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Ex: (x3 + x2 + x + 1)(x7 + x5 + x3 + x)

= x10 + x9 + x2 + x

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Take some time to make the connection betwen

primitive polynomials and GF (pm)
We will construct GF (pm) using roots of a primitive polynomial
De nition 4: GF (q) x]: Set of plynomials in
x of arbitrary degree having coe cients from
GF (q)
;! form a commutative ring w/ identity under standard polynomial multiplication/addition
where coe cients are reduced mod-q

Primitive polynomials and GF (pm)

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x2 + 1 = (x + 1)(x + 1) in GF (2) x] (hint: nd

roots of x2 + 1!!)
x2 + x = x(x +1), both x & x +1 are irreducible

Ex:

f (x) is irreducible in GF (q) if f (x) cannot be

factored into lower degree polynomials in GF (q) x]

Irreducible Polynomials

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Degree 2:
x2 = (x + 0)(x + 0) reducible (has 0 as root)
x2 + 1 = (x + 1)(x + 1) = x2 + 2x + 1 = x2 + 1
(has 1 as root)
x2 + x + 1 = irreducible in GF (2) x]
x2 + x = x(x + 1) both x = 0 1 are roots
Degree 3:
x3 + x + 1 is irreducible over GF (2) x]. Why?
0 and 1 are not roots
=) x3 + x +1 not by any degree 1 polynomial
=) x3 + x +1 not by any degree 2 polynomial
Degree 4: What about x4+x+1? This is irreducible,
check yourself

Irreducible Polynomials in GF (2) x]

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An irreducible polynomial p(x) 2 GF (p) x] of

degree m is primitive if the smallest n for
which p(x) divides xn ; 1 is n = pm ; 1.
Namely,
degree m
?
xn ; 1 = p(x)q(x)
xpm;1 ; 1 = p(x)q(x)

De nition 5:

Primitive polynomials

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x2 + x + 1

Check: x2 + x + 1 x3 + 1

x+1

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x2 +x+1 is primitive in GF (2) x] (m = 2,p = 2)

m
That is, xp ;1 ; 1 = x3 + 1 is the smallest degree polynomial of the type xn ; 1 divisible by

Example 7:

Primitive polynomials (cont.)

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Note:
primitive ) irreducible
irreducible )/ primitive

{ computer search!!
{ tabulated in most coding books

How to nd primitive polynomials?

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x3 + x + 1 is primitive in GF (2) x] namely,

x3 + x + 1 x2 + 1 but no smaller degree

Example 8:

Primitive polynomials (cont.)

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n;1=0
) n 6= 1 n < pm ; 1
) has order pm ; 1

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Theorem 1: The roots of an m-th degree primitive polynomial have order pm ; 1

Proof: Sketch
=) Let be root of p(x)
) p m ; 1 ; 1 = p ( )q ( ) = 0
) pm;1 = 1 ( order of pm ; 1
m
=) But: since xp ;1 ; 1 is smallest degree, there is
no other polynomial xn ; 1, n < pm ; 1 where

Construction of GF (pm) using primitive

polynomials in GF (p) x]

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+ a1x + a0, but

)
)

pm;2 = sums of terms of m;1 or less

m = ;a0 + a1
m+1 = ( m)

..

; a2 2 + ; am;1 m;1

p(x) = xm + am;1xm;1 +
p( ) = 0

0 1 2 : : : pm;1 = 1 forms multiplicative

group of size pm ; 1
Can write an element of GF (pm) as linear combination of powers of of degree less than m
How:

Construction of GF (pm) using primitive

polynomials in GF (p) x] (cont.)

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{ 0 : : : pm;1 forms a multiplicative group

(size pm ; 1)
{ above shows additive group
{ add 0 to get GF (pm)

Therefore:

Construction of GF (pm) using primitive

polynomials in GF (p) x] (cont.)

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Summary

GF (p) GF (pm)

GF (pm) is called extention eld

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Primitive elements in GF (pm) are roots of primitive polynomial

Construct GF (pm) using roots of primitive polynomials

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Examples

2 = + 1g

)
1 = , 2 = + 1, 3 = 1

GF (4) = f0 1

) 0 = 1,

) Let be a root of x2 + x + 1
0) 3=1

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3+1 =

Construct GF (4) = GF (22)

) Need degree m = 2 primitive polynomial in
GF(2) x]
x2 + x + 1, and x2 + x + 1 x3 + 1

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0 =0
0=1
1=
2 = 1+

0
1
1

0+0

1+1 0
1+0 0
1+1 0

) (0 0)
) (0 1)
) (1 0)
) (1 1)

) vector space interpretation:

Examples (cont.)

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0
1
2
3
4
5
6

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Example GF (8)

7=1

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( + 1) = 2 +
3+ 2 = +1+ 2
2+ + 3 = 2+ + +1= 2+1

+1

) is a root of x7 + 1 )

p = 2, m = 3, x3 + x + 1 x7 + 1 ) x7 + 1 =
(x3 + x + 1)g(x)
Let be root of x3 + x + 1 is primitive root,

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0
1
2
3
4
5
6

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(0
(0
(1
(0
(1
(1
(1

0
1
0
1
1
1
0

1)
0)
0)
1)
0)
1)
1)

Vector space:

Example GF (8) (cont.)

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Cyclic codes (c0 : : : cn;1) 2 C

) (cn;1 c0 : : : cn;2) 2 C
) recall c(x) = m(x)g(x)
) we need to show g(x) divides xn ; 1
(n is codeword length)
Look ahead: If g(x) divides xn ; 1 we need all
(irreducible) factors of xn ; 1
Factors of xn ; 1 are characterized by roots of
xn ; 1 = 0
Roots of xn ; 1 lie in some GF

Summary & Look Ahead

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