra
wearing
a
turban are
depicted
on the left
extremity. Although
Indra is
depicted,
he is not the
guide
or
protector
of
prince
Siddh?rtha but is
simply venerating
and
praising
the
prince
who is about to leave the
secular life. On the other
hand,
in the
Lalitavistara, Chapt.
XV the name of the
guide
is
Vaisravana,
not
Kuvera,
although
Indra,
together
with
Brahma,
is mentioned
as
having opened
the Gate of
Kapilavastu
(Foucaux
1884:
194).
In its Chinese version
(Puyao fing),
Vaisravana and Indra are said to have
guided
Siddh?rtha
(Tais?
Tripitaka,
Vol. 3:
507b). Therefore,
as in the
case of
Kuvera/Vaisravana,
the
literary
description corresponds
to the
sculptural representation. Conversely,
there is no
such
correspondence
in the
case
of
Vajrap?ni. Consequently,
it is clear that the
guard
and
guide
named as
Vajrap?ni
did not exist
originally
either in the
literary
nor
the
figural
Great
Departures.
It is not
Vajrap?ni
but Indra that is
actually
involved in
the Great
Departure
as
another,
secondary guide
and
guard
of Siddh?rtha
as is clear
from the
descriptions
in the
Vinaya
of the M?lasarv?stiv?dins and the
Puyao fing.
However,
Indra is not
depicted
as
the
guide
or
protector
of the
prince
in the
relevant relief
(Fig.
7).
This difference between the
literary
tradition and the
figural
representation
is
quite interesting.
In
my opinion,
it is in this
dichotomy
that the
secret of
Vajrap?ni
is hidden. The most crucial
problem,
then,
is the fact that
Gandharan
sculptors intentionally replaced
Indra
by
Hercules in another relief of
the Great
Departure (Fig.
6).
In the above
arguments,
we must take into account both Hermes and
Hercules,
who
correspond exactly
to Kuvera
(Vaisravana)
and Indra
(Vajrap?ni).
371
3. The Role
of
Hercules and His Guest and
Companion,
Hermes
Hercules is a
famous wanderer who traveled all over the world in search of the
Apple
of
Hesperides (Immortality)
and
consequently
came to be
regarded
as savior
and averter of evil
{Harper
s
Dictionary of
Classical Literature and
Antiquities,
1965:
791-93).
In this
sense
he is the most
appropriate
Greek
hero-god
to be
employed
as
the
guide
and
guard
of
S?kyamuni,
who also traveled over the
Jambudvipa
to
preach
his Law.
Especially
if several Greek
myths
that Hercules exterminated ferocious
animals
or monsters such
as
the Nemean
Lion,
Hydra,
Wild
Boar,
Cerberos and
so
forth
symbolize
Hercules' role of
eliminating
evils and
dangers
from
highways,
Hercules
might
have been
regarded by
the Gandharan Buddhists
as
the most
suitable
acolyte
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni.
Conversely,
Yaksa is not a
traveler,
and therefore is not suitable for
being
a
guide.
Hercules is also
a
chthonic
deity visiting
the Underworld of Hades and
taking
away Cerberos,
or
bringing
back
Alkestis,
the
self-sacrificing
wife of the
egoistic
king
Admetos from the Underworld
(Andreae
1963:
40-45,
fig.
3; LIMC,
Vol. I:
536-39,
Vol. V: Alkestis
16-48).
Chthonic Hercules is
depicted
in the Roman
sarcophagae
in the Museo Nuovo
Capitolino
and Museo Torlonia in Rome
(Haarlov
1977:
figs.
35, 42).
In the Velletri
sarcophagus
chthonic Hercules is
represented together
with
Hermes
psychopompos
(as
for Hercules' chthonic
character, Bayet
1921/22:
263-64;
1923).
Hermes is
regarded
as a
guest
of Hercules and is often likened to Hercules
(Zanker
1965:
16-18; LIMC,
Vol. V:
166-67;
Vol. IV:
758,
no.
591, 773,
nos.
926a,
b).
Hermes is a
helper
and
companion
of Hercules
(von
Schroeder 1914:
12).
In
figural
art,
Hercules is sometimes
depicted together
with Hermes as in a
fifth
century
Greek
plate painting (Brygos-painter)
and on
several Etruscan mirrors
(Bayet
1926:
54, 164, 179,
pi.
Vila;
Neumann 1965:
15,
fig.
4,
British
Museum).
Hermes was
quite
often venerated with
Hercules,
as
both
were
protectors
of
youth,
'the first
presiding
over
eloquence
and the second
over
physical strength'
(Carabatea
1997:140).
In the Velletri
sarcophagus (Fig.
8)
Hercules
wearing
a
lion-skin and
holding
a
club is
leading
a woman
(Alkestis)
out of the
half-open
door of Hades
while Hermes is
taking
a man out of the
half-open
door
(Haarlov
1977:
26,
ills.
22-23;
LIMC,
Vol. V:
403,
Alkestis
21).
In the Roman tomb
painting (Fig.
9)
of Nasonii
Hercules and Hermes are
depicted together leaving
the Underworld of Hades
taking
multi-headed Cerberos
(Reinach 1922,
fig.
189.7;
Andreae 1963:
102, 124,
pi.
57).
On the reverse of
an
orichalcum sestertius of Tiberius
(A.D. 35-37)
the
Temple
of
Concord is
represented
at the base of the
Capitoline Hill,
and at the front entrance
of this
temple
both Hermes and Hercules
appear
as if
they
formed
a
pair
(Vermeule
1957:
284,
pi.
15,6).
As is clear from these
examples
Hercules is also
psychopompos
as
well
as
Hermes. Sometimes Hercules is
depicted
on behalf of Hermes in Roman art
(Andreae
1963:
41,
fig.
3).
In another Roman
sarcophagus
from the
Augustan period
372
[10]
^^^^^^^
^^^^^
^^j^^
jjj^^
^^^^^^
Fig.
8
-
Chthonic Hercules
guiding Alkestis,
the Velletri
sarcophagus.
(After
Andreae 1963:
pi.
8).
Fig.
9
-
Hercules and Hermes in the Hades'
Underground.
(After
Reinach 1922:
fig.
189.7).
both Hercules and Hermes escort the souls of the dead
family traveling
on a
boat to the Other World
(Erysium)
(Andreae
1963:
63,
pi.
35.1).
According
to
H.
Wagenvoort,
Hermes was considered the
guide (\|A)X07t0Li7i?c,)
of the souls on their
journey
to
the
Underworld,
Hercules had
previously
been
regarded
as the
right guide
(rryeiiov)
to the
paradise
in the far West
(Isle
of the
Blessed,
Isle of the
Erythreia,
the Garden of
Hesperides,
Pillars of Hercules
etc.),
in the same
way
as he was held
to be the
guide
of those
emigrating
to other countries.
It is therefore
quite
natural that 'Hermes and Hercules often
appear
in
combination in cult and are
frequently depicted together' (Wagenvoort
1971:
115).
The association of Hercules with Hermes is also observed in
gymnasiums,
hippodromes
and
so
forth
(Jourdain-Annequin
1989:
360-61, 369-70).
Wagenvoort
further mentions that both
were
Gods of the Road
(Wegg?tter)
the function of
which is
certainly
the most
important
factor for the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni,
and his
conclusion
seems to be corroborated
by many
names
of cities such
as
Heraclea in
Greece and Asia Minor
(Wagenvoort
1971:
119).
In
any
case,
Hercules
was
venerated as an assistant and
protector
of human
beings
and also
a
divine and
apotropaic
escort of the dead.
4. Hermes/Vaisravana in Gandhara
The
psychopomos
function of Hercules
might
be better understood if we
juxtapose
Hercules with Hermes in the Gandharan art. As for the latter I have
already
demonstrated that his
image
was
employed
as the model of Vaisravana
guiding
the
prince
Siddh?rtha when he
departs
from
Kapilavastu
at
midnight,
in
addition to his
leading
role in the
scene of the Donation of the Four Bowls
by
the
Guardians of the World
(Four
Lokap?las,
Tanabe
1993/94).
This acculturation
might
have been
partly
influenced
by
the Kushan
god
of
wealth, Pharro,
whose
image
was
also modeled after that of Hermes with a
pair
of
wings.
In the case
of
Vaisravana,
his
prototype
existed in the Buddhist literature
as Kuvera or
Kubera,
the
northern
guardian
of the Four
Quarters
of the World. Kuvera is the
king
of Yaksas
and had been
represented by
an Indian
princely figure
before the Kushan
period
(at
Bharhut)
and its
iconography
was
followed
by
Gandharan
sculptors
at first but was
later
replaced by
that of Hermes
=
Pharro
=
Vaisravana
(Tanabe 1993/94).
However,
in the
case of
Hercules,
whom most scholars
equated
with Yaksa
(Vajrap?ni),
the
same cannot hold true. There is no
reliable
pre-Kushan literary
evidence that Yaksa
Vajrap?ni accompanies
the Buddha
??kyamuni during
his
long
journey.
As
already stated,
Yaksa is not
qualified
to be the
right guide
and escort of
travelers. As
regards
the Buddha
S?kyamuni's
travel
accompanied by Vajrap?ni
in
the North-West Frontier
Province,
especially
in
Swat,
to
subjugate
the malicious
374 [12]
dragon {n?gar?ja)
recorded
by Fa-xian, Song
Yun and
Xuanzang
must have been
added to the
life-story
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
after the Buddha
image
was
already
created in the
early
Kushan
period
(Lamotte
1966:
132-36). Therefore,
other
instances of
Vajrap?ni's
intervention in the
episode
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
cannot be taken at their face
value,
but should rather be
regarded
as a later addition
or
interpolation
as
the Buddha and Bodhisattva
images
were
already popular
and
prevalent
in Gandh?ra.
In order to corroborate
my hypothesis
I shall take the famous relief of the Great
Departure (Fig.
6)
in the
possession
of the Indian
Museum,
Calcutta
(Foucher
1905:
358,
fig.
182;
Marshall 1960:
pi.
84;
Himburg-Salter
1995:
pi.
161)
and the
one
depicting
the
Nativity (Fig.
5)
in the Peshawar Museum
(Marshall
1960:
pis.
34-36).
In the former both
Vajrap?ni
and Kuvera are
represented.
In this
case the
guide
of
prince
Siddh?rtha is not Vaisravana but Kuvera
wearing
Indian
princely
dress and
holding
a
bow and
an arrow
(broken)
in front of Kanthaka
(Tanabe 1993/94;
2000.
The involvement of Kuvera is
surely
mentioned in the relevant
passage
of the
Samghabhedavastu
of the
Vinaya
of the M?lasarv?stiv?dins and its Chinese
version,
and that of Vaisravana in
chapter
fifteen of the Lalitavistara and so forth
(Gnoli
1977:
88-89;
Foucaux 1884:
194). Therefore,
the
presence
of Kuvera or Vaisravana
is corroborated also
by
the
literary
evidence.
However,
the intervention of
Vajrap?ni
or
other Yaksa is not attested
by
any
extant Buddhist
episode
of the Great
Departure. However,
to the viewer's
right, Vajrap?ni
is
certainly depicted
above
Chandaka
holding
an umbrella. He is modeled after beardless Hercules. Beardless
Hercules has
a
long
tradition since Alexander the Great and the Greco-Bactrian
king
Demetrios
(Fig.
4)
in Central Asia. Kuvera is
Yaksa,
and is
eventually depicted
wearing
Indian
princely
dress.
Therefore,
if
Vajrap?ni
were
depicted
in this relief he
should have been
depicted
in the
same
way,
because
Vajrap?ni
is also Yaksa.
However, Vajrap?ni
is not
depicted
that
way
but
as
young
Hercules.
Then,
how
about his
vajra?
It is not the attribute of Hercules. From where this
vajra originated?
It is from Indra who is
depicted
in the
Nativity
scene
(Fig.
5).
According
to the
Samghabhedavastu
of the
Vinaya
of the M?lasarv?stiv?dins and its Chinese version
quoted above, Kuvera,
together
with Indra and Brahma
guides prince
Siddh?rtha
when he
departs Kapilavastu.
In this relief
(Fig.
6)
Kuvera
holding
a
bow and an
arrow and Brahm?
(adoring
the
prince)
are
depicted
to the
extremity
of the viewer's
left in front of Kanthaka. As for Indra he should be identified with
Vajrap?ni/Hercules depicted
in the
upper right
corner,
for other
personages
depicted
in this relief cannot be identified with Indra. In this
case Indra is not
represented
as
Indian
princely figure
as
he is in the
Nativity
scene
(Fig.
5)
but
as
Hercules. In other
words,
Indra who is
thought
to be
one
of the two
guards
and
guides
of Siddh?rtha
(cf.
above
pp. 8-9)
is
replaced by
beardless Hercules
just
as
Kuvera would later be
replaced by
Hermes/Vaisravana. Here is the
beginning
of so
called
Vajrap?ni depicted
as
Hercules.
Therefore,
it is clear that the
vajra
of
Vajrap?ni
was
inherited from Indra
as
Indra in the
Nativity
scene
(Fig.
5)
and
a
free
[13]
375
^^^^^Bl i%?
Fig.
10
-
Vajrap?ni.
(Peshawar Museum).
Standing Vajrap?ni wearing
Indra's
spherical cap (Fig.
10)
suggest.
This
might
have been caused
by
the bellicose
and
quasi-martial
character shared
by
both Hercules and Indra
(Hopkins
1915:
123-24;
von Schroeder 1914: 20
22, 107-109;
Lamotte 1966:
115).
Furthermore,
the thunderbolt of
Zeus,
also
equated
with Indra
might
have
been taken into consideration
by
Gandharan
sculptors
in order to exalt
the
position
of
Vajrap?ni.
Needless to
say,
Yaksas' role is not that of
guide
or
protector
of the
prince
Siddh?rtha but
just
the
supporter
of Kanthaka's hoofs.
Concluding
Remarks
From the above it is now clear that
both
images
of Hercules and Hermes
were
employed
as
divine
guide
and
escort of the
prince
Siddh?rtha and the
Buddha
S?kyamuni
in Gandharan
Buddhist art. In
particular,
the function and role of Hercules as reliable
guide
were
regarded
as more
suitable for attachment to the
image
of
S?kyamuni,
who is said to
have traveled
widely
in
India,
including
Swat in northern
Pakistan,
than that of
Hermes.
Therefore,
the Buddha
S?kyamuni's
travel associated Him with
Hercules,
who also made
long journeys
to the extreme West
(cf.
Pillars of Hercules at
Gibraltar),
at least in the last three
journeys
of his twelve
great
deeds
(to
the Isle of
Erythreia
where
tricephalic Geryon possesses cattle,
the Garden of the
Hesperides,
and to the Underworld of
Hades) (von
Schroeder 1914:
57-67, 67-83, 85-91;
Daremberg
&
Saglio
1963:
92-99;
Jourdain-Annequin
1989:
55, 251-71, 520-66).
In addition to
this,
the
psychopompos
function of Hermes is rather
temporary
while that of Hercules is eternal because he is the most
typical
traveler
among
the
Greek heroes and
gods.
This difference between Hermes and Hercules
was
fully
understood
by
Gandharan
sculptors
and
eventually
Hercules
was
preferred
and
employed by
them in so
many
episodes
of the
S?kyamuni's
life
story
while Hermes
was
confined to the Donation of the Four Bowls
by
the Four
Lokap?las
and the
Great
Departure. Usually,
in the last two scenes
(Figs.
11-12)
Vajrap?ni
is not as a
rule
depicted
because the role of
guide
and
guard
is
already
indicated
by
the
presence
of Vaisravana
=
Pharro
=
Hermes
(Tanabe
2002:
figs.
1, 6-7).
376
[14]
Fig.
11
-
The Donation of the Four Bowls
by
the Four
Lokap?las. (Hirayama
Ikuo Collection).
To sum
up my arguments,
the
adoption
of Hercules'
image by
Gandharan
sculptors
to
depict
the
escort,
guard
and
guide
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
has
nothing
to do with the Yaksa
Vajrap?ni, Guhyak?dipati
nor with the
pre-Kushan
Yaksa
Vajrap?ni,
but was done to
replace
Indra
by
Hercules. When Gandharan
sculptors
had to
depict
the
episodes
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni, they
took it for
granted
that the
personage
like the Buddha
corresponding
to the Cakravartin
king
must be escorted and
guarded by
a
deity superior
to Indra who holds
a
vajra
but is
not a
good
traveler and adventurer
nor a
reliable
deity
to a man in need. Indra
was
not evaluated so
highly
as we
might expect by
the Buddhists due to his
personal
defects. E. Lamotte
says
as follows:
Mais le Sakra
bouddhique,
devot
transi,
n'a
plus
rien de l'Indra Vrtrahan des
hymnes vediques.
II n'est ni fort ni tres
intelligent
et ses
imperfections
sont
nombreuses. II n'a
pas
elimine le
triple poison
de
l'amour,
de la haine et de la
stupidite,
demeure
sujet
? la mort et ? la renaissance et est entraine dans le
tourbillon de la
transmigration.
// est
timide, sujet
? la
panique
et
prend
souvent la
fuite.
(Italics mine,
Lamotte 1966:
116).
[15] 377
Fig.
12
-
The Great
Departure.
(National
Museum of
Pakistan).
It is
apparent
that Indra's three drawbacks underlined above make him too
unsuitable to be
employed
as
the
proper guide
and
protector
of travelers. In
addition to these
defects,
it is also
probable
that the Gandharan
Buddhists,
at least
the
sculptors,
were not satisfied with
a
Hindu
god always accompanying
the Buddha
S?kyamuni.
Therefore
they
tried to find
a more suitable
acolyte
than the unreliable Indra
among
the Greek
gods
and
heroes,
and
they
came across
both Hermes and
Hercules,
and chose the latter
as
the best candidate due both to his
bellicose, quasi
martial and
apotropaic
character
absolutely indispensable
to the
guard
in addition to
his further
reputation
that Hercules is the best traveler and at the same time the best
guide
and
protector of travelers,
or to the fact that Hermes had
already
been used to
depict
another
temporary
escort of the Buddha
S?kyamuni,
Vaisravana.
378
[16]
I maintain that both Hermes and Hercules should have been taken into
consideration
together
when our
predecessors approached
the
problem
of
Vajrap?ni
in the Gandharan Buddhist art. The Hermes and Hercules
pair corresponds exactly
to that of Kuvera/Vaisravana and Indra. These
view-points
have been
completely
excluded
by
all the researchers of the Gandharan art and also
by
the
Buddhologists.
That is the main reason
why they
could not
grasp
the real
origin
of the
Vajrap?ni
image.
In
conclusion,
in Gandh?ra the
image
of Hercules was
adopted by sculptors
to
replace
that of
Indra,
because Hercules
was
well known to them and
regarded by
them as the most suitable
guide
and
guard
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni.
Therefore the
image
of
Vajrap?ni might
be considered
a
form
of
Indra, metamorphosed
and exalted
by
the
image
of
Hercules,
but not the
secondary
form of Indra at all
(cf.
Lamotte
1966:
120,
'une forme
metamorphique
de
3akra\ 159,
Torme secondaire
dTndra').
Gandharan
sculptors
added a
vajra
of
Indra, qualified
as
vajrap?ni
ever since the
Vedic
times,
to the
image
of Hercules
by replacing
the club
by
the
vajra
and created
a new
hybrid type
of
guard
and
guide.
After
that,
Gandharan Buddhist monks and
laymen
who
saw the
newly
created and unfamiliar
image
for the first time named
him
Vajrap?ni simply
because he holds
a
vajra.
This is the
origin
of
Vajrap?ni
in
Gandh?ra. Later on
Gandharan Buddhist monks classified
Vajrap?ni
as
Yaksa and
interpolated
him into the life
story
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni.
It is true that
some
Gandharan
Vajrap?ni images
are
represented
as
hermits or rsi
although holding
a
vajra
but devoid of the
physical appearance
of
Hercules,
or
exceptionally
as a
Kushan
prince
or
donor
(Kapishan Vajrap?ni, Fig.
2).
This
iconographic peculiarity
might
be
explained
as a
later
physical
feature of
Vajrap?ni
who
was
identified
as
Yaksa,
because
once
the name of the
perpetual acolyte
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
was
established
as
holding
a
vajra
in his
hand,
his
physical appearance
became less
important
and
eventually
could be
represented freely by any image
of
a
deity.
In
other
words,
the
image
of
Vajrap?ni
was no
longer
confined to the Herculean
type
but could be executed
by
other Greek deities and others listed above
(p.
2) except
for Indra. The head of the Alexander the Great
type
of
Vajrap?ni
found at Hadda
(Tape-Shotor)
seems to be
applied
for
Vajrap?ni
in order to enhance the status of
the latter.
Therefore,
the
adoption
of the other Greek deities and
demi-gods by
Gandharan
sculptors
should be
interpreted
as
reflecting
the later features of
Gandharan
iconography
of
Vajrap?ni.
In
closing,
if someone
asks
me
why
the Buddha
S?kyamuni
is
accompanied by
Vajrap?ni,
I will
affirmatively
and
succinctly reply
because in Gandh?ra Hercules took the
place
of Indra
Vajrap?ni
and
eventually
the
Indra
Vajrap?ni's
role of
guide
and
protector
of the Buddha
S?kyamuni
was
replaced by
Hercules invictus and
psychopompos
who was well known
as the most
reliable
guide
and
protector
of traveler in the Greek world.
[17] 379
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[19]
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