SELF STUDY PROJECT

Developements and recent advancements in

Train technologies

Abhimanyu Vashistha ME-004
Akhil
Aggarwal ME-020

Akshay Agarwal ME-022

The project will aim to bring out the key developements in
various parts of the locomotive.
The changes are are divided in diferent departments and they
are studied chronologicaly.
Introduction
A slight introduction towards the importance of
railways and trains in economic developement of a
country.
History
Tracing the origins of railways and important
landmarks which defned the future of trains
Detailed follow up of the developements:
Engine
team
Deisel
!lectric
Suspension Systems
A detailed study of all kinds of suspension systems
used in railway locomotuves.
Braking systems
Developments in brakes
Future Systems
"aglev
#accum tubes
History
Rail transport in India began in the mid$nineteenth century.
%n &'()* there was not a single kilometer of railway line in %ndia.
Today %ndian railways has the largest network in Asia and the
second largest in the world and employs about &+ lakh people.
%t is also one of the very few railway systems in the world
generating operating surpluses.
,ith a modest beginning in %ndia on April &-* &'./* when the
frst wheels rolled on rails from 0ombay to Thane* the %ndian
1ailways has emerged today as the main vehicle for socio$
economic development of the country.
,ith nearly -/*222 route kilometres fulfls the country3s
transport needs* particularly* in respect of long$distance
passenger and goods tra4c. 5reight trains carry nearly &.)
million tonnes of originating goods and +*.22 passenger trains
carry nearly &) million passengers every day.
Advantage
1ail transportation has a number of favourable characteristics
as compared to road transportation. %t is si6 times more energy$
e4cient than road and four times more economical. The social
costs in terms of environment damage or degradation are
signifcantly lower in rail. 1ail construction costs are
appro6imately si6 times lower than road for comparable levels
of tra4c. %t is the only major transport mode capable of using
any form of primary energy.
Contribution to modern market economy
development
ince its inception* the %ndian 1ailways has served to integrate
the fragmented markets and thereby* stimulating the
emergence of a modern market economy. %t connects industrial
production centres with markets and with sources of raw
materials and facilitates industrial development and link
agricultural production centres with distant markets.
%t provides rapid* reliable and cost$efective bulk transportation
to the energy sector* to move coal from the coal felds to power
plants and petroleum products from refneries to consumption
centres. %t links places* enabling large$scale* rapid and low$cost
movement of people across the length and breadth of the
country. %n the process* the 1ailways has become a symbol of
national integration and a strategic instrument for enhancing
our defence preparedness.
The 1ailways contributes to %ndia3s economic development*
accounting for about one per cent of the 789 and the backbone
of freight needs of the core sector. %t accounts for si6 per cent
of the total employment in the organised sector directly and an
additional ).. per cent indirectly through its dependent
organisations.
The input indices in terms of route kms* locomotives* passenger
coaches and wagon capacity have only doubled during the
period after independence* the tra4c output indices have
increased by si6 times. These achievements were due to
selective inputs of afordable technology* adoption of
innovative operational strategies* phased reduction of staf and
operating costs and intensive monitoring of movements and
maintenance areas.
The 1ailways has developed indigenous capacity for rolling
stock manufacture* including state$of$the$art electric and diesel
locomotives and high$speed passenger coaches. %t has
introduced high$speed !6press trains and "ass 1apid Transit
ystems in the metropolitan area.
Engines
The Steam Engine
Stephenson's Rocket
While not the first steam locomotive, this particular engine is the first example that pointed
the way for further development. Built in Newcastle at the Forth Street Works of Roert
Stephenson and !ompany in "#$%, Rocket was the first steam locomotive to incorporate the
features which ecame standard on the vast ma&ority of steam locomotives uilt afterwards' a
firetue oiler with fireox at the rear and multiple firetues draft produced y directing the
steam exhaust through a no((le and up the exhaust stack, and two outside'mounted cylinders.

merican Type !!" at the #ason #achine $orks% &'()
This locomotive presents a very common type in the :nited
tates from &'.2$&;22* the ($($2. ,hile obviously a great
advance in styling and si<e compared to the Rocket pictured
above* there is very little fundamental advance in this
locomotive built (( years later. These locomotives were
nevertheless very successful* and were widely used in both
passenger and freight service.
&*&" Frisco +!'!"
This )$'$2 built in &;&2 illustrates another major advance in
steam locomotive development: the addition of superheating.
uperheating raised the temperature of the steam after it had
left the boiler proper* increasing its energy content and greatly
increasing the locomotive3s e4ciency.
,orld steam development reached two distinct pinnacles: :..
locomotives were supreme in si<e and absolute power* and in
mechanical durability. 5rench locomotives* under the guidance
of Andre =hapelon* attained the highest ratings for thermal
e4ciency* fuel economy* and power$to$weight ratios.
:nfortunately* the e6cellent mechanical developments devised
in the :.. and the thermodynamic developments devised in
5rance saw only limited applications outside of their respective
countries. >ther nations contributed many improvements* but
the fnal steam locomotive developments in the :.. and 5rance
had the greatest impact on steam locomotive performance.
:.. locomotives were unmatched for si<e and brute power
anywhere in the world. ince fuel was cheap ?coal or heavy oil@
and trackage was sturdy to support heavy engines* the Abrute
forceA design philosphy was used. =onseBuently* the frames*
cylinders* a6les* and bearings of these engines were subject to
incredible forces. !ngines were reBuired to run long distances
without change and the minimi<ation of routine maintenance
was desired. ,hile thermodynamic improvements were made*
emphasis in design was placed on ma6imum power and
durability.
Atlantic Coast ,ine -o. &'"'
from the H. L. Broadbelt collection
This locomotive was pretty typical of AmodernA :.. steam
locomotive engineering practice. %t incorporates the main ideas
of Cima3s Super Power concept* roller bearings from Timken*
and a =ommonwealth cast engine bed. Additional refnements
include mechanical lubrication to numerous wear points and
0aldwin AdiskA drivers which were stronger and allowed better
balancing than standard spoked driving wheels. ,hile there
were some promising developments in :.. steam design after
this stage* none achieved wide$spread acceptance and engines
of this general arrangement remained the high water mark for
steam in the :nited tates.
>utside of the :..* by far the most revolutionary steam
locomotive design engineer was Andre =hapelon of 5rance. De
achieved ama<ing results through the systematic rebuilding of
e6isting steam locomotives. =hapelon3s chief focus was on
streamlining the steam passageways within the locomotive to
minimi<e losses. "ost locomotive designed up to his time had
been accomplished through Atrial and errorA methods. =hapelon
carefully analy<ed the losses in the steam circuits of
locomotives and applied proper engineering to design
improvements to minimi<e these losses. =hapelon reali<ed that
all parts of the steam circuit were important* and paid particular
atention to e6haust system design* developing the Eylchap
e6haust stack. 0y optimi<ing the steam circuit* increasing steam
pressure and superheat* and improving the mechanical
components of his locomotives* he greatly improved their
performance. Dis compound engines achieved the record
thermal e4ciency for conventional steam locomotives ?more
than &)F@ and achieved power$to$weight ratios not eBualled
anywhere else.
/aris!0rleans 1ail2ay !'!"
Basic principles
Cike the more familiar car engine* a steam engine has a piston that moves
when pressure is
applied* and valves to control the intake and e6haust of the contents of
the cylinder. >n an
internal combustion engine* air and fuel are drawn inG they are e6plodedb
in the cannon barrel* push on the piston trying to escape. %n a steam
engine* the inlet valve
opens* and steam under pressure pushes on the piston* until you open the
e6haust valve to let it out.
,hile they both have a piston moving in a cylinder* valves* and a
crankshaft* there are a lot of detail diferences. ,hile steam engines can
be Buite simple* most have more parts than a
comparable internal combustion engine.
"ost of the time* the piston rod is attached to the piston and links it to the
crosshead* which is a large casting sliding in crosshead guides* allowing it
only to move in the same direction as the piston travel. The crosshead
also houses the gudgeon pin on which the small end of the connecting rod
pivots. %n this way* the transverse forces are applied only to the crosshead
and its bearings* not to the piston itself.
The valve is usually hooked into a linkage attached to the cross$head* so
that the motion of the cross$head slides the valve as well.
The high$pressure steam for a steam engine is generated by a boiler. The
boiler is a closed
vessel which applies heat to water to create steam
The Flo2 o3 the Steam and 4ases
olid fuel is burned on the grate inside the frebo6. The
primary air is admitted below the grate and is drawn to the
frebed while the secondary air is admitted through the frehole
door. The frebrick arch lengthens the path of the hot gases
from the burning of the fuel to ensure complete combustion.
The hot gases are then drawn through long tubes in the boiler
to the smokebo6 and out of the locomotive from the chimney.
The heat from the frebo6 heats up the water in the boiler.
,ater is also heated by the heat from the hot gases going
through the long tubes. As water becomes hotter* it turns into
saturated steam which collects above the water. The regulator
valve* which controls the passage of the steam to the cylinders*
is situated in the dome. There are also safety valves on top of
the boiler to release steam if the pressure tends to rise to a
dangerous level.
The saturated steam Hows through the main steam pipe to the
superheater header. %t then travels through superheater
element pipes in the boiler where it is heated up. After coming
out of these pipes through the superheater header* it will have
become superheated steam. The e6tremely hot steam then
Hows through steam pipes to the cylinders where its pressure
moves the pistons which move the wheels of the locomotive.
%n the smokebo6* e6haust steam passes through the blastpipe
to the chimney at high speed due to the confned vent of the
blastpipe. This creates a partial vacuum in the smokebo6 which
provides the draw of the air to the frebo6 and ensures that the
hot gases are drawn out of the frebo6 via the tubes in the
boiler.

5alve and /iston $orking
%n a steam engine* the movement of the valve ensures that
steam is admitted to and e6hausted from the cylinder at the
right moment. 5or a typical cylinder that has two ports* the
function of the valve is to admit superheated steam at one end
while allowing used or e6haust steam to escape at the other. As
a result of covering and uncovering these ports in seBuence*
the piston is pushed forward and backward by the high
pressure steam from the boiler. To regulate the movement of
the valve* a mechanical valve gear system is used and this is
discussed further in the following subsections.
To know how the valve afects the speed of the locomotive* we
have to understand a few terms which are common among
steam locomotives operators and enthusiasts. Cap refers to the
amount of overlap between the valve and the port. %n slow
moving locomotives* the long lap on the e6haust port gives
time for the steam trapped in the cylinder to e6pand fully to
push the piston. >n the other hand* on higher speed
locomotives the e6haust port is made to open early ?short lap@
when the valve is in mid$position thus allowing the steam to
escape faster. 5urthermore* higher speed locomotives also have
long lead which means that the admission port is already open
when the piston is at the end of its movement so there is a
su4cient steam pressure that will immediately pushes the
piston back to begin its ne6t movement.
=ut$of denotes the position of the piston* at the moment the
valve is closing the admission port. ,hen the engine is working
hard and slowly* long cut$of admits steam for most of the
stroke of the piston. >n fast running locomotives this will cause
back pressure to the boiler. To avoid unnecessary back
pressure* cut$of is reduced so that steam is admitted for only
)2F of the piston stroke and the remainder of the stroke is due
to the e6pansion of the high pressure steam.
The indicator diagram such as the one above was used by
steam locomotive engineers during the steam era to estimate
the locomotiveIs e4ciency in converting the steamIs energy
into useful power at various speeds and cut$ofs. The hori<ontal
line >A shows the pressure as the steam enters the cylinder. At
cut$of* the pressure drops as the steam e6pands and does
work to push against the piston. After the e6haust port opens*
the line reverses ?=D@ to indicate the start of the return stroke
of the piston. %t shows the low pressure as the steam is
e6hausted. The line D! at the end of the return stroke registers
a pressure rise due to the compression of the remaining steam
after the e6haust port has closed. As fresh steam is admitted
into the cylinder* the pressure rises back to point > and the
cycle repeats.
0ne Cycle
)he *iesel +ngine
The modern diesel locomotive is a self contained version of the
electric locomotive. Cike the electric locomotive* it has electric
drive* in the form of traction motors driving the a6les and
controlled with electronic controls. %t also has many of the same
au6iliary systems for cooling* lighting* heating* braking and
hotel power ?if reBuired@ for the train.%t can operate over the
same routes ?usually@ and can be operated by the same drivers.
%t difers principally in that it carries its own generating station
around with it* instead of being connected to a remote
generating station through overhead wires or a third rail.The
generating station consists of a large diesel engine coupled to
an alternator producing the necessary electricity.A fuel tank is
also essential.The modern diesel locomotive produces about
/.F of the power of a electric locomotive of similar weight.
The most famous diesel$hydraulic locomotive is the 7erman#
)22* which were built from &;./ in a total number of &/-.
%n 5inland* over )22 5innish$built #1 class and Dr&( diesel$
hydraulics with #oith transmissions have been continuously
used since the early &;-2s. All units of Dr&( class and most
units of Dv&) class are still in service. #1 has abandoned some
weak$conditioned units of )+22 series Dv&)s.
%n the &;.2s*7eneral "otors Diesel of =anada built ( 7"D 7"DD$&
e6perimental locomotives
Parts of a Diesel-Electric
Locomotive
6iesel Engine
This is the main power source for the locomotive. %t comprises a
large cylinder block* with the cylinders arranged in a straight
line or in a #. The engine rotates the drive shaft at up to &*222
rpm and this drives the various items needed to power the
locomotive. As the transmission is electric* the engine is used
as the power source for the electricity generator or alternator*
as it is called nowadays.
#ain Alternator
The diesel engine drives the main alternator which provides the
power to move the train. The alternator generates A= electricity
which is used to provide power for the traction motors mounted
on the trucks ?bogies@.%n older locomotives* the alternator was a
D= machine* called a generator. %t produced direct current
which was used to provide power for D= traction motors. "any
of these machines are still in regular use. The ne6t
development was the replacement of the generator by the
alternator but still using D= traction motors. The A= output is
rectifed to give the D= reBuired for the motors.
Au7iliary Alternator
Cocomotives used to operate passenger trains are eBuipped
with an au6iliary alternator. This provides A= power for lighting*
heating* air conditioning* dining facilities etc. on the train. The
output is transmitted along the train through an au6iliary power
line. %n the :* it is known as Ahead end powerA or Ahotel
powerA. %n the :E* air conditioned passenger coaches get what
is called electric train supply ?!T@ from the au6iliary alternator.
#otor Blo2er
The diesel engine also drives a motor blower. As its name
suggests* the motor blower provides air which is blown over the
traction motors to keep them cool during periods of heavy
work. The blower is mounted inside the locomotive body but
the motors are on the trucks* so the blower output is connected
to each of the motors through He6ible ducting. The blower
output also cools the alternators. ome designs have separate
blowers for the group of motors on each truck and others for
the alternators. ,hatever the arrangement* a modern
locomotive has a comple6 air management system which
monitors the temperature of the various rotating machines in
the locomotive and adjusts the How of air accordingly.
Air Intakes
The air for cooling the locomotive3s motors is drawn in from
outside the locomotive. %t has to be fltered to remove dust and
other impurities and its How regulated by temperature* both
inside and outside the locomotive. The air management system
has to take account of the wide range of temperatures from the
possible J(2K= of summer to the possible $(2K= of winter.
1ecti3iers8Inverters
The output from the main alternator is A= but it can be used in
a locomotive with either D= or A= traction motors. D= motors
were the traditional type used for many years but* in the last &2
years* A= motors have become standard for new locomotives.
They are cheaper to build and cost less to maintain and* with
electronic management can be very fnely controlled.
To convert the A= output from the main alternator to D=*
rectifers are reBuired. %f the motors are D=* the output from the
rectifers is used directly. %f the motors are A=* the D= output
from the rectifers is converted to /$phase A= for the traction
motors.
%n the :* there are some variations in how the inverters are
confgured. 7" !"D relies on one inverter per truck* while 7!
uses one inverter per a6le $ both systems have their merits.
!"D3s system links the a6les within each truck in parallel*
ensuring wheel slip control is ma6imi<ed among the a6les
eBually. 9arallel control also means even wheel wear even
between a6les. Dowever* if one inverter ?i.e. one truck@ fails
then the unit is only able to produce .2 per cent of its tractive
efort. >ne inverter per a6le is more complicated* but the 7!
view is that individual a6le control can provide the best tractive
efort. %f an inverter fails* the tractive efort for that a6le is lost*
but full tractive efort is still available through the other fve
inverters. 0y controlling each a6le individually* keeping wheel
diameters closely matched for optimum performance is no
longer necessary.
Electronic Controls
Almost every part of the modern locomotive3s eBuipment has
some form of electronic control. These are usually collected in a
control cubicle near the cab for easy access. The controls will
usually include a maintenance management system of some
sort which can be used to download data to a portable or hand$
held computer.
Control Stand
This is the principal man$machine interface* known as a control
desk in the :E or control stand in the :. The common : type
of stand is positioned at an angle on the left side of the driving
position and* it is said* is much preferred by drivers to the
modern desk type of control layout usual in !urope and now
being ofered on some locomotives in the :.
Cab
The standard confguration of :$designed locomotives is to
have a cab at one end of the locomotive only. ince most the
: structure gauge is large enough to allow the locomotive to
have a walkway on either side* there is enough visibility for the
locomotive to be worked in reverse. Dowever* it is normal for
the locomotive to operate with the cab forwards. %n the :E and
many !uropean countries* locomotives are full width to the
structure gauge and cabs are therefore provided at both ends.
Batteries
Lust like an automobile* the diesel engine needs a battery to
start it and to provide electrical power for lights and controls
when the engine is switched of and the alternator is not
running.
Traction #otor
ince the diesel$electric locomotive uses electric transmission*
traction motors are provided on the a6les to give the fnal drive.
These motors were traditionally D= but the development of
modern power and control electronics has led to the
introduction of /$phase A= motors.
/inion84ear
The traction motor drives the a6le through a reduction gear of a
range between / to & ?freight@ and ( to & ?passenger@.
Fuel Tank
A diesel locomotive has to carry its own fuel around with it and
there has to be enough for a reasonable length of trip. The fuel
tank is normally under the loco frame and will have a capacity
of say &*222 imperial gallons ?:E =lass .;* /*222 hp@ or .*222
: gallons in a 7eneral !lectric A=((22=, (*(22 hp
locomotive. The new A=-222s have .*.22 gallon tanks. %n
addition to fuel* the locomotive will carry around* typically
about /22 : gallons of cooling water and ).2 gallons of
lubricating oil for the diesel engine.
Air 1eservoirs
Air reservoirs containing compressed air at high pressure are
reBuired for the train braking and some other systems on the
locomotive. These are often mounted ne6t to the fuel tank
under the Hoor of the locomotive.
Air Compressor
The air compressor is reBuired to provide a constant supply of
compressed air for the locomotive and train brakes. %n the :* it
is standard practice to drive the compressor of the diesel
engine drive shaft. %n the :E* the compressor is usually
electrically driven and can therefore be mounted anywhere.
The =lass -2 compressor is under the frame* whereas the =lass
/+ has the compressors in the nose.
6rive Sha3t
The main output from the diesel engine is transmitted by the
drive shaft to the alternators at one end and the radiator fans
and compressor at the other end.
4ear Bo7
The radiator and its cooling fan is often located in the roof of
the locomotive. Drive to the fan is therefore through a gearbo6
to change the direction of the drive upwards.
1adiator and 1adiator Fan
The radiator works the same way as in an automobile. ,ater is
distributed around the engine block to keep the temperature
within the most e4cient range for the engine. The water is
cooled by passing it through a radiator blown by a fan driven by
the diesel engine.
Turbo Charging
The amount of power obtained from a cylinder in a diesel
engine depends on how much fuel can be burnt in it. The
amount of fuel which can be burnt depends on the amount of
air available in the cylinder. o* if you can get more air into the
cylinder* more fuel will be burnt and you will get more power
out of your ignition. Turbo charging is used to increase the
amount of air pushed into each cylinder. The turbocharger is
driven by e6haust gas from the engine. This gas drives a fan
which* in turn* drives a small compressor which pushes the
additional air into the cylinder. Turbocharging gives a .2F
increase in engine power.
The main advantage of the turbocharger is that it gives more
power with no increase in fuel costs because it uses e6haust
gas as drive power. %t does need additional maintenance*
however* so there are some type of lower power locomotives
which are built without it.
Sand Bo7
Cocomotives always carry sand to assist adhesion in bad rail
conditions. and is not often provided on multiple unit trains
because the adhesion reBuirements are lower and there are
normally more driven a6les.
Truck Frame
This is the part ?called the bogie in the :E@ carrying the wheels
and traction motors of the locomotive.
#echanical Transmission
A diesel$mechanical locomotive is the simplest type of diesel
locomotive. As the name suggests* a mechanical transmission
on a diesel locomotive consists a direct mechanical link
between the diesel engine and the wheels. "ost of the parts
are similar to the diesel$electric locomotive but there are some
variations in design mentioned below.
Fluid Coupling
%n a diesel$mechanical transmission* the main drive shaft is
coupled to the engine by a Huid coupling. This is a hydraulic
clutch* consisting of a case flled with oil* a rotating disc with
curved blades driven by the engine and another connected to
the road wheels. As the engine turns the fan* the oil is driven
by one disc towards the other. This turns under the force of
the oil and thus turns the drive shaft. >f course* the start up
is gradual until the fan speed is almost matched by the blades.
The whole system acts like an automatic clutch to allow a
graduated start for the locomotive.
4earbo7
This does the same job as that on an automobile. %t varies the
gear ratio between the engine and the road wheels so that the
appropriate level of power can be applied to the wheels. 7ear
change is manual. There is no need for a separate clutch
because the functions of a clutch are already provided in the
Huid coupling.
Final 6rive
The diesel$mechanical locomotive uses a fnal drive similar to
that of a steam engine. The wheels are coupled to each other
to provide more adhesion. The output from the ($speed
gearbo6 is coupled to a fnal drive and reversing gearbo6 which
is provided with a transverse drive shaft and balance weights.
This is connected to the driving wheels by connecting rods.
Hydraulic Transmission
Dydraulic transmission works on the same principal as the Huid
coupling but it allows a wider range of AslipA between the
engine and wheels. %t is known as a AtorBue converterA.
,hen the train speed has increased su4ciently to match the
engine speed* the Huid is drained out of the torBue converter so
that the engine is virtually coupled directly to the locomotive
wheels. %t is virtually direct because the coupling is usually a
Huid coupling* to give some AslipA. Digher speed locomotives
use two or three torBue converters in a seBuence similar to
gear changing in a mechanical transmission and some have
used a combination of torBue converters and gears.
ome designs of diesel$hydraulic locomotives had two diesel
engines and two transmission systems* one for each bogie.
The design was poplar in 7ermany ?the #)22 series of
locomotives* for e6ample@ in the &;.2s and was imported into
parts of the :E in the &;-2s. Dowever* it did not work well in
heavy or e6press locomotive designs and has largely been
replaced by diesel$electric transmission.
$heel Slip
,heels slip is the bane of the driver trying to get a train away
smoothly. The tenuous contact between steel wheel and steel
rail is one of the weakest parts of the railway system.
Traditionally* the only cure has been a combination of the skill
of the driver and the selective use of sand to improve the
adhesion. Today* modern electronic control has produced a
very efective answer to this age old problem. The system is
called creep control.
!6tensive research into wheel slip showed that* even after a
wheelset starts to slip* there is still a considerable amount of
useable adhesion available for traction. The adhesion is
available up to a peak* when it will rapidly fall away to an
uncontrolled spin. "onitoring the early stages of slip can be
used to adjust the power being applied to the wheels so that
the adhesion is kept within the limits of the AcreepA towards the
peak level before the uncontrolled spin sets in.
The slip is measured by detecting the locomotive speed by
Doppler radar ?instead of the usual method using the rotating
wheels@ and comparing it to the motor current to see if the
wheel rotation matches the ground speed. %f there is a disparity
between the two* the motor current is adjusted to keep the slip
within the AcreepA range and keep the tractive efort at the
ma6imum level possible under the creep conditions.
6iesel #ultiple 9nits :6#9s;
The diesel engines used in D":s work on e6actly the same
principles as those used in locomotives* e6cept that the
transmission is normally mechanical with some form of gear
change system. D": engines are smaller and several are
used on a train* depending on the confguration. The diesel
engine is often mounted under the car Hoor and on its side
because of the restricted space available. #ibration being
transmitted into the passenger saloon has always been a
problem but some of the newer designs are very good in this
respect.
There are some diesel$electric D":s around and these normally
have a separate engine compartment containing the engine
and the generator or alternator.
The 6iesel Engine
The diesel engine was frst patented by Dr 1udolf Diesel ?&'.'$
&;&/@ in 7ermany in &';) and he actually got a successful
engine working by &';+. 0y &;&/* when he died* his engine
was in use on locomotives and he had set up a facility with
ul<er in wit<erland to manufacture them. Dis death was
mysterious in that he simply disappeared from a ship taking
him to Condon.
The diesel engine is a compression$ignition engine* as opposed
to the petrol ?or gasoline@ engine* which is a spark$ignition
engine. The spark ignition engine uses an electrical spark
from a Aspark plugA to ignite the fuel in the engine3s cylinders*
whereas the fuel in the diesel engine3s cylinders is ignited by
the heat caused by air being suddenly compressed in the
cylinder. At this stage* the air gets compressed into an area
&M).th of its original volume. This would be e6pressed as a
compression ratio of ). to &. A compression ratio of &- to &
will give an air pressure of .22 lbsMinN ?/... bar@ and will
increase the air temperature to over '22K5 ?()+K=@.
The advantage of the diesel engine over the petrol engine is
that it has a higher thermal capacity ?it gets more work out of
the fuel@* the fuel is cheaper because it is less refned than
petrol and it can do heavy work under e6tended periods of
overload. %t can however* in a high speed form* be sensitive
to maintenance and noisy* which is why it is still not popular for
passenger automobiles.
6iesel Engine Types
There are two types of diesel engine* the two$stroke engine and
the four$stroke engine. As the names suggest* they difer in
the number of movements of the piston reBuired to complete
each cycle of operation. The simplest is the two$stroke
engine. %t has no valves. The e6haust from the combustion
and the air for the new stroke is drawn in through openings in
the cylinder wall as the piston reaches the bottom of the
downstroke. =ompression and combustion occurs on the
upstroke. As one might guess* there are twice as many
revolutions for the two$stroke engine as for eBuivalent power in
a four$stroke engine.
The four$stroke engine works as follows: Downstroke & $ air
intake* upstroke & $ compression* downstroke ) $ power*
upstroke ) $ e6haust. #alves are reBuired for air intake and
e6haust* usually two for each. %n this respect it is more similar
to the modern petrol engine than the )$stroke design.
%n the :E* both types of diesel engine were used but the ($
stroke became the standard. The :E =lass .. ADelticA ?not
now in regular main line service@ unusually had a two$stroke
engine. %n the :* the 7eneral !lectric ?7!@ built locomotives
have ($stroke engines whereas 7eneral "otors ?7"@ always
used )$stroke engines until the introduction of their D;2"A=
-222 hp AD seriesA engine* which is a ($stroke design.
The reason for using one type or the other is really a Buestion
of preference. Dowever* it can be said that the )$stroke
design is simpler than the ($stroke but the ($stroke engine is
more fuel e4cient.
Si<e 6oes Count
0asically* the more power you need* the bigger the engine has
to be. !arly diesel engines were less than &22 horse power
?hp@ but today the : is building -222 hp locomotives. 5or a
:E locomotive of /*/22 hp ?=lass .'@* each cylinder will
produce about )22 hp* and a modern engine can double this if
the engine is turbocharged.
The ma6imum rotational speed of the engine when producing
full power will be about &222 rpm ?revolutions per minute@ and
the engine will idle at about (22 rpm. These relatively low
speeds mean that the engine design is heavy* as opposed to a
high speed* lightweight engine. Dowever* the :E DT ?Digh
peed Train* developed in the &;+2s@ engine has a speed of
&*.22 rpm and this is regarded as high speed in the railway
diesel engine category. The slow* heavy engine used in
railway locomotives will give low maintenance reBuirements
and an e6tended life.
There is a limit to the si<e of the engine which can be
accommodated within the railway loading gauge* so the power
of a single locomotive is limited. ,here additional power is
reBuired* it has become usual to add locomotives. %n the :*
where freight trains run into tens of thousands of tons weight*
four locomotives at the head of a train are common and several
additional ones in the middle or at the end are not unusual.
To 5 or not to 5
Diesel engines can be designed with the cylinders Ain$lineA*
Adouble bankedA or in a A#A. The double banked engine has
two rows of cylinders in line. "ost diesel locomotives now
have # form engines. This means that the cylinders are split
into two sets* with half forming one side of the #. A #' engine
has ( cylinders set at an angle forming one side of the # with
the other set of four forming the other side. The crankshaft*
providing the drive* is at the base of the #. The #&) was a
popular design used in the :E. %n the :* #&- is usual for
freight locomotives and there are some designs with #)2
engines.
!ngines used for D": ?diesel multiple unit@ trains in the :E are
often mounted under the Hoor of the passenger cars. This
restricts the design to in$line engines* which have to be
mounted on their side to ft in the restricted space.
An unusual engine design was the :E /*/22 hp =lass ..
locomotive* which had the cylinders arranged in three sets of
opposed #s in an triangle* in the form of an upturned delta*
hence the name ADelticA.
Tractive E33ort% /ull and /o2er
0efore going too much further* we need to understand the
defnitions of tractive efort* drawbar pull and power. The
defnition of tractive efort ?T!@ is simply the force e6erted at
the wheel rim of the locomotive and is usually e6pressed in
pounds ?lbs@ or kilo 8ewtons ?k8@. 0y the time the tractive
efort is transmitted to the coupling between the locomotive
and the train* the drawbar pull* as it is called will have reduced
because of the friction of the mechanical parts of the drive and
some wind resistance.
9ower is e6pressed as horsepower ?hp@ or kilo ,atts ?k,@ and is
actually a rate of doing work. A unit of horsepower is defned
as the work involved by a horse lifting //*222 lbs one foot in
one minute. %n the metric system it is calculated as the power
?,atts@ needed when one 8ewton of force is moved one metre
in one second. The formula is 9 O ?5Pd@Mt where 9 is power* 5
is force* d is distance and t is time. >ne horsepower eBuals
+(- ,atts.
The relationship between power and drawbar pull is that a low
speed and a high drawbar pull can produce the same power as
high speed and low drawbar pull. %f you need to increase
higher tractive efort and high speed* you need to increase the
power. To get the variations needed by a locomotive to
operate on the railway* you need to have a suitable means of
transmission between the diesel engine and the wheels.
>ne thing worth remembering is that the power produced by
the diesel engine is not all available for traction. %n a )*.'2 hp
diesel electric locomotive* some (.2 hp is lost to on$board
eBuipment like blowers* radiator fans* air compressors and
Ahotel powerA for the train.
Starting
A diesel engine is started ?like an automobile@ by turning over
the crankshaft until the cylinders AfreA or begin combustion.
The starting can be done electrically or pneumatically.
9neumatic starting was used for some engines. =ompressed
air was pumped into the cylinders of the engine until it gained
su4cient speed to allow ignition* then fuel was applied to fre
the engine. The compressed air was supplied by a small
au6iliary engine or by high pressure air cylinders carried by the
locomotive.
Fuel Control
Engine Control 6evelopment
o far we have seen a simple e6ample of diesel engine control
but the systems used by most locomotives in service today are
more sophisticated. To begin with* the drivers control was
combined with the governor and hydraulic control was
introduced. >ne type of governor uses oil to control the fuel
racks hydraulically and another uses the fuel oil pumped by a
gear pump driven by the engine. ome governors are also
linked to the turbo charging system to ensure that fuel does not
increase before enough turbocharged air is available. %n the
most modern systems* the governor is electronic and is part of
a complete engine management system.
/o2er Control
The diesel engine in a diesel-electric locomotive provides the drive for the
main alternator which, in turn, provides the power required for the
traction motors. We can see from this therefore, that the power
required from the diesel engine is related to the power required by the
motors. So, if we want more power from the motors, we must get more
current from the alternator so the engine needs to run faster to generate
it. Therefore, to get the optimum performance from the locomotive, we
must link the control of the diesel engine to the power demands being
made on the alternator.
In the days of generators, a comple electro-mechanical system was
developed to achieve the feedback required to regulate engine speed
according to generator demand. The core of the system was a load
regulator, basically a variable resistor which was used to very the
ecitation of the generator so that its output matched engine speed.
The control sequence !simplified" was as follows#
$. %river moves the power controller to the full power position
&. 'n air operated piston actuated by the controller moves a lever,
which closes a switch to supply a low voltage to the load regulator motor.
(. The load regulator motor moves the variable resistor to increase the
main generator field strength and therefore its output.
). The load on the engine increases so its speed falls and the governor
detects the reduced speed.
*. The governor weights drop and cause the fuel rack servo system to
actuate.
+. The fuel rack moves to increase the fuel supplied to the in,ectors and
therefore the power from the engine.
-. The lever !mentioned in & above" is used to reduce the pressure of
the governor spring.
.. When the engine has responded to the new control and governor
settings, it and the generator will be producing more power.
/n locomotives with an alternator, the load regulation is done
electronically. 0ngine speed is measured like modern speedometers, by
counting the frequency of the gear teeth driven by the engine, in this
case, the starter motor gearwheel. 0lectrical control of the fuel in,ection
is another improvement now adopted for modern engines. /verheating
can be controlled by electronic monitoring of coolant temperature and
regulating the engine power accordingly. /il pressure can be monitored
and used to regulate the engine power in a similar way.
Cooling
Cike an automobile engine* the diesel engine needs to work at
an optimum temperature for best e4ciency. ,hen it starts* it
is too cold and* when working* it must not be allowed to get too
hot. To keep the temperature stable* a cooling system is
provided. This consists of a water$based coolant circulating
around the engine block* the coolant being kept cool by passing
it through a radiator.
The coolant is pumped round the cylinder block and the
radiator by an electrically or belt driven pump. The
temperature is monitored by a thermostat and this regulates
the speed of the ?electric or hydraulic@ radiator fan motor to
adjust the cooling rate. ,hen starting the coolant isn3t
circulated at all. After all* you want the temperature to rise as
fast as possible when starting on a cold morning and this will
not happen if you a blowing cold air into your radiator. ome
radiators are provided with shutters to help regulate the
temperature in cold conditions.
%f the fan is driven by a belt or mechanical link* it is driven
through a Huid coupling to ensure that no damage is caused by
sudden changes in engine speed. The fan works the same
way as in an automobile* the air blown by the fan being used to
cool the water in the radiator. ome engines have fans with
an electrically or hydrostatically driven motor. An hydraulic
motor uses oil under pressure which has to be contained in a
special reservoir and pumped to the motor. %t has the
advantage of providing an in$built Huid coupling.
A problem with engine cooling is cold weather. ,ater free<es
at 2K= or /)K5 and fro<en cooling water will Buickly split a pipe
or engine block due to the e6pansion of the water as it free<es.
ome systems are Aself drainingA when the engine is stopped
and most in !urope are designed to use a mi6ture of anti$
free<e* with 7ycol and some form of rust inhibitor. %n the :*
engines do not normally contain anti$free<e* although the new
7" !"D ADA engines are designed to use it. 9roblems with
leaks and seals and the e6pense of putting a &22 gallons ?/+'..
litres@ of coolant into a /*222 hp engine* means that engines in
the : have traditionally operated without it. %n cold weather*
the engine is left running or the locomotive is kept warm by
putting it into a heated building or by plugging in a shore
supply. Another reason for keeping diesel engines running is
that the constant heating and cooling caused by shutdowns
and restarts* causes stresses in the block and pipes and tends
to produce leaks.
,ubrication
Cike an automobile engine* a diesel engine needs lubrication.
%n an arrangement similar to the engine cooling system*
lubricating oil is distributed around the engine to the cylinders*
crankshaft and other moving parts. There is a reservoir of oil*
usually carried in the sump* which has to be kept topped up*
and a pump to keep the oil circulating evenly around the
engine. The oil gets heated by its passage around the engine
and has to be kept cool* so it is passed through a radiator
during its journey. The radiator is sometimes designed as a
heat e6changer* where the oil passes through pipes encased in
a water tank which is connected to the engine cooling system.
The oil has to be fltered to remove impurities and it has to be
monitored for low pressure. %f oil pressure falls to a level
which could cause the engine to sei<e up* a Alow oil pressure
switchA will shut down the engine. There is also a high
pressure relief valve* to drain of e6cess oil back to the sump.
Transmissions
Cike an automobile* a diesel locomotive cannot start itself
directly from a stand. %t will not develop ma6imum power at
idling speed* so it needs some form of transmission system to
multiply torBue when starting. %t will also be necessary to
vary the power applied according to the train weight or the line
gradient. There are three methods of doing this:
mechanical* hydraulic or electric. "ost diesel locomotives use
electric transmission and are called Adiesel$electricA
locomotives. "echanical and hydraulic transmissions are still
used but are more common on multiple unit trains or lighter
locomotives.
6iesel!Electric Types
Diesel$electric locomotives come in three varieties* according
to the period in which they were designed. These three are:
D= $ D= ?D= generator supplying D= traction motors@G
A= $ D= ?A= alternator output rectifed to supply D= motors@
and
A= $ D= $ A= ?A= alternator output rectifed to D= and then
inverted to /$phase A= for the traction motors@.
The D= $ D= type has a generator supplying the D= traction
motors through a resistance control system* the A= $ D= type
has an alternator producing A= current which is rectifed to D=
and then supplied to the D= traction motors and* fnally* the
most modern has the A= alternator output being rectifed to D=
and then converted to A= ?/$phase@ so that it can power the /$
phase A= traction motors. Although this last system might
seem the most comple6* the gains from using A= motors far
outweigh the apparent comple6ity of the system. %n reality*
most of the eBuipment uses solid state power electronics with
microprocessor$based controls. 5or more details on A= and D=
traction* see the !lectronic 9ower 9age on this site.
%n the :* traction alternators ?A=@ were introduced with the
/222 hp single diesel engine locomotives* the frst being the
Alco =-/2. The D(2* D(. and 79(2 also had traction
alternators only. >n the 79/'* D/'* 79/;* and D/;s* traction
generators ?D=@ were standard* and traction alternators were
optional* until the dash$) era* when they became standard. %t
was a similar story at 7eneral !lectric.
There is one traction alternator ?or generator@ per diesel engine
in a locomotive ?standard 8orth American practice anyway@.
The Alco =-)' was the last locomotive to lead the horsepower
race with a D= traction alternator.
0elow is a diagram showing the main parts of a common :$
built diesel$electric locomotive. % have used the : e6ample
because of the large number of countries which use them.
There are obviously many variations in layout and !uropean
practice difers in many ways and we will note some of these in
passing.
Electric Engines
+lectric ,ocomotive -arts
This diagram shows an A= electric locomotive* i.e a locomotive
collecting A= power from an overhead line. The red lines on
the diagram indicate the single phase A= circuit* the green lines
the D= circuits and the purple lines the /$phase A= circuits. A
locomotive using D= traction current is similar* e6cept that
there is no single phase A= circuit or transformer. The current
passes directly from the pantograph ?or shoe@ to the main and
au6iliary inverters.
.synchronous /otor
"odern traction motor type using three phase A= electrical
supply and now the favoured design for modern train traction
systems. =an be used on D= and A= electrifed railways with
suitable control electronics and on diesel$electric locomotives.
ee the article on A= and D= "otors.
.xle Brush
The means by which the power supply circuit is completed with
the substation once power has been drawn on the locomotive.
=urrent collected from the overhead line or third rail is returned
via the a6le brush and one of the running rails. ee also
9ower upply $ return.
Battery
All trains are provided with a battery to provide start up current
and for supplying essential circuits* such as emergency lighting*
when the line supply fails. The battery is usually connected
across the D= control supply circuit.
Buchol( Relay
A device inserted in the oil cooling circuits of electric
locomotive transformers to detect low oil pressure. %n this
event the relay trips out the power system. >ften a source of
spurious circuit breaker trips if not carefully calibrated.
!amshaft
"ost D= electric traction power circuits use a camshaft to open
or close the contactors controlling the resistances of the
traction motor power circuit. The camshaft is driven by an
electric motor or pneumatic cylinder. The cams on the shaft
are arranged to ensure that the contactors open and close in
the correct seBuence. %t is controlled by commands from the
driver3s cab and regulated by the fall of current in the motor
circuit as each section of resistance is cut out in steps. The
sound of this camshaft stepping can be heard under many older
?pre electronics@ trains as they accelerate.
!annon Box
leeve used to mount a traction motor on a6le in electric power
bogies and sometimes including an a6le brush.
!hopper !ontrol
A development in electric traction control which eliminates the
need for power resistors by causing the voltage to the traction
motors to be switched on and of ?chopped@ very rapidly during
acceleration. %t is accomplished by the use of thyristors and
will give up to )2F improvement in e4ciency over
conventional resistance control.
!ircuit Breaker
An electric train is almost always provided with some sort of
circuit breaker to isolate the power supply when there is a fault*
or for maintenance. >n A= systems they are usually on the
roof near the pantograph. There are two types $ the air blast
circuit breaker and the vacuum circuit breaker or #=0. The air
or vacuum part is used to e6tinguish the arc which occurs as
the two tips of the circuit breaker are opened. The #=0 is
popular in the :E and the air blast circuit breaker is more often
seen on the continent of !urope.
!ontactor
imilar to a relay in that it is a remotely operated switch used
to control a higher power local circuit. The diference is that
contactors normally latch or lock closed and have to be opened
by a separate action. A lighting contactor will have two* low
voltage operating coils* one to AsetA the contactor closed to
switch on the lightsG the other to AtripA of the lights. =lick
here for diagrams and more detail.
!onverter
7eneric term for any solid state electronic system for
converting alternating current to direct current or vice versa.
,here an A= supply has to be converted to D= it is called a
rectifer and where D= is converted to A= it is called an
inverter. The word originated in the : but is now common
elsewhere.
!ooling Fans
To keep the thyristors and other electronic power systems cool*
the interior of a modern locomotive is eBuipped with an air
management system* electronically controlled to keep all
systems operating at the correct temperature. The fans are
powered by an au6iliary inverter producing /$phase A= at about
(22 volts.
!reep !ontrol
A form of electronically monitored acceleration control used
very efectively on some modern drive systems which permits a
certain degree of wheel slip to develop under ma6imum power
application. A locomotive can develop ma6imum slow speed
tractive efort if its wheels are turning between .F and &.F
faster than actually reBuired by the train speed.
*! ,ink
:sed on modern electronic power systems between the single
phase rectifer and the /$phase inverter. %t is easier to convert
the single phase A= from the overhead line to the /$phase
reBuired for the motors by rectifying it to D= and then inverting
the D= to /$phase A=.
*ynamic Braking
A train braking system using the traction motors of the power
vehicle?s@ to act as generators which provide the braking efort.
The power generated during braking is dissipated either as
heat through on$board resistors ?rheostatic braking@ or by
return to the traction supply line ?regenerative braking@. "ost
regenerative systems include on board resistors to allow
rheostatic braking if the traction supply system is not
receptive. The choice is automatically selected by the traction
control system. ee also the Dynamic 0rake section of our
0rakes 9age.
0rid
Train or locomotive mounted e6panded steel resistor used to
absorb e6cess electrical energy during motor or braking power
control. >ften seen on the roofs of diesel electric locomotives
where they are used to dissipate heat during dynamic braking.
0round Relay
An electrical relay provided in diesel and electric traction
systems to protect the eBuipment against damage from earths
and so$called AgroundsA. The result of such a relay operating is
usually a shut$down of the electrical drive. Also sometimes
called an !arth 5ault 1elay.
0)1 )hyristor
7ate Turn >f thyristor* a thyristor which does not reBuire a
commutation ?reverse How circuit@ circuit to switch it of.
20B)
"ost recent power electronics development. %t is replacing the
7T> thyristor as it is smaller and reBuires less current to
operate the switching seBuences.
2nverter
!lectronic power device mounted on trains to provide
alternating current from direct current. 9opular nowadays for
D= railways to allow three phase drive or for au6iliary supplies
which need an A= supply.
3erk ,imit
A means by which starting is smoothed by adjusting the rate of
acceleration of a train by limiting the initial acceleration rate
upon starting. %t could be described as limiting the initial rate
of change of acceleration. Also used in dynamic braking.
,ine Breaker
!lectro$mechanical switch in a traction motor power circuit
used to activate or disable the circuit. %t is normally closed to
start the train and remains closed all the time power is
reBuired. %t is opened by a command from the driving
controller* no$volts detected* overload detected and ?were
reBuired@ wheel spin or slide detected. %t is linked to the
overload and no$volt control circuits so that it actually functions
as a protective circuit breaker.
/aster !ontroller
Driver3s power control device located in the cab. The driver
moves the handle of the master controller to apply or reduce
power to the locomotive or train.
/otor Blowers
Traction motors on electric locomotives get very hot and* to
keep their temperature at a reasonable level for long periods of
hard work* they are usually ftted with electric fans called motor
blowers. >n a modern locomotive* they are powered by an
au6iliary /$phase A= supply of around (22 volts supplied by an
au6iliary inverter.
Notching Relay
A D= motor power circuit relay which detects the rise and fall of
current in the circuit and inhibits the operation of the resistance
contactors during the acceleration seBuence of automatically
controlled motors. The relay operates a contactor stepping
circuit so that* during acceleration of the motor* when the
current falls* the relay detects the fall and calls for the ne6t
step of resistance to be switched out of the circuit.
No'4olt Relay
A power circuit relay which detected if power was lost for any
reason and made sure that the control seBuence was returned
to the starting point before power could be re$applied.
1verload Relay
A power circuit relay which detected e6cessive current in the
circuit and switched of the power to avoid damage to the
motors.
-antograph
The current collection system used by locomotives and trains
on routes electrifed with overhead lines. The pantograph ?often
shortened to ApanA@ is held up by compressed air pressure. %t is
designed to collapse if it detects an obstruction. %t can also be
lowered manually to isolate the locomotive or train.
Rectifier
A converter consisting of thyristors and diodes which is used to
convert A= to D=. A modern locomotive will usually have at
least two* a A"ain 1ectiferA for the power circuits and one or
more for the au6iliary circuits.
Relay
A remotely controlled switch which uses a low voltage control
circuit. %t will close ?or open@ a switch in a local circuit* usually
of higher power. To see the principle of how it works* look
here.
Resistance !ontrol
"ethod of traction motor control formerly almost universal on
D= electric railways whereby the power to the motors was
gradually increased from start up by removing resistances from
the power circuit in steps. ee more here. >riginally this
step control was done manually but it was later automatic* a
relay in the circuit monitoring the rise and fall of current as the
steps were removed. "any e6amples of this system still
e6ist but new builds now use solid state control with power
electronics.
S+-+5
hort form of !9arate !Qcitement of traction motors where the
armature and feld coils of an electric motor are fed with
independently controlled current. This has been made much
more useful since the introduction of thyristor control where
motor control can be much more precise. !9!Q control also
allows a degree of automatic wheel slip control during
acceleration.
Shoegear
!Buipment carried by a train and used for current collection on
track mounted ?third rail@ power supply systems. hoegear is
usually mounted on the bogies close to the third rail. %t is often
eBuipped with devices to enable it to be retracted if reBuired to
isolate the car or on$board system which it supplies.
Synchronous /otor
Traction motor where the feld coils are mounted on the drive
shaft and the armature coils in the housing* the inverse of
normal practice. 5avoured by the 5rench and used on the high
speed T7# AtlantiBue trains* this is a single$phase machine
controlled by simple inverter. 8ow superseded by the
asynchronous motor.
)ap !hanger
=amshaft operated set of switches used on A= electric
locomotives to control the voltage taken of the main
transformer for traction motor power. uperseded by thyristor
control.
)hyristor
A type of diode with a controlling gate which allows current to
pass through it when the gate is energised. The gate is closed
by the current being applied to the thyristor in the reverse
direction. Thyristors ?also referred to as choppers@ are used for
traction power control in place of resistance control systems.
A 7T> ?7ate Turn >f@ thyristor is a development in which
current is turned of is by applying a pulse of current to the
gate.
)ransformer
A set of windings with a magnetic core used to step down or
step up a voltage from one level to another. The voltage
diferences are determined by the proportion of windings on the
input side compared with the proportion on the output side.
An essential reBuirement for locomotives and trains using A=
power* where the line voltage has to be stepped down before
use on the train.
)ransistor
The original electronic solid state device capable of controlling
the amount of current Howing as well as switching it on and of.
%n the last few years* a powerful version has been applied to
railway traction in the form of the %nsulated 7ate 0ipolar
Transistor ?%70T@. %ts principle advantage over the 7T>
Thyristor is its speed of switching and that its controls reBuire
much smaller current levels.
Wheel Spin
>n a steam locomotive* the driver must reduce the steam
admission to the cylinders by easing closed ?or partially closed@
the throttleMregulator when he hears the wheels start to spin.
>n diesel or electric locomotives* the current drawn by
individual or groups of traction motors are compared $ the
motor ?or group@ which draws proportionally less amps than the
others is deemed to be in a state of slip $ and the power is
reduced. ome systems $ !"D uper eries for one $ measure
known wheel speed against ground speed as registered on a
Doppler 1adar. "any locomotives additionally use sand* which
is applied to the wheelMrail contact point to improve adhesion $
this is either controlled automatically* or manually by the driver
?5oamerR 8o ,ay* ). Apr ;'@.
Wheel Spin Relay 6WSR7
A relay in older traction motor control circuits used to detect
wheel spin or slide by measuring the current levels in a pair of
motors on a bogie and comparing them. The idea is to prevent
motor damage by preventing an overspeeding motor causing
an unacceptable rise in current in the other motor of the pair.
%f detected* the imbalance causes the control circuits to open
the line breakers and reset the power control to the start
position like a Ano$voltA relay.
Suspension Systems
Introduction
Almost all railway vehicles use bogies ?trucks in : parlance@ to
carry and guide the body along the track. 0ogie suspension
design is a comple6 and di4cult science which has evolved
over many years. ome of the signifcant steps in progress are
described here.
6evelopment
%t was recognised very early in the development of railways
that the interface between vehicle body and wheel needed
some sort of cushion system to reduce the vibration felt as the
train moved along the line. This was already part of road
coach design and took the form of leaf ?laminated@ steel springs
mounted on the a6les* upon which the vehicle body rested.
1ailways in the :E used the same principle* as shown here.
The spring consisted of a set of diferent length steel plates
arranged with the longest at the top and the shortest at the
base of the set. They were held together with a steel strap in
the centre. This strap formed the point of contact with the
a6lebo6. The laminations or AleavesA of steel gave rise to the
Aleaf springA name more commonly used today. They were also
referred to asAellipticalA springs* on account of the curved
shape they often formed.
The top steel plate of the spring was secured to the vehicle
underframe by having the ends wrapped round steel pins. The
pins* two for each spring assembly* were f6ed to the
underframe. ,hen mounted on the wheelset* the vehicle body
weight was transmitted through the pins and the laminated
steel spring to the a6lebo6.
The a6lebo6 was only allowed vertical movement* since it was
restrained by two AhornsA e6tending down from the
underframe. The horns had Ahorn guidesA ?not shown@ to
ensure security and to prevent twisting.
/late Frame Bogie /rimary Suspension
The natural progression from the rigid framed vehicles used in
the early days of !uropean railways to a bogie vehicle brought
with it a more sophisticated suspension system. This system
was based on a steel plate framed bogie with laminated spring
a6lebo6 suspension* much as seen on the frst vehicles* and
with a secondary suspension added between the car body and
the bogie. 5irst* we look at the primary suspension.
The diagram above shows a plate framed bogie with the
primary* a6lebo6 suspension. The secondary* bolster
suspension is left out for simplicity. The bogie carries half the
car weight which is then divided roughly eBually between the
two a6les. %f we said the whole vehicle weight was /2 tonnes*
each bogie would carry &. tonnes and each a6le +.. tonnes.
5or a civil engineer wanting to know the stresses on his
structures and track* we would tell him we had a +.. tonne a6le
load. >f course* we would include the carrying load of
passengers and freight in this calculation.
1eturning to the primary suspension design* we see that the
laminated a6lebo6 spring is ftted with two Aspring hangersA
attached to the outer ends of the longest spring plate. !ach
hanger passes through a hole in a bracket attached to the
bogie frame and is screwed into another bracket at the bottom
end. 0etween the two brackets is a steel or rubber spring.
The weight of the bogie on the a6lebo6 is transmitted through
the steel laminated spring and the two spring hangers. !ach
spring hanger and its associated spring carries &M&-th of the
total car weight. The height of the bogie relative to the rail
level could be adjusted by using the screwed spring hangers.
The adjustment allowed for small variations in wheel diameter.
/late Frame Bogie Secondary Suspension
The secondary suspension of the bogie is mounted crosswise
?transversely@ in the centre. !nd on* it looks as shown
below8
The bogie has a pair of transverse members called AtransomsA.
They are riveted or welded ?depending on the design@ to the
bogie side frames. A steel Aswing linkA is hung from each end
of each transom and a spring plank is laid across the bogie
between them. A side view of the bogie below shows the way
the spring plank is supported by the swing links.
The spring plank rests on bearer rods suspended between the
swing links. This arrangement allows the spring plank to rock
from side to side and it will act in opposition to sideways
movement of the bogie frame. The spring plank* as its name
suggests* carries springs* as shown in the ne6t diagram.
A pair of steel coil springs ?shown in red@ rest on each end of
the spring plank. >n top of them sits the bogie bolster. The
bolster carries the vehicle body. The body is located by a
centre bearing* using a pin ftted to the underframe of the body
and steadied by two side bearers. The side bearers are Hat to
allow the body to slide on the bearer so that the bogie can turn
about the centre pin.
This type of arrangement began to be replaced by more
modern designs from the &;-2s but it is still common around
the world and there are many variations. 8evertheless* the
basic principles of primary and secondary suspension on bogies
are standard throughout.
Cast Steel Bogies
%n the :* cast steel was the most popular material for bogies
and a simple basic design evolved as we can see in the
diagram left.
%n its simplest form* as used under the standard American
freight car* sprung suspension was only provided for the
bolster. The bogie consisted of three main parts $ the bolster
and the two side frames. The basic arrangement provided for
a set of steel coil springs provided inside an opening in each
side frame of the bogie. The bogie bolster ?truck bolster in the
:@ was mounted on top of these springs and held in place by
guides cast into or bolted onto the bolster. The a6lebo6es were
not sprung and merely slotted into the frame* which rested
directly on them. The ride wasn3t soft but it was adeBuate.
ome later versions of this truck have a6lebo6 springs $ simple
coil springs inserted between the top of the a6lebo6 and the
truck frame.
>f course* nothing is a simple as it looks as frst sight. o it is
with the : freight truck* which is actually a bit more
complicated than seen above. %f you bear in mind that a
freight car can become fve times heavier when it is loaded
than when it is empty* it becomes clear that the suspension
must be stronger to carry the load. The : type has a second
set of bolster springs as shown left.
The second set of springs only comes into contact with the
truck bolster when it is depressed by the e6tra weight loaded
on the vehicle. The loaded springs are stifer than the empty
springs so that the stability is maintained regardless of the load
applied. These loaded springs are normally ftted with friction
blocks ?not shown for simplicity@ on top to allow proper
alignment and to regulate the reaction of the spring to the load.
5reight bogies in !urope and :E are also ftted with load
compensation systems using double springs and friction
damping devices but they are usually more comple6 than the
simple : design.
E=ualiser Bar Suspension
A design popular in the : was the eBualiser bar truck* which
we can see in the following simplifed diagram. %t was also
known as the =ommonwealth 0ogie.
The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction*
with simple horn guides attached* allowing the a6lebo6es
vertical movements between them. The a6lebo6es had a cast
steel eBualiser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two
steel coil springs placed on it and the truck frame rested on the
springs. The efect was to allow the bar to act as a
compensating lever between the two a6les and to use both
springs to soften shocks from either a6le. The truck had a
conventional bolster suspension with swing links carrying a
spring plank. %n a reversal of 0ritish practice* the eBualiser bar
truck had leaf springs supporting the bolster and coil springs
acting as the primary suspension.
1ubber Suspension
teel springs provide a solid and reliable cushion for vehicle
suspension but steel is heavy and reBuires maintenance
because of wear and rust. 1ubber however* if it could be
produced with su4cient strength and durability* could perform
the same function and it was used for minor parts of steel
suspension systems from the late &;th century. Then* in the
&;.2s* some !": trains were eBuipped with rubber packs
replacing the steel in both primary and secondary suspension
positions.
The a6lebo6 is specially shaped* as shown here* to allow the
ftting of rubber packs at an angle which will allow the forces to
be transmitted to the bogie frame. %n some designs used by
the Condon :nderground for many years* a cast steel yoke was
provided to carry the a6lebo6 and rubber chevrons which
formed the suspension packs. The yoke was adjustable ?not
shown@ relative to the bogie frame to permit some variation in
its position to compensate for wheel wear.
0olster suspensions were also redesigned at this time to allow
rubber to be used instead of steel. Angled rubber packs*
shaped like chevrons like the a6lebo6 suspension* replaced the
traditional steel springs and were Buite successful until they
were superseded in later designs by air springs.
Although successful in lighter applications* rubber suspensions
can reBuire careful design to be an efective and reliable
alternative to steel because sometimes strange efects on other
parts of a train can appear. >ne well documented case* in
Condon :nderground* describes how the performance of
traction motor brushes deteriorated when rubber suspension
was introduced in the early &;-2s. !6tensive trials were
needed before the cause and the cure* a modifed form of
motor brush tension spring* was fnally discovered.
Air Suspension
%t was only a matter of time before trains began using
compressed air in their suspension system. They frst
appeared in the &;-2s and were considered somewhat of a
novelty at the time but* nowadays* air suspension is a standard
ftting for passenger vehicles.
Apart from the provision of a better ride* air suspension has one
additional feature rare on conventional steel or rubber
suspension systems $ the ability to provide an accurate
loadMweight signal which can be used to modify the
acceleration and braking of a multiple unit train. A
diagrammatic arrangement of an air sprung bogie is shown
below.
The weight of the car body ?well* half of it* since the other half
is carried by the other bogie@ rests on the air bag* which is
mounted on the top of the bogie frame. =ompressed air is fed
into the air bag through a levelling valve attached to the
underside of the car body. The valve is operated by a lever
attached to one end of a link* whose other end is f6ed to the
bogie frame. Any vertical movement between the car body
and the bogie is detected by the lever which adjusts the
levelling valve accordingly.
,hen the load on the car is changed at a station by passengers
boarding and alighting* the weight of the body changes and the
levelling valve adjusts the air pressure in the air bags to
match. The efect is that the car body maintains almost a
constant height from rail level* regardless of load. % say almost
a constant height because the primary springs will depress to
some degree with the additional load. %f the car load is
reduced* the levelling valve will allow e6cess air pressure to
escape. This can sometimes be heard as an intermittent
gentle hissing from under the cars at a terminus as all the
passengers alight from a modern coach.
%n this transverse view of a car with air suspension* the two air
bags provided on a bogie can be seen. %nside each is a solid
rubber suspension pack su4ciently strong to carry the
suspension load* retained in case the air bag should burst or
the air supply is lost.
>ne other feature of air suspension systems is that they can
only alter the air bag pressure when the train is stationary.
=onstant changes of vehicle height would cause e6cessive
bouncing if the system operated while the train was running.
The levelling valve is automatically locked out of use when the
train is moving or when the doors are closed $ depending on
design.
This type of arrangement often uses a bolsterless truck or
bogie* as shown is the diagrams above. %t is a very simple
design where the bogie frame is fabricated* usually in welded
bo6$sections* into the form of the letter D. The crossbar of the
D is where the bolster would be. %t is called the transom.
%nstead of being suspended on springs it is solid with the side
pieces. The car body ?secondary@ suspension is through the air
bags mounted on the ends of the AcrossbarA of the D. This
type of bogie is now popular on passenger rolling stock.
Braking Systems
Air Brakes
Introduction
The air brake is the standard* fail$safe* train brake used by
railways all over the world. %n spite of what you might think*
there is no mystery to it. %t is based on the simple physical
properties of compressed air. o here is a simplifed
description of the air brake system.
Basics
A moving train contains energy* known as kinetic energy* which
needs to be removed from the train in order to cause it to stop.
The simplest way of doing this is to convert the energy into
heat. The conversion is usually done by applying a contact
material to the rotating wheels or to discs attached to the
a6les. The material creates friction and converts the kinetic
energy into heat. The wheels slow down and eventually the
train stops. The material used for braking is normally in the
form of a block or pad.
The vast majority of the world3s trains are eBuipped with
braking systems which use compressed air as the force to push
blocks on to wheels or pads on to discs. These systems are
known as Aair brakesA or Apneumatic brakesA. The compressed
air is transmitted along the train through a Abrake pipeA.
=hanging the level of air pressure in the pipe causes a change
in the state of the brake on each vehicle. %t can apply the
brake* release it or hold it AonA after a partial application. The
system is in widespread use throughout the world.
The /rincipal /arts o3 the Air Brake System
Compressor
The pump which draws air from atmosphere and compresses it
for use on the train. %ts principal use is is for the air brake
system* although compressed air has a number of other uses
on trains.
#ain 1eservoir
torage tank for compressed air for braking and other
pneumatic systems.
6river's Brake 5alve
The means by which the driver controls the brake. The brake
valve will have ?at least@ the following positions: A1eleaseA*
A1unningA* ACapA and AApplicationA and A!mergencyA. There
may also be a Ahut DownA position* which locks the valve out
of use.
The A1eleaseA position connects the main reservoir to the brake
pipe . This raises the air pressure in the brake pipe as Buickly
as possible to get a rapid release after the driver gets the signal
to start the train.
%n the A1unningA position* the feed valve is selected. This
allows a slow feed to be maintained into the brake pipe to
counteract any small leaks or losses in the brake pipe*
connections and hoses.
ACapA is used to shut of the connection between the main
reservoir and the brake pipe and to close of the connection to
atmosphere after a brake application has been made. %t can
only be used to provide a partial application. A partial release is
not possible with the common forms of air brake* particularly
those used on : freight trains.
AApplicationA closes of the connection from the main reservoir
and opens the brake pipe to atmosphere. The brake pipe
pressure is reduced as air escapes. The driver ?and any
observer in the know@ can often hear the air escaping.
"ost driver3s brake valves were ftted with an A!mergencyA
position. %ts operation is the same as the AApplicationA
position* e6cept that the opening to atmosphere is larger to
give a Buicker application.
Feed 5alve
To ensure that brake pipe pressure remains at the reBuired
level* a feed valve is connected between the main reservoir and
the brake pipe when the A1unningA position is selected. This
valve is set to a specifc operating pressure. Diferent railways
use diferent pressures but they generally range between -.
and ;2 psi ?(.. to -.) bar@.
E=ualising 1eservoir
This is a small pilot reservoir used to help the driver select the
right pressure in the brake pipe when making an application.
,hen an application is made* moving the brake valve handle to
the application position does not discharge the brake pipe
directly* it lets air out of the eBualising reservoir. The
eBualising reservoir is connected to a relay valve ?called the
AeBualising discharge valveA and not shown in my diagram@
which detects the drop in pressure and automatically lets air
escape from the brake pipe until the pressure in the pipe is the
same as that in the eBualising reservoir.
The eBualising reservoir overcomes the di4culties which can
result from a long brake pipe. A long pipe will mean that small
changes in pressure selected by the driver to get a low rate of
braking will not be seen on his gauge until the change in
pressure has stabilised along the whole train. The eBualising
reservoir and associated relay valve allows the driver to select
a brake pipe pressure without having to wait for the actual
pressure to settle down along a long brake pipe before he gets
an accurate reading.
0rake 9ipe
The pipe running the length of the train* which transmits the
variations in pressure reBuired to control the brake on each
vehicle. %t is connected between vehicles by He6ible hoses*
which can be uncoupled to allow vehicles to be separated.
The use of the air system makes the brake Afail safeA* i.e. loss
of air in the brake pipe will cause the brake to apply. 0rake
pipe pressure loss can be through a number of causes as
follows:
A controlled reduction of pressure by the driver
A rapid reduction by the driver using the emergency
position on his brake valve
A rapid reduction by the conductor ?guard@ who has an
emergency valve at his position
A rapid reduction by passengers ?on some railways@ using
an emergency system to open a valve
A rapid reduction through a burst pipe or hose
A rapid reduction when the hoses part as a result of the
train becoming parted or derailed.
Angle Cocks
At the ends of each vehicle* Aangle cocksA are provided to allow
the ends of the brake pipe hoses to be sealed when the vehicle
is uncoupled. The cocks prevent the air being lost from the
brake pipe.
Coupled Hoses
The brake pipe is carried between adjacent vehicles through
He6ible hoses. The hoses can be sealed at the outer ends of
the train by closing the angle cocks.
Brake Cylinder
!ach vehicle has at least one brake cylinder. ometimes two
or more are provided. The movement of the piston contained
inside the cylinder operates the brakes through links called
AriggingA. The rigging applies the blocks to the wheels. ome
modern systems use disc brakes. The piston inside the brake
cylinder moves in accordance with the change in air pressure in
the cylinder.
Au7iliary 1eservoir
The operation of the air brake on each vehicle relies on the
diference in pressure between one side of the triple valve
piston and the other. %n order to ensure there is always a
source of air available to operate the brake* an Aau6iliary
reservoirA is connected to one side of the piston by way of the
triple valve. The How of air into and out of the au6iliary
reservoir is controlled by the triple valve.
Brake Block
This is the friction material which is pressed against the surface
of the wheel tread by the upward movement of the brake
cylinder piston. >ften made of cast iron or some composition
material* brake blocks are the main source of wear in the brake
system and reBuire regular inspection to see that they are
changed when reBuired.
"any modern braking systems use air operated disc brakes.
These operate to the same principles as those used on road
vehicles.
Brake 1igging
This is the system by which the movement of the brake cylinder
piston transmits pressure to the brake blocks on each wheel.
1igging can often be comple6* especially under a passenger car
with two blocks to each wheel* making a total of si6teen.
1igging reBuires careful adjustment to ensure all the blocks
operated from one cylinder provide an even rate of application
to each wheel. %f you change one block* you have to check
and adjust all the blocks on that a6le.
Triple 5alve
The operation of the brake on each vehicle is controlled by the
Atriple valveA* so called because it originally comprised three
valves $ a Aslide valveA* incorporating a Agraduating valveA and
a Aregulating valveA. %t also has functions $ to release the
brake* to apply it and to hold it at the current level of
application. The triple valve contains a slide valve which
detects changes in the brake pipe pressure and rearranges the
connections inside the valve accordingly. %t either:
recharges the au6iliary reservoir and opens the brake
cylinder e6haust*
closes the brake cylinder e6haust and allows the au6iliary
reservoir air to feed into the brake cylinder
or holds the air pressures in the au6iliary reservoir and
brake cylinder at the current level.
The triple valve is now usually replaced by a distributor $ a
more sophisticated version with built$in refnements like
graduated release.
0peration on Each 5ehicle
Brake 1elease
This diagram shows the condition of the brake cylinder* triple
valve and au6iliary reservoir in the brake release position.
The driver has placed the brake valve in the A1eleaseA position.
9ressure in the brake pipe is rising and enters the triple valve
on each car* pushing the slide valve provided inside the triple
valve to the left. The movement of the slide valve allows a
Afeed grooveA above it to open between the brake pipe and the
au6iliary reservoir* and another connection below it to open
between the brake cylinder and an e6haust port. The feed
groove allows brake pipe air pressure to enter the au6iliary
reservoir and it will recharge it until its pressure is the same as
that in the brake pipe. At the same time* the connection at the
bottom of the slide valve will allow any air pressure in the brake
cylinder to escape through the e6haust port to atmosphere. As
the air escapes* the spring in the cylinder will push the piston
back and cause the brake blocks to be removed from contact
with the wheels. The train brakes are now released and the
au6iliary reservoirs are being replenished ready for another
brake application.
Brake Application
This diagram ?left@ shows the condition of the brake cylinder*
triple valve and au6iliary reservoir in the brake application
position.
The driver has placed the brake valve in the AApplicationA
position. This causes air pressure in the brake pipe to escape.
The loss of pressure is detected by the slide valve in the triple
valve. 0ecause the pressure on one side ?the brake pipe side@
of the valve has fallen* the au6iliary reservoir pressure on the
other side has pushed the valve ?towards the right@ so that the
feed groove over the valve is closed. The connection between
the brake cylinder and the e6haust underneath the slide valve
has also been closed. At the same time a connection between
the au6iliary reservoir and the brake cylinder has been opened.
Au6iliary reservoir air now feeds through into the brake
cylinder. The air pressure forces the piston to move against
the spring pressure and causes the brake blocks to be applied
to the wheels. Air will continue to pass from the au6iliary
reservoir to the brake cylinder until the pressure in both is
eBual. This is the ma6imum pressure the brake cylinder will
obtain and is eBuivalent to a full application. To get a full
application with a reasonable volume of air* the volume of the
brake cylinder is usually about (2F of that of the au6iliary
reservoir.
,ap
The purpose of the ACapA position is to allow the brake rate to
be held constant after a partial application has been made.
,hen the driver places the brake valve in the ACapA position
while air is escaping from the brake pipe* the escape is
suspended. The brake pipe pressure stops falling. %n each
triple valve* the suspension of this loss of brake pipe pressure is
detected by the slide valve because the au6iliary pressure on
the opposite side continues to fall while the brake pipe pressure
stops falling. The slide valve therefore moves towards the
au6iliary reservoir until the connection to the brake cylinder is
closed of. The slide valve is now half$way between its
application and release positions and the air pressures are now
is a state of balance between the au6iliary reservoir and the
brake pipe. The brake cylinder is held constant while the port
connection in the triple valve remains closed. The brake is
AlappedA.
Cap does not work after a release has been initiated. >nce the
brake valve has been placed in the A1eleaseA position* the slide
valves will all be moved to enable the recharge of the au6iliary
reservoirs. Another application should not be made until
su4cient time has been allowed for this recharge. The length
of time will depend on the amount of air used for the previous
application and the length of the train.
Additional Features o3 the Air Brake
,hat we have seen so far is the basics of the air brake system.
>ver the &/2 years since its invention* there have been a
number of improvements as described below.
Emergency Air Brake
"ost air brake systems have an A!mergencyA position on the
driver3s brake valve. This position dumps the brake pipe air
Buickly. Although the ma6imum amount of air which can be
obtained in the brake cylinders does not vary on a standard air
brake system* the rate of application is faster in A!mergencyA.
ome triple valves are ftted with sensor valves which detect a
sudden drop in brake pipe pressure and then locally drop brake
pipe pressure. This has the efect of speeding up the drop in
pressure along the train $ it increases the Apropagation rateA.
Emergency 1eservoirs
ome air brake systems use emergency reservoirs. These are
provided on each car like the au6iliary reservoir and are
recharged from the brake pipe in a similar way. Dowever* they
are only used in an emergency* usually being triggered by the
triple valve sensing a sudden drop in brake pipe pressure. A
special version of the triple valve ?a distributor@ is reBuired for
cars ftted with emergency reservoirs.
6istributors
A distributor performs the same function as the triple valve* it3s
just a more sophisticated version. Distributors have the ability
to connect an emergency reservoir to the brake system on the
vehicle and to recharge it. Distributors may also have a partial
release facility* something not usually available with triple
valves.
A modern distributor will have:
a Buick service feature $ where a small chamber inside the
distributor is used to accept brake pipe air to assist in the
transmission of pressure reduction down the train
a reapplication feature $ allowing the brake to be Buickly
re$applied after a partial release
a graduated release feature $ allowing a partial release
followed by a holding of the lower application rate
a connection for a variable load valve $ allowing brake
cylinder pressure to adjust to the weight of the vehicle
chokes ?which can be changed@ to allow variations in
brake application and release times
an inshot feature $ to give an initial Buick application to
get the blocks on the wheels
brake cylinder pressure limiting
au6iliary reservoir overcharging prevention.
All of these features are achieved with no electrical control.
The control systems comprise diaphragms and springs
arranged in a series of comple6 valves and passages within the
steel valve block. Distributors with all these features will
normally be provided on passenger trains or specialist high$
speed freight vehicles.
T2o /ipe Systems
A problem with the design of the standard air brake is that it is
possible to use up the air in the au6iliary reservoir more Buickly
than the brake pipe can recharge it. "any runaways have
resulted from overuse of the air brake so that no au6iliary
reservoir air is available for the much needed last application.
1ead Al Erug3s paper 8orth American 5reight Train 0rakes for a
detailed description of how this happens. The problem can be
overcome with a two$pipe system as shown in the simplifed
diagram below.
The second pipe of the two$pipe system is the main reservoir
pipe. This is simply a supply pipe running the length of the
train which is fed from the compressor and main reservoir. %t
performs no control function but it is used to overcome the
problem of critical loss of pressure in the au6iliary reservoirs on
each car. A connecting pipe* with a one$way valve* is provided
between the main reservoir pipe and the au6iliary reservoir.
The one$way valve allows air from the main reservoir pipe to
top up the au6iliary reservoir. The one$way feature of the
valve prevents a loss of au6iliary reservoir air if the main
reservoir pressure is lost.
Another advantage of the two$pipe system is its ability to
provide a Buick release. 0ecause the recharging of the
au6iliaries is done by the main reservoir pipe* the brake pipe
pressure increase which signals a brake release is used just to
trigger the brake release on each car* instead of having to
supply the au6iliaries as well.
Two pipe systems have distributors in place of triple valves.
>ne feature of the distributor is that it is designed to restrict
the brake cylinder pressure so that* while enough air is
available to provide a full brake application* there isn3t so much
that the brake cylinder pressure causes the blocks to lock the
wheels and cause a skid. This is an essential feature if the
au6iliary reservoir is being topped up with main reservoir air*
which is usually kept at a higher pressure than brake pipe air.
8eedless to say* ftting a second pipe to every railway vehicle is
an e6pensive business so it is always the aim of the brake
eBuipment designer to allow backward compatibility $ in much
the same way as new computer programs are usually
compatible with older versions. "ost vehicles ftted with
distributors or two$pipe systems can be operated in trains with
simple one$pipe systems and triple valves* subject to the
correct set$up during train formation.
Sel3 ,apping Brake 5alves
elf lapping is the name given to a brake controller which is
position sensitive* i.e. the amount of application depends on
the position of the brake valve handle between full release and
full application. The closer the brake handle is to full
application* the greater the application achieved on the train.
The brake valve is ftted with a pressure sensitive valve which
allows a reduction in brake pipe pressure according to the
position of the brake valve handle selected by the driver. This
type of brake control is popular on passenger locomotives.
0ther Air 0perated E=uipment
>n an air braked train* the compressed air supply is used to
provide power for certain other functions besides braking.
These include door operation* whistlesMhorns* traction
eBuipment* pantograph operation and rail sanders.
Comment
The air brake system is undoubtedly one of the most enduring
features of railway technology. %t has lasted from its initial
introduction in &'-; to the present day and in some places* still
hardly diferent from its #ictorian origins. There have been
many improvements over the years but the skill reBuired to
control any train ftted with pure pneumatic brake control is still
only acBuired with long hours of practice and care at every
stage of the operation. %t is often said that whilst it is easy to
start a train* it can be very di4cult to stop it. Al Erug3s paper
8orth American 5reight Train 0rakes describes how di4cult this
can be. 9erhaps the trainman3s skill is not Buite dead yet.

Into the future
!agnetic Levitation
Emerging Technologies
Introduction

/agnetic levitation has een around for years, ut with advances in
technology it may ecome a part of everyday life. )he main emphasis for
magnetic levitation is for transportation. /agnetically levitated ground
transportation, or 9/aglev:, is an advanced mode of surface high speed
transportation wherey a vehicle gliding aove a guideway is suspended,
guided, and propelled y magnetic forces. !an you imagine a train that that
actually floats in air ; to < inches in the air and travels up to =>> mph. )his
technology can reduce air and highway congestion, air pollution, and petroleum
use.

Traditional Systems

)he transportation system in the ?nited States has een much admired
around the world. 1ur extensive highway and air systems have facilitated
usiness and leisure travel and contriuted to a high @uality of life for many
.mericans. 2n "%%>, ;$% million passengers traveled =;$ illion passenger
miles on commercial airlines. .mericans traveled $ trillion passenger miles
my car, truck, us, and pulic transit, and <." illion passenger miles on
.mtrak. .s population have grown and shifted, however, the traditional
systems have ecome stressed. !ongestion on highways and at airports,
especially since Septemer "", not only wastes time and fuel increases, ut also
constrains moility to the extent that economic growth and productivity are
adversely affected. Some of the current concerns are the rising costs. ,and is
costly and ecoming more scarce. .dding more highway lanes and uilding
new airports in or near our larger cities is ecoming increasingly difficult.
+nvironmental issues are associated with uilding and operating air and
highway systems 6such as air and noise pollution7 have ecome a ma&or
prolem in expansion. )he last one is increased oil dependence. !urrent
transportation technologies are petroleum dependent, accounting for <; percent
of total petroleum use. Without transportation alternatives that reduce
dependency, transportation petroleum use is expected to remain high. *ue to
this, it is possile that this situation will contriute to the ?.S. trade deficit and
dependence on oil imports, possily creating a national security prolem.
,etAs look at how the technology of magnetic levitation, or /aglev, may
decrease these current prolems.

Basic /rinciples o3 /hysics

/agnetism is a phenomenon that occurs when a moving charge
exerts a force on other moving charges. )he magnetic force caused y this
moving charge sets up a field which in turn exerts a moving force on other
moving charges. )he magnetic field is found to e perpendicular to the
velocity of the current.






#aglev History Timeline

"%>> ' Roert 0oddard and +mile Bachelet conceived the concept of
frictionless trains.
"%=> ' 0erman scientist Bermann Cemper studied the use of magnetic fields in
con&unction with airplanes and trains
"%<% ' .merican scientists 3ames R. -owell and 0ordan ). *any patented the
first design for magnetic levitational trains
"%D> ' 0ermans and 3apanese start research and development towards their
versions of maglev technology

"%%> ' ?.S. Federal 0overnment with FR. egins to support maglev
technology and implements the National /aglev 2mitative 6N/27.
"%%" ' 0ermanyEs government certifies operation of first maglev train for the
pulic
"%%# ' Bamurg to Berlin route will e complete
$>>F ' )okyo'1saka route scheduled to e finished

#agnetic levitation Train





#agnetic ,evitation Train% also maglev train%is a high!speed
ground transportation vehicle levitated above a track called a guide2ay
and propelled by magnetic 3ields. #agnetic levitation train technology can
be used 3or urban travel at relatively lo2 speeds :less than &"" km8h% or less
than >+ mph;? a short!distance maglev shuttle operated 3or && years 3rom
&*' to &**@ bet2een the Birmingham% England% airport and the city train
station. Ho2ever% the greatest 2orld2ide interest is in high!speed maglev
systems. Train speeds o3 @@+ km8h :)) mph; have been demonstrated by a
3ull!si<e maglev vehicle in Aapan% 2hile in 4ermany a maglev train has
run at @" km8h :+'" mph;.
Types o3 ,evitation
)wo different approaches to magnetic levitation train systems have een
developed. )he first is called electromagnetic suspension. )his is asically
levitated y attraction. )here are conventional electromagnets mounted at the
ends of a pair of structures under the trainG the structures wrap around and under
either side of the guideway. )he magnets attract up toward laminated iron rails
in the guideway and lift the train. Bowever, this system is inherently unstaleG
the distance etween the electromagnets and the guideway, which is aout ">
mm 6=H# in7, must e continuously monitored and ad&usted y computer to
prevent the train from hitting the guideway.

)here are = main components to the system that governs the functionality of
/aglev )rains8
"7 . large electrical power source
$7 /etal coils lining a guideway or track

=7,arge guidance magnets are attached to the underside of the train.










. key difference etween the maglev train and a conventional train is the
structure of the engine. ?nlike trains in the past that used fossil fuels to pull
the engine across steel tracks, the magnetic field created y the electrified coils
in the guideway track walls propel the /aglev )rain.


Bere is a fundamental description of how /aglev operates. )he guideway,
which is a magneti(ed coil running along the track, repels the large magnets on
the trainEs undercarriage, allowing the train to levitate aove the guideway
etween .=% and =.%= inches 6" to "> cm7. Suse@uently, power is supplied to
the coils within the guideway walls to create a uni@ue system of magnetic fields
that pull and push the train along the guideway. )o change the polarity of the
magneti(ed coils, the electric current supplied to the coils in the guideway walls
is constantly alternated. )his change in polarity causes the magnetic field in
front of the train to pull the vehicle forward, while the magnetic field ehind the
train adds more forward thrust.

!urrently, two prototypes of the /aglev )rain are eing tested8 one using
electromagnetic suspension 6+/S7 and the other using electrodynamic
suspension 6+*S7. While oth incorporate the same fundamentals into their
design, there is one distinct difference in the two models.





Electromagnetic Suspension


2n 0ermany, engineers are uilding an electromagnetic suspension 6+/S7
system in which electromagnets are attached to the trainAs undercarriage and are
directed up towards the guideway, which levitates the train called )ransrapid.
2n this system, the ottom of the train wraps around a steel guideway.
+lectromagnets that are attached to the trainEs undercarriage are directed up
toward the guideway, which levitates the train aout one'third of an inch 6" cm7
keeping the train levitated even when itEs not moving. 1ther guidance magnets
emedded in the train ody keep it stale during travel. 0ermany has
demonstrated that the )ransrapid maglev train can reach =>> mph with people
on oard.


Bere is a picture of how the +/S train operates. )he magnets located on the
side of the track elevate the train while the ottom magnets propel it forward.







Electrodynamic Suspension
3apanese engineers are developing a competing version of maglev trains that
use an electrodynamic suspension 6+*S7 system, which is ased on the
repelling force of magnets and not the attracting force. )he key difference
etween 3apanese and 0erman maglev trains is that the 3apanese trains use
super'cooled superconducting electromagnets. )hese electromagnets can
conduct electricity even after the power supply has een shut off. 2n the +/S
system, which uses standard electromagnets, the coils only conduct electricity
when a power supply is present. By chilling the coils at frigid temperatures,
3apanEs system saves more energy.




)he cylindrical unit at the top, is a tank holding li@uefied helium and nitrogen.
)he ottom unit is a S! coil alternately generating N poles and S poles. .t one
end of the tank is the integrally'attached on'oard refrigerator, which serves to
re'li@uefy the helium gas once vapori(ed y regular heat asorption and
external disturances during running.

.ll /aglev investigated could reach speeds of =>>mph.

4uide2ay System

)he guideway is constructed where the vehicle wraps around a
)shaped guideway of steel or concrete eams constructed and erected to very
tight tolerances, as shown in the illustrations aove. )he attraction y magnets
and the propulsion stator packs on the underside of the guideway generates liftG
attraction etween a second set of vehicle magnets and the edgemounted
guideway rails provides guidance.

,inear Synchronous #otor

)he linear Synchronus motor is the motor that is used y all /aglev
operations. 2t asically energi(es discrete guideway coils through individual
inverters, therey powering the maglev vehicle. . computer controls each set
of coils and synthesi(es a = phase wave form, using pulswidth modulation of a
direct supply voltage. 2ts advantages include a very high overall efficiency, a
significant operating capaility, very flexile vehicle control, and use of the
same coils and inverters for power transfer.

Advantages o3 #aglev

)he main advantage for /aglev is the high capacity in which it can hold.
)he maglev concepts that have een studied so far can deliver "$,>>>
passengers per hour in each direction. .n e@uivalent air capacity would e <>
Boeing D<DAs per hour in each direction at " minute intervals. Weather
conditions is another ma&or advantage of maglev. !onditions that would
normally slow travel would not e an issue ecause of the noncontact
propulsion and raking render make it less susceptile to the restrictions of ice,
snow, and rain.
)here are further advantages that stem from the fact that maglev is not
dependent on petroleum. While aircraft must rely exclusively on petroleum,
maglevAs electric power can e supplied from various sources. /aglevAs low
energy consumption, low maintenance potential offer very low operating
expenses.




Conclusion

/agnetic levitation of trains offers many advantages for the pulic.
With the research conducted it shows that maglev is a cost'effective,
environmentally sound, alternative transportation system with significant pulic
enefits. 2f the ?.S. wants to keep up with the newest means of
transportation, we all may e getting aoard a maglev in the years to come.
Vacuum trains: a high-speed
pipe dream?
Vacuum trains promise to speed between Europe and the US faster than a plane. But will they
ever make it off the drawing board?
)ransatlantic passengers on !oncorde often referred to the supersonic plane as
their 9time machine: for its aility to land in New Iork two hours efore it left
,ondon.
But that kind of illusion could look like childAs play if so'called vacuum trains
ever take off.
)hese futuristic transporters, designed to hurtle through tunnels that have had all
of the air sucked out of them, could theoretically hit speeds of up to ;,>>> kmHh
6$,F>> mph7, cutting the commute from +urope to North .merica to &ust one
hour. 2n this high'speed future, passengers would arrive a full four hours
efore they set off.
.s with all far out technology, it sounds like science fiction. .nd, in fact,
vacuum trains do feature in movies like Star )rek and ,oganAs Run. Whilst in
the dystopian future of Farenheit ;F", Ray Bradury descries a 9silent air'
propelled train: that 9slid soundlessly down its luricated flue in the earth:.
But these are far from fiction, as we found out when Future reader Se 0is
suggested we look into them here at Byperdrive. )oday, there are teams in the
?S, !hina and elsewhere working on the concept, with some predicting their
arrival within "> years. Whilst others elieve that they could offer a potentially
cheap route to launch rockets into space.
-ump it up
)he history of vac'trains, as they are also known, stretches ack more than ">>
years to .merican engineer Roert 0oddard. Not content with creating and
uilding the worldEs first li@uid'fueled rocket, 0oddard also designed prototypes
for rapid transport systems to connect ma&or ?S cities, including a vacuum'
train.
1ver the years, different designs have come and gone. Bowever, the principle
ehind all of them is similar8 pump all of the air out of a sealed tunnel and then
shoot trains, or some sort of transport capsule, through them. Such Jevacuated
tuesA could e ored through rock, or laid on or aove ground like
conventional tracks. Some designs also allow them to cross oceans via large'
ore pipes tethered at a fixed depth, although these are still very much
theoretical designs.
9)he advantage of a vacuum tue is that you can achieve high speeds,: says
+rnst 0 Frankel, +meritus -rofessor of mechanical engineering and ocean
engineering from the /assachusetts 2nstitute of )echnology.
2t is ale to do this ecause there is little air resistance to slow the train down.
.ir resistance 9is a large part of the rolling resistance: of a normal train, says
Frankel. )rains moving through tunnels push a wall of air ahead of them, which
takes energy. )hey also create an area of lower pressure ehind them which acts
to almost pull the train ack. )his air resistance increases dramatically as they
pick up speed and friction losses mean that more and more energy has to go into
pushing the train forward against that resistance.
But get rid of the air and you get rid of the prolem. +xperiments conducted y
Frankel and his team in the early %>s showed that it worked.
9We uilt a half mile long tue at the playing fields of /2), evacuated it, and
then shot things through it in order to measure what sort of velocities we could
otain,: says Frankel. 9We started with ping pong alls, and then went to
mechanical models.:
Bis team found that creating a near vacuum in the pipe would allow speeds of
up to %=> kmHh 6F#>mph7 ' twice as fast as in an air filled tue.
)he results were enough for the team to propose a rail system etween Boston
and New Iork, using the technology. )heir plan was to reduce the &ourney time
from more than four hours to &ust ;> minutes, at speeds of =>> to =F>mph 6;#>
to F<>kmHh7.
9Iou would have giant pumps keeping a near vacuum in the tue, proaly $>
to => miles apart 6=>';>km7: explains -rof Frankel. 9)he main areas for leaks
would e the end stations. )he train would pass through a seal as it enters and
leaves the tue.:
2n fact, the train would have to pass through a series of airlocks that
progressively reduce the pressure until the train enters the fully evacuated
tunnel, where it could accelerate to top speed.
?ltimately, the huge cost of uilding such a system was its downfall along with
the fact that the top speed was e@uivalent to existing ullet trains in countries
like !hina and 3apan.
Space shot
But coming vacuum train with another technology overcomes the speed
arrier. 2n standard set'ups these have achieved speeds of up to F#"kmHh
6=<"mph7. But in a vacuum, some elieve they could reach speeds of more than
;,>>>kmHh.
.gain, several systems that comine these two technologies have een proposed
over the years. But today, one of the main proponents is .merican engineer
*aryl 1ster, who holds the patent for what he calls +vacuated )ue )ransport. Bis
design is a six'person capsule, roughly the si(e of a car, which is shot along a
".Fm diameter vacuum tue using maglev technology.
Be has proposed various configurations and designs from low tech, $>>mph
systems for local to high tech ;,>>>mph systems for continental and
intercontinental transport. )hat would mean a trip from the ?S to !hina would
take &ust a couple of hours, revolutioni(ing oth passenger and freight transport.
Be also says that it would not cost as much as people think. Be @uotes a $>>=
study which calculated the cost of a =F>mph system to e aout K$million per
mile, around the same asic cost of high'speed rail pro&ects proposed in the ?S,
although this does not take into account maintenance, personnel or rolling stock.
1sterAs company does not propose uilding tracks itself. 2nstead, it sells licenses
to the patented technology. So far, it says, it has sold more than <> licenses, "$
of which are in !hina which is also pursuing vac'train research.
2t may all sound rather far'fetched, ut Frankel says that the time is right for
vaccum'trains.
91ur rail technology is almost ">> years old,: he says. 91ur airways are
ecoming terrily congested, and getting to, from and through airports is very
time consuming.
9. train that goes from city center to city center could e advantageous.:
*aryl 1ster agrees. Be elieves we could e using +)) for world travel in less
than "> years, with the most attractive routes etween ma&or cities. 2deally these
would e separated y dry, flat, unpopulated terrain, where the ground doesnAt
free(e. Be elieves 2ndia and !hina are currently the most promising looking
places for what he modestly calls Lspace travel on +arthL.
But that moniker may hold true if *r 3ames -owell, the co'inventor of /aglev
technology, gets his way. Be has proposed a system called Startram that uses a
maglev vacuum train to launch o&ects into space. )he pro&ect would re@uire a
huge cannon'like tunnel to accelerate a launch vehicle to speeds of at least
doule those of the +)) to get into orit. 2f it is uilt, -owell says, it could slash
the cost of putting vehicles into space. Now, that would e real vacuum travel.
8ew Sork to Condon in an hour $ by train
A giant sucking sound might one day help whisk passengers from New York to Beijing in 2 hours.
Above, a mockup of the inside of an ET3 vacuum train.
Reverse the &ourney, and you could leave the ?C at noon and arrive in
/anhattan at # a.m. the same day.
)he key is in the vacuum. Suck the air out of a transatlantic tunnel, and you
eliminate resistance to the vehicle. 2n the oceanic version, engineers would
tether the tunnel at a fixed depth.
)he 9vactrain: is not a new concept. Roert 0oddard, who created the first
li@uid fuel rocket, designed a prototype over ">> years ago, with the idea of
(ipping people around etween ?.S. cities. But they havenAt een economically
feasile, or even fast enough.
Traveling in emptiness: 1endition of travelers in an evacuated tube hurtling through open
country.
Now, the latest concept in vactrains could make the difference. 2t comines the
technology with magnetic levitation, in theory supporting speeds of up to $F>>
mph according to the BB!. )hatAs an order of magnitude faster than todayAs
high speed rail, which tends to travel at &ust under $>> mph.
.merican engineer *aryl 1ster has designed a <'person capsule traveling
through a ".F meter 6F feet7 diameter vacuum tue. Be has sold <> licenses for
his patented evacuated tue transport 6+))7 technology, including "$ to !hina.
1ster likes to refer to it as 9space travel on +arth.: )he wesite for his !rystal River,
Fl. company +)= 6it descries itself as an 9open consortiumA7* boasts possible speeds of up
to (*222 mph* faster even than the )*.22 mph reported by the 00=.
2t claims that it could 9provide F> times more transportation per kWh 6kilowatt
hour7 than electric cars or trains,: that construction would cost a tenth of high'
speed rail and a @uarter of freeways, and that a New Iork'to'Bei&ing trip would
take $ hours.
9New Iork to ,... in ;F minutes,: it states.
2n the BB! story, 1ster says the train could e ready in less than "> years. )he
most ideal implementations would e etween cities separated y dry, flat
unpopulated terrain that doesnAt free(e, he notes, adding that !hina and 2ndia
hold the most promise.
.nother vactrain developer, *r. 3ames -owell ' the co'inventor of /aglev
transportation technology and also a nuclear inventor ' has proposed a system
called Startram that would launch o&ects into orit from a cannon'like tunnel.
)he idea has plenty of supporters, including /2)As +rnst 0. Frankel, emeritus
professor of mechanical engineering and ocean engineering, who experimented
with 9evacuated tues: in the "%%>s. Frankel proposed a Boston'to'New Iork
vactrain that would take ;> minutes, compared to the normal ; hours. But it
would not have outperformed existing ullet train technologies from 3apan and
!hina.
/2)As Frankel says the time is now right.
91ur rail technology is almost ">> years old,: he tells the BB!. 91ur airways
are ecoming terrily congested, and getting to, from and through airports is
very time consuming.:
4actrains certainly have een a fixture of science fiction.
94acuum trains do feature in movies like Star )rek and ,oganAs Run,: notes the
BB!. 9Whilst in the dystopian future of Farenheit ;F", Ray Bradury descries
a Asilent air'propelled trainA that Aslid soundlessly down its luricated flue in the
earthA.:
2s this the last step efore teleportingM While 9eam me up Scotty: isnAt
around the corner, perhaps 9Boover me up: is. 4actrains may one day give a
whole new, positive, meaning to B. Ross -erotAs old derogatory 9giant sucking
sound: phrase.
:ltra$e4cient (*222 mph vacuum$tube
trains T why aren3t they being builtR
2n the "#>>s, when pneumatic tues shot telegrams and small items all around
uildings and sometimes small cities, the future of mass transit seemed clear8
weEd e firing people around through these sealed tues at high speeds. .nd it
turns out weEve got the technology to do that today N mag'lev rail lines remove
all rolling friction from the energy e@uation for a train, and accelerating them
through a vacuum tunnel can eliminate wind resistance to the point where itEs
theoretically possile to reach listering speeds over ;,>>> mph 6<,;=D kmHh7
using a fraction of the energy an airliner uses N and recapturing a lot of that
energy upon deceleration. ?ltra'fast, high efficiency ground transport is
technologically within reach N so why isnEt anyody uilding itM
)he next frontier of speed
4acuum tue'ased transport has a lot of things going for it. Speed, for one.
.nyone who has spent time on a fast motorcycle knows that even without any
wind, the air itself is a rutally powerful force working against your engine as
you get up aove "$F mph 6$>> kmHh7. 2n fact, air resistance is the numer one
prolem to comat as speeds increase. .irliners have to fly ;>,>>> feet up in the
air to take advantage of the reduced drag you get when the air thins out a it.
.nd even with this advantage, they still canEt cruise much faster than FD> mph
6%"D kmHh7 without eing horrily inefficient.
)ake air resistance and rolling resistance away y operating in a vacuum and
magnetically levitating your vehicle, and youEre eliminating the iggest two
hurdles to achieving extremely high speeds. .nd once you reach your top speed,
you simply stop accelerating, apply no further energy, and coast. Iou lose very
little speed until you reach your destination, at which point you can slow your
vehicle down electromagnetically and recapture almost all the energy you put in
to speed it up.
)heoretically, with the right length of vacuum tue set up, you could (oom all
the way around the world in a matter of hours, nearly ten times faster than
todayEs airliners. 1perating in a vacuum, these vehicles would make almost no
sound, even as they smashed through the sound arrier, ecause thereEd e no air
for them to create sonic virations in. With no actual points of contact or
friction with the track or tue, there would e virtually no energy lost to heat
dissipation.
)he vacuum'tue revolutionaries
)here are no shortage of people and groups pushing for widespread adoption of
vacuum tue technology as a superfast travel option N after all, with the demise
of the !oncorde supersonic airliner, mass gloal transit speeds have remained
stagnant since the "%<>s. Sending an e'mail from ,ondon to Bei&ing might e
instantaneous, ut the rest of the world still feels like a long way away if you
have to physically travel around it.
We recently wrote aout the +)= consortium, a licensing organi(ation that owns a
numer of patents in the evacuated tue transport space, .caionEs vacuum
tue streamliners, and the gigantic Startram space elevator pro&ect, which
would make use of the low energy re@uirements of the vacuum tue maglev
idea to cheaply propel various o&ects into orit.
.nother contender with an interesting take on the technology is )erraspan, a
group that wants to comine superfast transport with the creation of a new
intracontinental power grid that can make much more efficient use of the cycles
of power creation and usage across a large country like the ?nited States.
BereEs the plan N for step one, )erraspan would like to uild a ackone network
of underground vacuum tue train tunnels linking eastern !anada to western
/exico through the ?nited States. +medded in the train tunnel network would
e a series of thick, superconducting energy cales that would form the heart of
the first true continental power grid.
)he enefits of a long'distance power grid are simple N you can take the energy
produced y solar and wind producers in the arid central areas of .merica, and
make it availale to much more densely populated and power'hungry areas on
the eastern and western coasts. Iou could also make more efficient use of power
creation and usage cycles N energy thatEs created in !alifornia at off'peak times
can e sent across the grid to e used in peak hour in New Iork.
So hereEs a plan that wraps up super'fast, ultra'efficient, convenient transport
with smart energy usage and a tangile oost for renewale power creation
schemes. ,etEs go, rightM
)he case for the negative
1f course, if it was that simple, weEd already e lasting around the +arth at
orital speeds like they were predicting in the "#>>s. )urns out thereEs a few
serious roadlocks in the way.
Safety is no small concern when youEre talking aout speeds in excess of ;,>>>
mph 6<,;=D kmHh7. .fter all, weEve all seen the wreckage that can e caused in a
<> mph 6%< kmHh7 car crash. )he kinds of tue tracks weEre talking aout here
would have to stretch thousands of miles in order to reach their optimum level
of enefit N thatEs thousands of miles of safety risks. What happens when an
earth@uake strikes and cracks the pressure seal or destroys the tue completelyM
. vehicle traveling ;,>>> mph is going to eat up some serious distance in an
emergency stop situation.
WhatEs more, thereEs really very little precedent to show exactly what happens
when a populated carriage goes from ultra high speed in a vacuum to eing
struck with regular air pressure. )erraspanEs wesite details a plan to shape the
trains with a sort of air wing to ring them down gently in the case of
pressuri(ation, ut one can easily imagine that eing attered to death at the top
of the tunnel would e &ust as ad as crashing to your doom at the ottom of it.
Bow can you hope to control a ;,>>> mph airfoil within a tiny tue when the air
pressure onset is sudden and unexpectedM
)he thing aout maintaining a total vacuum is that one hole in your structure
compromises the vacuum almost immediately. .nd itEs not hard to dream up a
do(en situations, whether natural disasters, man'made errors in &udgement or
acts of war or terrorism that could easily crack or reak a structure like this.
)hen again, letEs say these safety issues can e ade@uately addressed. -erhaps
the more pressing ostacle N at least for the time eing N is a purely economical
one. /ag'lev train lines themselves are exoritantly expensive8 3apanEs ,inimo
BSS), a low'speed suuran mag'lev line, cost around ?SK">> million per
kilometer 6>.<$ miles7 to uild. .nd while !hina hopes to get away with only
?SK"# million per kilometer when it extends its high speed Shanghai
demonstration line, neither of these trains re@uire air'tight tunnels.
.dd to this the hidden cost of maintaining the vacuum 6presumaly y
constantly pumping air particles out of thousands upon thousands of miles of
vacuum tue7 and youEre left with a very costly proposition. .nd thatEs not to
mention land ac@uisition N which could prove tough, as these machines move so
fast that their turning radius is gigantic and route choices will e limited.
o where is vacuum$tube transport likely to go in the ne6t few
decadesR %t3s hard to say T although it seems e6tremely unlikely
that a cash$strapped :nited tates or !uropean :nion member
would be willing to pony up and lead the way.