If D is non-zero (so for planes not through the origin) the values for a, b and

c can be calculated as follows:

a = \frac{-d}{D} \begin{vmatrix}
1 & y_1 & z_1 \\
1 & y_2 & z_2 \\
1 & y_3 & z_3
\end{vmatrix}
b = \frac{-d}{D} \begin{vmatrix}
x_1 & 1 & z_1 \\
x_2 & 1 & z_2 \\
x_3 & 1 & z_3
\end{vmatrix}
c = \frac{-d}{D} \begin{vmatrix}
x_1 & y_1 & 1 \\
x_2 & y_2 & 1 \\
x_3 & y_3 & 1
\end{vmatrix}.
These equations are parametric in d. Setting d equal to any non-zero number and
substituting it into these equations will yield one solution set.
Method 3[edit]
This plane can also be described by the "point and a normal vector" prescription
above. A suitable normal vector is given by the cross product
\bold n = ( \bold p_2 - \bold p_1 ) \times ( \bold p_3 - \bold p_1 ),
and the point r0 can be taken to be any of the given points p1,p2 or p3.[6]
Distance from a point to a plane[edit]
For a plane \Pi : ax + by + cz + d = 0\, and a point \bold p_1 = (x_1,y_1,z_1)
not necessarily lying on the plane, the shortest distance from \bold p_1 to the
plane is
D = \frac{\left | a x_1 + b y_1 + c z_1+d \right |}{\sqrt{a^2+b^2+c^2}}.
It follows that \bold p_1 lies in the plane if and only if D=0.
If \sqrt{a^2+b^2+c^2}=1 meaning that a, b, and c are normalized[7] then the equa
tion becomes
D = \ | a x_1 + b y_1 + c z_1+d | .
Another vector form for the equation of a plane, known as the Hesse normal form
relies on the parameter D. This form is:[5]
\mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{r} - D_0 = 0,
where \mathbf{n} is a unit normal vector to the plane, \mathbf{r} a position vec
tor of a point of the plane and D0 the distance of the plane from the origin.
The general formula for higher dimensions can be quickly arrived at using vector
notation. Let the hyperplane have equation \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{r} - \mat
hbf{r}_0) = 0 , where the \mathbf{n} is a normal vector and \mathbf{r}_0 = (x_{1
0},x_{20},\dots,x_{N0}) is a position vector to a point in the hyperplane. We de
sire the perpendicular distance to the point \mathbf{r}_1 = (x_{11},x_{21},\dots
,x_{N1}). The hyperplane may also be represented by the scalar equation \sum_{i=
1}^N a_i x_i = -a_0, for constants \{a_i\}. Likewise, a corresponding \mathbf{n}
may be represented as (a_1,a_2, \dots, a_N). We desire the scalar projection of
the vector \mathbf{r}_1 - \mathbf{r}_0 in the direction of \mathbf{n}. Noting t
hat \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{r}_0 = \mathbf{r}_0 \cdot \mathbf{n} = -a_0 (as \ma
thbf{r}_0 satisfies the equation of the hyperplane) we have
D = \frac{|(\mathbf{r}_1 - \mathbf{r}_0) \cdot \mathbf{n}|}{|\mathbf{n}|} = \fra
c{|\mathbf{r}_1\cdot \mathbf{n} - \mathbf{r}_0 \cdot \mathbf{n}|}{|\mathbf{n}|}
= \frac{|\mathbf{r}_1\cdot \mathbf{n} + a_0|}{|\mathbf{n}|} = \frac{|a_1x_{11} +
a_2x_{21} + \dots + a_Nx_{N1} + a_0|}{\sqrt{a_1^2 + a_2^2 + \dots + a_N^2}}.
Line of intersection between two planes[edit]
The line of intersection between two planes \Pi_1 : \bold {n}_1 \cdot \bold r =
h_1 and \Pi_2 : \bold {n}_2 \cdot \bold r = h_2 where \bold {n}_i are normalized
is given by
\bold {r} = (c_1 \bold {n}_1 + c_2 \bold {n}_2) + \lambda (\bold {n}_1 \times \
bold {n}_2)
where
c_1 = \frac{ h_1 - h_2(\bold {n}_1 \cdot \bold {n}_2) }{ 1 - (\bold {n}_1 \cdot
\bold {n}_2)^2 }
c_2 = \frac{ h_2 - h_1(\bold {n}_1 \cdot \bold {n}_2) }{ 1 - (\bold {n}_1 \cdot
\bold {n}_2)^2 } .
This is found by noticing that the line must be perpendicular to both plane norm
als, and so parallel to their cross product \bold {n}_1 \times \bold {n}_2 (this
cross product is zero if and only if the planes are parallel, and are therefore
non-intersecting or entirely coincident).
The remainder of the expression is arrived at by finding an arbitrary point on t
he line. To do so, consider that any point in space may be written as \bold r =
c_1\bold {n}_1 + c_2\bold {n}_2 + \lambda(\bold {n}_1 \times \bold {n}_2), since
\{ \bold {n}_1, \bold {n}_2, (\bold {n}_1 \times \bold {n}_2) \} is a basis. We
wish to find a point which is on both planes (i.e. on their intersection), so i
nsert this equation into each of the equations of the planes to get two simultan
eous equations which can be solved for c_1 and c_2.
If we further assume that \bold {n}_1 and \bold {n}_2 are orthonormal then the c
losest point on the line of intersection to the origin is \bold r_0 = h_1\bold {
n}_1 + h_2\bold {n}_2. If that is not the case, then a more complex procedure mu
st be used.[8]
Dihedral angle[edit]
Given two intersecting planes described by \Pi_1 : a_1 x + b_1 y + c_1 z + d_1 =
0\, and \Pi_2 : a_2 x + b_2 y + c_2 z + d_2 = 0\,, the dihedral angle between t
hem is defined to be the angle \alpha between their normal directions:
\cos\alpha = \frac{\hat n_1\cdot \hat n_2}{|\hat n_1||\hat n_2|} = \frac{a_1 a_2
+ b_1 b_2 + c_1 c_2}{\sqrt{a_1^2+b_1^2+c_1^2}\sqrt{a_2^2+b_2^2+c_2^2}}.
Planes in various areas of mathematics[edit]
In addition to its familiar geometric structure, with isomorphisms that are isom
etries with respect to the usual inner product, the plane may be viewed at vario
us other levels of abstraction. Each level of abstraction corresponds to a speci
fic category.
At one extreme, all geometrical and metric concepts may be dropped to leave the
topological plane, which may be thought of as an idealized homotopically trivial
infinite rubber sheet, which retains a notion of proximity, but has no distance
s. The topological plane has a concept of a linear path, but no concept of a str
aight line. The topological plane, or its equivalent the open disc, is the basic
topological neighborhood used to construct surfaces (or 2-manifolds) classified
in low-dimensional topology. Isomorphisms of the topological plane are all cont
inuous bijections. The topological plane is the natural context for the branch o
f graph theory that deals with planar graphs, and results such as the four color
theorem.
The plane may also be viewed as an affine space, whose isomorphisms are combinat
ions of translations and non-singular linear maps. From this viewpoint there are
no distances, but collinearity and ratios of distances on any line are preserve
d.
Differential geometry views a plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold, a topologi
cal plane which is provided with a differential structure. Again in this case, t
here is no notion of distance, but there is now a concept of smoothness of maps,
for example a differentiable or smooth path (depending on the type of different
ial structure applied). The isomorphisms in this case are bijections with the ch
osen degree of differentiability.
In the opposite direction of abstraction, we may apply a compatible field struct
ure to the geometric plane, giving rise to the complex plane and the major area
of complex analysis. The complex field has only two isomorphisms that leave the
real line fixed, the identity and conjugation.
In the same way as in the real case, the plane may also be viewed as the simples
t, one-dimensional (over the complex numbers) complex manifold, sometimes called
the complex line. However, this viewpoint contrasts sharply with the case of th
e plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold. The isomorphisms are all conformal bij
ections of the complex plane, but the only possibilities are maps that correspon
d to the composition of a multiplication by a complex number and a translation.
In addition, the Euclidean geometry (which has zero curvature everywhere) is not
the only geometry that the plane may have. The plane may be given a spherical g
eometry by using the stereographic projection. This can be thought of as placing
a sphere on the plane (just like a ball on the floor), removing the top point,
and projecting the sphere onto the plane from this point). This is one of the pr
ojections that may be used in making a flat map of part of the Earth's surface.
The resulting geometry has constant positive curvature.
Alternatively, the plane can also be given a metric which gives it constant nega
tive curvature giving the hyperbolic plane. The latter possibility finds an appl
ication in the theory of special relativity in the simplified case where there a
re two spatial dimensions and one time dimension. (The hyperbolic plane is a tim
elike hypersurface in three-dimensional Minkowski space.)
Topological and differential geometric notions[edit]
The one-point compactification of the plane is homeomorphic to a sphere (see ste
reographic projection); the open disk is homeomorphic to a sphere with the "nort
h pole" missing; adding that point completes the (compact) sphere. The result of
this compactification is a manifold referred to as the Riemann sphere or the co
mplex projective line. The projection from the Euclidean plane to a sphere witho
ut a point is a diffeomorphism and even a conformal map.
The plane itself is homeomorphic (and diffeomorphic) to an open disk. For the hy
perbolic plane such diffeomorphism is conformal, but for the Euclidean plane it
is not.
See also[edit]
Half-plane
Hyperplane
Line-plane intersection
Plane of incidence
Plane of rotation
Point on plane closest to origin
Projective plane
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Eves 1963, pg. 19