Ecology, Its Scope, Its Methods, Its Goals

1/9/2014 Ecology, its Scope, its Methods, its Goals
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios101/ecology1.htm 1/13
Ecology, its Scope, its Methods, its Goals
Reading: Ricklefs, Chapter 1
Who am I?
Dr. Alan Molumby, 3092 SEL (behind 3084)
molumby@uic.edu (email is best)
What is Ecology?
Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance
of organisms, and their interactions with the environment
The German Zoologist, Ernst Haekel defined ecology as the "body of knowledge
concerning the economy of nature-the investigation of the total relation of the animal to
both its organic and its inorganic environment; including above all, its friendly and
inimical relations with those plants and animals with which it comes in contact......".
Humans have always had an interest in their environment and their relationships to other
species
in preindustrial times, this was critical to our survival.
A typical shaman from an indigenous tribe in Southeast Asia, Africa, or the Neotropics,
might know several hundred plants; including their uses, identification, and distribution.
For instance: In the early 16th century, European explorers returned home from South
America with the dried bark of the cinchona tree (Cinchona officinalis) and reported its
use by natives of the New World as a fever cure.
This plant contained the alkaloid quinine, to this day the most effective treatment for malaria.
Other examples include: cocaine, curare, capsaicin, ipecac, pilocarpine, coffee, and chocolate

The Scientific Study of Ecology is Young
The word ecology is derived from the Greek oikos, which means "house".
European and American naturalists began to call themselves "ecologists" in the late
nineteenth century.
The first ecological societies and journals began to appear in the early 20th century.
Modern ecology relies upon the SCIENTIFIC METHOD- ecologists employ both observational methods
and experiments.
Units of Ecology
Ecologists work at the level of the individual organism and higher.
Some branches of ecology focus on this level; physiological ecology and behavioral ecology are
concerned with how individual organisms are adapted to the environment.
The actions of individuals are the underlying basis of population biology.
In evolution, natural selection acts on individuals
Individual organisms are easier to define in some taxa (mice, rotifers, minnows) than others (aspen,
colonial protozoa, gorgonians).
Species is an important unit in ecology as well as evolutionary biology.
In ecology, species tend to have a functional role in a community; i.e. as decomposers,
producers, nitrogen-fixers, parasites, etc.. This, and interactions with other species such
as competitors and predators, largely define its ecological niche.
Populations are groups of same species living in the same place. This is the smallest
unit that can evolve. From an ecological point of view, most intraspecific interactions
(intraspecific competition, mating, etc.) occur among members of the same population.
Populations may be structured; they may have smaller subpopulations, or demes,
which interact and exchange members regularly, but still most individuals tend to stay in
a local cluster of suitable habitat.
Communities are populations of different species living in the same place.
Ecosystems are communities of living organisms considered in the context of the important nonliving
(abiotic) aspects of the environment. The biosphere is a single, global, ecosystem.
Pattern, Process, Scientific Method
Pattern- is what we observe;
I.e., vegetation zonation, species lists, association of certain species, population densities, behavior of
animals.
Process is the set of underlying mechanisms that produces the pattern;
I.e., nutrient cycling, herbivory, competition, predation risk, nutrient availability, patterns of disturbance,
energy flow, history. What we see.
Observation and experiment are both essential to any science.
Ecologists describe ecological systems (observation), then seek to explain the underlying mechanisms that
create them, maintain them, and determine their fate.
To explain ecological systems, ecologists develop models-descriptions of the system, its
components, and its processes.
Models are frequently simplifications of real world-no model is perfect.
The best models generate testable hypotheses.
When a models predictive powers fail, it is either modified or discarded. If a model survives multiple
experimental tests, it is said to be accepted, but it is never really proven.
Ultimately, ecologists seek general theories with predictive power.
A series of models which is generally accepted is sometimes called a scientific paradigm. These typify a
mature science, and direct ideas for future research.
In many ways, ecology lacks a central paradigm, because some of its central models and ideas are still disputed.
Example of an ecological hypothesis test-(from Ricklefs, pp. 17)
Robert Marquis and Chris Whelan studied the role of birds in limiting the density of herbivorous insects.
They observed that deciduous forests harbor hundreds of species of herbivorous insects, yet only a small
proportion of total leaf area is eaten every year.
Many species of birds are insectivores, but spiders, parasitic wasps, and fungal infections also
attack insects. Are birds an important factor in controlling herbivores?
Experimental Treatment-Multiple trees (replication is important) are enclosed in cages to
exclude birds but not insects.
Control Treatments-
"Control trees" paired with the excluded trees control for environmental variation.
Incomplete cages-control for the presence of the cage.
Data Collected-
% of leaf area eaten
density of herbivorous insects
Prediction-if birds are an important agent of insect control, both variables should be higher in
exclusion cages
Result
Caged trees had 70% more insects than controls, and caged trees
had an increased percentage of missing leaf area (35%) relative to
control trees (22%)
Conclusion-birds are an important potential agent of herbivore
control.
Other studies-
One of the most important attributes of a good experiment is that its results be
reproducible.
This is a problem in ecology, because conditions in "the field" vary from year to year
and place to place-it is almost never possible to reproduce a field experiment exactly.
Exclusion experiments of this type have been done many times, with different results
Ecological Time Scales
Ecological processes may occur over time scales ranging from days to millennia.
The ecological time scale is shorter than the evolutionary time scale, but there is some overlap-populations evolve
over time, and this can affect the composition of communities and functioning of ecosystems.
What we see today might reflect events that happened long ago
by our standards.
Example-colonization of North American forests following glaciation-a continuing
process
Alpine populations of tundra communities persist at high elevations
Chicago was under ice 15,000 years ago-"Lake Chicago" existed here thereafter, gradually
growing as the glacier melted-it drained out the Mississippi.
As a result, The community of Great Lakes fish species resembles that of the Mississippi river, rather than the
Atlantic ocean.
Deciduous trees have replaced Pine and Juniper as warm conditions persisted-
Different species have colonized at different rates.
A relict population of Pines is still present at Indiana Dunes national Lakeshore.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the number of different species, accounting for
their relative abundances
it can be measured locally, in any size area, or on a worldwide scale
Central question underlying much of the rest of the class
WHY ARE THERE SO MANY SPECIES?
The Niche
The niche is one of the most important concepts in ecology.
The concept of the niche overlaps so many different areas Paradoxically, it is also one of the hardest to
define (ecology is still a young science) because different researchers have different ideas of what
constitutes a niche, and some have argued that the concept has outlived its usefulness.
Essentially, an organisms niche is also defined by how it makes a living; its role in the
community, the environmental conditions it tolerates, the important resources it needs to
survive, and its ways of obtaining those resources.
Thus, an organisms niche touches upon its habitat, the resources it needs, and its
behavior.
Two organisms cannot occupy exactly the same
niche.
If this were to happen, inevitably, one would be a better competitor for resources
and ultimately displace the other
This is called the competitive exclusion principal.
It assumes that competition is a major interspecific interaction between the species-in the absence
of competition there is no competitive exculsion.
Experiments by Gausse (Paramecium), Peter Frank (Daphnia), and Thomas Park (Triboleum)
have confirmed it for simple laboratory scenarios.
The "Hutchinsonian" Niche
The ecologist, G. E. Hutchinson, brought the niche concept a step
farther.
He defined the niche as "an n dimensional hypervolume, enclosing the complete range
of conditions under which an organism can reproduce itself"
In theory, all variables relevant to the life history of an organism must be included, and each must be
independent of the others.
This definition of the niche is inextricably linked to the concept of competitive exclusion-
no two species should be able to occupy exactly the same niche
Hutchinson assumed no overlap was possible
however, it can be shown that there are several cases where the niches of two species
can overlap.
In case A, the niche of a competitively superior species is included within the niche of an inferior
competitive
In case B, the overlap is small-the inferior of the two competitors is generally excluded from that
portion of the niche
Fundamental Niche-
this is the niche an organism would occupy in the absence of competition, predation, and other biotic
interactions that limit the organism. An abstraction.
Realized Niche-
the niche an organism actually occupies in a given environment. Possibly real, but very hard to measure in
real life.
Niche Partitioning and Diversity
The niche concept can provide a framework for understanding the
total number of species a community can support.
As a new area is colonized, species are free from competition, and they are close to their
fundamental niches.
As the habitat fills up, competitive interactions cause the realized niches of many species
to become smaller and more specialized
Species that do not fit, either because they are outcompeted or driven extinct by
predation, go extinct. This process is called species sorting.
Are Niches Real?
Possibly, from a scientific standpoint they are an interesting abstraction, but of limited
practical value.
This is because field ecologists cant measure all important variables, in fact there are
always some variables we dont know exist.
In practice, this concept has been helpful, however, because it
orders the way we think about the lives of organisms
provides a framework for knowing how many organisms a habitat might support.
In reality, most organisms sort themselves by three important
variables
where they live
what they eat or use as a limiting resource (i.e. nest sites)
when they are using it
Habitat, Distribution, Adaptation, and the
Niche
Reading; Ricklefs Chps 2-5, 9, 13
The Environment
Biotic- living aspects of the environment such as predators,
competitors, prey, commensal organisms that serve as places to
live, etc...
Abiotic-nonliving aspects of the environment, such as
temperature, sunlight, nutrients, rainfall, P
H
, salinity, seasonal and
daily variations in climate, etc...
Space is Heterogeneous
On Earth, the available living space for organisms varies from one
place to another.
Large Scale Heterogeneity-is caused by the distribution of continents on Earth, major
patterns of global air and water circulation, the distribution of mountain ranges and their
effects on climate
Small Scale Heterogeneity-builds upon large scale differences. This includes small-scale
features of the habitat
Also, the presence of some organisms creates spaces for others, which in turn, modify the
environment to create places for others, etc..
Large Scale Heterogeneity
Latitudinal variation in rainfall, light, and seasonality
variation in altitude
variation in salinity, light level, nutrients in aquatic systems
etc...
Oceanic habitats are as heterogeneous as terrestrial ones-at sea,
the major producers are algae rather than vascular plants.
Algal growth is very sensitive to availability of nutrients-thus, major zones of upwelling support
diverse communities of organisms.
Continental shelf areas frequently have high productivity-
greater habitat structure and nutrients created by proximity of ocean bottom-
Open ocean is less diverse, much less productive
-nutrients tend to sink to bottom, and are out of reach to producers until upwelling brings them to the surface

Oceanic habitats are also structured by the availability of light.
Light only penetrates the first few meters of water (photic zone), lower depths become increasingly
dark (twilight zone to the aphotic zone) and less productive
Many organisms are specialized to live at certain depths
Coral reefs are special communities that typically occupy shallow waters in tropical regions
Some oceanic lifestyles
pelagic-lives in water column
plankton-cannot swim against current
nekton-can swim against current
motile-actively mobile
sessile-attached to substrate
benthic-lives on bottom
epifaunal-lives on bottom
infaunal-burrows beneath the bottom
interstitial meiofauna-lives between grains of sand
filter feeder-filters suspended material out of water column
suspension feeder-filters organic food out of bottom "muck"
Carnivores, endoparasites, ectoparasites, etc.
Many oceanic forms have separate larval and adult phases which live different lifestyles;
for instance, barnacles have motile, planktonic larvae, but attach to rocks and become sessile filter-suspension
feeders as adults
Example; Sea Scallop Placopectin magellanicus
Sea scallops are bivalve molluscs adapted to the lifestyle of a
benthic-pelagic filter feeder.
They are an Atlantic species, ranging from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Carolina Coast
In the northern part of their range, they occur in shallow water, in the southern part of their range,
they occur in water over 55m deep
found in waters cooler than 20 degrees Celsius
Very bright for bivalves, they have a well developed brain and sensory "eyes" along perimeter of their
mantle
Sea scallops seek optimal environments-they tend to occur in dense aggregations called "beds" in
continental shelf areas where high nutrient availability has led to abundant plankton
Life history
has two larval stages, a trochophore and a veliger-
both are planktonic and can migrate in the water column-
veliger larvae settle (called "spatfall" and grow shells, feet, etc..
Adaptations
they strain small plankton using cillia to carry plankton-laden water over the gills
usually rest on the benthos, but can swim by "jet propulsion", caused by opening and shutting of their shell

Small Scale Heterogeneity
Depth within soil or substrate, location on a tree or an animals
body, location within the intertidal, etc..
Within every environment, there are a range of smaller microenvironments.
Certain microenvironments may have temperature, humidity, nutrient levels, or other
factors that are more amenable to survival and reproduction of an organims.
The smaller the creature, the more potentially available microenvironments
Example
Postelsia sp.-the sea palm.
Prefers high-energy environments, dominated by crashing waves. The wave action
actually ensures a steady supply of nutrients.
Beds of this species can be some of the most productive ecosystems on Earth, exceeding even the
tropical rainforests.
This species cannot grow in the shade, but is dessication tolerant
Laminaria sp.
Sublittoral species-Lives below the low-water line, not dessication resistant, but in 5-
10% of normal sunlight.
No organism is able to tolerate every environment
Within the set of environments an organism can tolerate, there is a subset of
environments in which an organism can reproduce.
This is called the fundamental niche.
Adaptation to Certain Environments
The fundamental niche of organisms is determined by their
environmental tolerances-which are the result of adaptations.
Many organisms have specialized adaptations-physiological,
anatomical, and behavioral, that suit them to a particular
environment or microenvironment.
Adaptation frequently comes at a "cost", in terms of slower growth or reduced fitness in
other environments-I.e., being adapted to one environment makes a species less well
adapted to others
Example-interstitial microbenthos
These organisms are from many different animal phyla and protist kingdoms
they have evolved similar shape and habits to live between sand grains
Example, ectoparasites
These ectoparasites are from very different groups of arthropods
they have evolved similar body structures to deal with life on a bird or mammal
these include grasping hooks, sucking or biting mouthparts, behavior coevolved with host
Example-desert succulents
Many different plant groups-notably including cacti and euphorbs, but also asters and
lillies, have evolved special adaptations to the desert environment
loss of leaves; leaves are replaced with photosyntetic stems
or thick leaves
protected by leaves modified into spines-
herbivory can be especially destructive to desert plants
stoma generally open only at night
potential for water storage in their stems or leaves

Example; "Cane Cholla" Cactus-Opuntia spinosir
"Stems" are actually modified branches that serve for water storage, photosynthesis,
and flower production.
"Spines" are modified leaves
Grows in the Chihuahuan Desert of Southern Arizona and Southwestern New Mexico
Within this range, it only grows from 2000 to 7000 feet-from desert floors and
glasslands to the lower slopes of mountains.
Habitats within the American deserts are highly stratified by elevation.

Can tolerate extreme heat and drought conditions
roots are close to the soil surface to take up even the slightest rainfall.
Surface is textured to cause rain to flow down stem to the roots.
Dense spines shade the stems from extreme heat.
Lack of leaves means minimum water loss.
Stoma close during the day
The price of these adaptations is slow growth
Grow as little as 1/4 inch per year.
For every organism, there is a range of environmental conditions that are necessary for
reproduction.
An organism may tolerate poor conditions temporarily via dormancy, or by storing
resources and retreating to a sheltered microenviroment.
An organism may migrate to more suitable habitat and return when conditions improve-
i.e,migration.
Motile organisms seek optimum environments or
microenvironments
emergence is on moderately cool days after rainstorms when termites leave the nest to
mate.
Like most mites, it has an incredibly efficient metabolism
Thus, it is able to tolerate a harsh desert environment by seeking a favorable
microenvironment-it exploits conditions and resources that are only available a few days
a year.
Organisms Provide Habitats for Other Organisms
Ecological systems are highly interdependent
presence of one organism modifies the habitat and/or provides habitats for other
organisms
this, in turn, provides habitats for other organisms

Habitat Structure
Habitat structure is the small-medium scale environmental
heterogeneity created by the interaction between environmental
conditions, vegetation, and features of the topography.
Spatial structure-usually created by surface features of the environment, vegetation,and
the action/presence of large organisms
Temporal structure-habitats can be structured in time as well as in space. Most habitats
have seasonal variation and daily variation which has enormous effects on the habitats
of organisms

No organism is the best competitor in every environment
This implies that some organisms have adaptations which make them competitively
superior in a particular environment.
Thus, environmental heterogeneity implies species diversity.
If the world were totally homogeneous, we would see many fewer species
This change in species from one environment to the next is called Beta Diversity.
Generalists vs. Specialists
The Jack of all trades is the master of none
This assumption implies that each habitat should have specialists, which are optimum
competitors.
Habitats may also have generalists, however, that colonize new habitats, and pick up the
slack left over by specialists.
In other cases, two species may partition the resource.
Is this true?
Maby-it implies that specialists are competitively superior in their
own environment.
It also suggests that competition is pervasive enough, so that generalists are at lest
sometimes displaced from part of their idealized niche by specialists
Experiment-remove dominant barnacle
The interaction between these two barnacles is well known-studied by Darwin.
Balanus balanoidies. is a large barnacle that lives in the lower intertidal zone.
Cthalamus stellatus.is a smaller barnacle that lives in the upper intertidal zone.
Cthalamus sp. is more dessication-resistant than Balanus. Thus, Balanus cannot invade
its normal habitat.
Is Cthalamus competitively excluded from the lower intertidal by a superior competitor?

Joseph Connell conducted an experiment
removed rocks from the intertidal containing Cthalamus stellatus-transplanted to lower
intertidal.
Allowed Balanus to colonize in Spring.
Divided each rock in half
on one half, he removed all Balanus that were touching Cthalamus
on the other half, he left the Balanus.
Result-Cthalamus survives much better in the absence of Balanus. (Balanus crushes
and overgrows over Cthalamus as it grows)

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