Proofs Cheatsheet

208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 4-1
1 Copyright 2007 by Withit Chatlatanagulchai
1 How to Read and Do Proofs [1]
1.1 Introduction
A proof is a convincing argument expressed in the language of
mathematics.
Given two statements A and B, each of which may be either true
or false, a fundamental problem of interest in mathematics is to show that
the following statement, called an implication is true:

If A is true, then B is true.
If A, then B.
A implies B.
. A B

Statement A is called hypothesis and B is called conclusion.
The truth table of A implies B is as follows:

A B A B
True True True
True False False
False True True
False False True

From the truth table, if we want to prove that A implies B is true. The only
case we need to do is to assume that A is true then our job is to conclude
that B is true.
A statement

A is true if and only if B is true
A B

is identical to A B AND , B A therefore its proof involves proving
the implication in both directions.

1.2 Terms and Symbols
Symbols mostly used in mathematical proofs are as follows:

Symbol Meaning
implies
if and only if
is an element of

subset
empty set
not
for all (for each, for any, for every)
there is (there are, there exists)
such that
: such that
and
or
Q.E.D. (which was to be determined)

Some useful terms are given as follows:
Axiom -- A statement whose truth is accepted without a proof.
Corollary -- A proposition whose truth follows almost immediately from a
theorem.
Definition -- An agreement, by all parties concerned, as to the meaning of
a particular term.
Lemma -- A proposition that is used in the proof of a subsequent theorem.
Proposition -- A true statement of interest.
Theorem -- An important proposition.
Lesson 4-1
1.3 Forward-Backward Method
All other proof methods rely on this method. As a general rule, the
forward-backward method is probably the first method to try on a problem
unless you have reason to use a different approach based on the form of
B.
The following table summarizes this proof method

When to use it As a first attempt, or when B does not have
a recognizable form.
What to assume A
What to conclude B
How to do it Work forward using the facts given in A and
apply the backward process to B by asking
How or when can I conclude that the
statement B is true?

Example 1: [1] Prove the following proposition.
Proposition 1: If the right triangle XYZ with the sides of lengths x and y
and hypotenuse of length z has an area of
2
/ 4 z , then the triangle XYZ is
isosceles.

Solution
The backward process starts from asking how can I conclude that
B is true?. The answer is a triangle is isosceles when its two sides are
equal, that is, x y = or 0. x y = So we have

B1: 0. x y =

The forward process uses the facts given in A as follows:

A1:
2
/ 2 / 4. xy z =
A2:
2 2 2
. x y z + =
A3:
( )
2 2
/ 2 / 4. xy x y = +
A4:
2 2
2 0. x xy y + =
A5: ( )
2
0. x y =
A6: 0. x y =

The condense proof may be given as follows:

Proof of Proposition 1: The hypothesis together with the Pythagorean
theorem yield
2 2
2 x y xy + = and hence ( )
2
0. x y = Thus the triangle is
isosceles, as required.

Lesson 4-1
1.4 Construction Method

When to use it When B has the quantifiers there is, there
are, there exists.

B is in the form:
There is an object with a certain
property such that something happens.
What to assume A
What to conclude That there is the desired object.
How to do it Construct the object, then show that it has
the certain property and that the something
happens.

Proposition 2: If m n < are consecutive integers and m is even, then 4
divides
2 2
1. m n +

Solution
B can be rewritten as There is an integer p such that
2 2
1 4 . m n p + = Therefore we can use construction method where

Object: p
Certain property: an integer
Something happens:
2 2
1 4 m n p + =

By using the facts in A, we need to find an object p that has the certain
property and that something happens.
We use the following steps:

S1: Let 1. n m = +
S2: Then ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1 1 1 2 1 . m n m m m m + = + + = +
S3: Because m is even, there is an interger k such that 2 . m k =
S4: Letting ( ) 1 , p k m = + it follows that
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 4 1 4 , m n m m k m p + = + = + =
and so 4 divides
2 2
1. m n + This completes the proof.

Lesson 4-1
1.5 Choose Method

When to use it When B has the quantifiers for all, for
each, for every, for any.

B is in the form:
For every object with a certain property,
something happens.
What to assume A, and choose a general object with the
certain property.
What to conclude That the something happens.
How to do it Work forward from A and the fact that the
general object has the certain property to
conclude that something happens.

Be sure that the general object can be
replaced with any object to satisfy the for
all quantifier.

Proposition 3: If S and T are the two sets defined by
{ }
{ }
2
: 3 2 0
:1 2 ,
S real numbers x x x
T real numbers x x
= +
=

then . S T =

Solution
To show that S T = is to show that S is a subset of T and T is
a subset of . S In this proof, we will only prove that S is a subset of . T
The other direction can be done similarly.
S is a subset of T can be rewritten as
For all elements , . x S x T
Therefore we can use choose method where

Object: x
Certain property: x S
Something happens: x T

By using the facts in A, we need to find a general object x that has the
certain property and that something happens and the general object can
be extended to all objects in the set.
We use the following steps:

S1:
2
3 2 0. x x +
S2: ( )( ) 2 1 0. x x
S3: 2 x and 1. x
S4: Therefore for all elements , . x S x T

Lesson 4-1
1.6 Specialization Method

When to use it When A has the quantifiers for all, for
each, for every, for any.

A is in the form:
something happens.
What to assume A
What to conclude B
How to do it Identify, in the for-all statement, the
object, the certain property, and the
something that happens.

Look for one particular object to apply
specialization to. (Usually it is the same
object as when the choose method is used
in the backward process.)

Verify that this object has the certain
property and that something happens for
this particular object.

Example 4: [1] Use the following definition

Definition 1: A real number u is a least upper bound for a set S of real
numbers if and only if (1) u is an upper bound for S and (2) for every
upper bound v for , . S u v

to prove the following proposition.

Proposition 4: If v
and w
are least upper bounds for a set , T then

. v w

=

Solution
From the backward process, we have

B1: v w

and . w v

Using the forward process, we first rewrite A from the Definition 1
A1: For every upper bound u for T , . v u

A2: Using specialization method, we have . v w

A3: For every upper bound u for T , . w u

A4: Using specialization method, we have . w v

A5: Therefore v w

and . w v

The proof is then completed.

Lesson 4-1
1.7 Nested Quantifiers
When a statement contains more than one quantifier, we say that
the statement has nested quantifiers. When processing such statements,
always work from left to right.

Example 5: [1] Use the following definition

Definition 2: A function f of one variable is onto if and only if for every
real number , y there is a real number x such that ( ) . f x y =

to prove the following proposition.

Proposition 5: If m and b are real numbers with 0, m then the function
( ) f x mx b = + is onto.

Solution
B is identical to For every real number , y there is a real number
x such that . mx b y + = Since B contains nested quantifiers, we process
from left to right to have

Object: y
Certain property: real number
Something happens: there is a real number x such that . mx b y + =

Object: x
Something happens: . mx b y + =

Using the forward-backward method, we have
B1: For every real number , y there is a real number x such that
. mx b y + =
A1: Choose a real number y (Choose method.)
B2: There is a real number x such that . mx b y + =
A2: From 0, m construct the real number ( ) / x y b m = (Construction
method.)
B3: . mx b y + =
A3: ( ) ( ) / . mx b m y b m b y b b y + = ( + = + =

Since A3 = B3, the forward-backward method is finished and the proof is
completed.
A condensed proof may look like
Proof of Proposition 5: To show that f is onto, let y be a real number.
Because, by hypothesis, 0, m let ( ) / . x y b m = It is easy to see that
( ) , f x mx b y = + = and so the proof is complete.
Lesson 4-1
Proposition 6: If , , a b and c are real numbers with 0, a < then there is a
real number y such that for every real number x ,
2
. ax bx c y + +

Solution
B contains nested quantifiers, we process from left to right to have

Object: y
Something happens: for every real number x ,
2
. ax bx c y + +

Object x
Something happens:
2
. ax bx c y + +

Using the forward-backward method, we have
A1: Construct
2
4
4
ac b
y
a
= (Construction method.)
B1: For every real number , x
2
. ax bx c y + +
A2: Choose a real number x (Choose method.)
B2:
2
. ax bx c y + +
A3: It follows that
2
2
2
4
.
2 4
b ac b
ax bx c a x
a a
| |
+ + = + +
|
\

A4: Because 0, a < we have
2
2
4
.
4
ac b
ax bx c y
a
+ + =
Since A4 = B2, the forward-backward method is finished and the proof is
completed.

Lesson 4-1
1.8 Contradiction Method
Consider the following truth table

A B NOT B NOT A A B NOT B NOT A
True True False False True True
True False True False False False
False True False True True True
False False True True True True

We can see that the truth of A AND NOT B are opposite to that of A B .
This leads to a proof method called contradiction.
The proof begins by assuming that A and NOT B are true and
then tries to conclude some contradiction.
Proofs done by the contradiction method are shorter and easier
than those done by the forward-backward method because you do not
have to create the desired object (as in the construction method.)
However, a disadvantage of this method is that you do not know
exactly what the contradiction is going to be. Another disadvantage is that
this method produces no meaningful result since the outcome is some
contradiction not a constructed object.

When to use it When NOT B gives useful information.

When the statement B is one of the two
possible alternatives.

When the statement B contains the key
word no or not.
What to assume A and NOT B
What to conclude Some contradiction
How to do it Work forward from A and NOT B to
reach a contradiction.

Proposition 7: If r is a real number such that
2
2, r = then r is irrational.

Solution
The proof contains the following steps.
S1:
2
2. r =
S2: r is a rational number.
S3: From the definition of a rational number, there are integers p and q
with 0 q such that / . r p q = p and q must have no common divisor.
S4:
2 2 2
/ . r p q =
S5:
2 2
2 / . p q =
S6:
2 2
2 . q p =
S7:
2
p is even.
S8: p is even.
S9: 2 , p k = for some integer . k
S10: ( )
2
2 2
2 2 4 . q k k = =
S11:
2 2
2 . q k =
S12:
2
q is even.
S13: q is even.
S14: Since both p and q are even. They have 2 as their common divisor
and we have reached a contradiction with S3.

Lesson 4-1
1.9 Contrapositive Method
Consider the following truth table

A B NOT B NOT A A B NOT B NOT A
True True False False True True
True False True False False False
False True False True True True
False False True True True True

We can see that NOT B NOT A has the same truth as A B . This
leads to a proof method called contrapositive.
The contrapositive method assumes that NOT B is true then tries
to conclude that NOT A is true.
The disadvantage of the contrapositive method compared to the
contradiction method is that you work forward from only one statement
( NOT B) instead of two. However, the advantage is that you know what
you are looking for ( NOT A.) Thus, you can apply the forward-backward
method.

When to use it When NOT A and NOT B give useful
information.

When the statement A and B are one of
the two possible alternatives.

When the statement A and B contain the
key word no or not.
What to assume NOT B
What to conclude NOT A
How to do it Work forward from NOT B and backward
from . NOT A

Proposition 8: Assume that a and b are integers with 0. a If a does
not divide , b then
2
ax bx b a + + has no positive integer root.

Solution
The proof uses the forward-backward method and contains the
following steps.

A1: ( NOT B) 0 x > is an integer with
2
0. ax bx b a + + =
B1: ( NOT A) a divides . b
A2:
( ) ( )
2
4 2
,
2 2
1 1 .
b b a b a b b a
x
a a
b
x and x
a

= =
= =

A3: Since 0, 1 .
b
x x
a
> =
B2: There is an integer c such that . b ca =
A4:
( ) 1 ,
1 .
b x a
c x
=
=

Since A4 = B2, the forward-backward method is finished and the
proof is completed.

Lesson 4-1
1.10 NOT of Statements
Both the contrapositive and contradiction methods require that you
be able to write the NOT of a statement. The following list summarizes the
rules for taking the NOT of statements that have a special form.

1.
| |
NOT NOT A becomes . A
2.
| |
NOT A AND B becomes ( ) ( ) . NOT A OR NOT B (

3.
| |
NOT AOR B becomes ( ) ( ) . NOT A AND NOT B (

4.
|
NOT there is an object with a certain property such that something
happens
|
becomes For all objects with the certain property, the
something does not happen.
5.
|
NOT for all objects with a certain property, something happens
|

becomes There is an object with the certain property such that the
something does not happen.

Example 9: [1] Find the NOT of the following statements.
a) For every real number
2
2, 6 0. x x x +

Solution
There is a real number 2 x such that
2
6 0. x x + <

b) There is a real number 2 x such that
2
6 0. x x +

Solution
For all real numbers
2
2, 6 0. x x x + <
c) For every real number x between -1 and 1, there is a real number y
between -1 and 1 such that
2 2
1. x y +

Solution
There is a real number x between -1 and 1 such that, for all real
numbers y between -1 and 1,
2 2
1. x y + >

d) There is a real number x between -1 and 1 such that, for all real
numbers y between -1 and 1,
2 2
1. x y +

Solution
For all real numbers x between -1 and 1, there is a real number y
between -1 and 1 such that
2 2
1. x y + >

Lesson 4-1
1.11 Uniqueness Methods
These methods are used when you want to show that there is only
one object with a certain property such that something happens. There are
two methods: direct and indirect.
The following table summarizes the direct uniqueness method.

When to use it When B has the word unique in it.
What to assume There are two such objects, and . A
What to conclude That the two objects are equal.
How to do it Work forward using A and the properties
of the objects. Also work backward to show
the objects are equal.

Proposition 9: If , , , , , a b c d e and f are real numbers such that
0, ad bc then there are unique real numbers x and y such that
ax by e + = and . cx dy f + =

Solution
We need to prove both there are and unique. We can use the
construction method to prove the there are part and therefore is omitted
here. In this problem, we will only prove uniqueness.
Using the direct uniqueness method, we assume that ( )
1 1
, x y and
( )
2 2
, x y are two objects. Using the forward-backward method, we have

A1:
1 1
ax by e + = and
1 1
. cx dy f + =
A2:
2 2
ax by e + = and
2 2
. cx dy f + =
B1: ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , . x y x y =
B2:
1 2
0 x x = and
1 2
0. y y =
A3: ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
0, a x x b y y + = and ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
0. c x x d y y + =
A4: ( )( )
1 2
0. ad bc x x =
A5: Because 0, ad bc
1 2
0. x x =
A6: Similar derivation leads to
1 2
0. y y =
From B2, A5, and A6, the proof is completed.

Lesson 4-1
The following table summarizes the indirect uniqueness method.

When to use it When B has the word unique in it.
What to assume There are two different objects, and . A
What to conclude Some contradiction.
How to do it Work forward from A using the properties
of the two objects and the fact that they
are different.

Proposition 10: If r is a positive real number, then there is a unique real
number x such that
3
. x r =

Solution
We need to prove both there is and unique. We can use the
construction method to prove the there is part and therefore is omitted
here. In this problem, we will only prove uniqueness.

A1: x and y are two different real numbers such that
3
x r = and
3
. y r =
A2:
3 3 3 3
, 0. x y x y = =
A3: ( )( )
2 2
0. x y x xy y + + =
A4: Because x y , ( ) 0, x y therefore
2 2
0. x xy y + + =
A5:
2
3
.
2
y y
x

=
A6: Because x is real, the only possibility is
2
3 0 y = , 0. y =
A7: 0 r = , which leads to contradiction.

Lesson 4-1
1.12 Induction Method
Induction is a method for proving that each of the statements in an
infinite list is true.
Use induction when the statement you try to prove has the form,
For every integer ( )
0
, , n n P n where ( ) P n is some statement that
depends on . n The key words to look for are integer and
0
n n .
The method can be summarized as follows.

When to use it
When a statement ( ) P n is true for each
integer n beginning with
0
. n
What to assume
( ) P n is true for . n
What to conclude
That ( ) 1 P n + is true; also show that
( )
0
P n is true.
How to do it
First show that ( )
0
P n is true by replacing
n in ( ) P n by
0
. n

Write ( ) 1 P n + and relate ( ) 1 P n + to
( ) P n then use the fact that ( ) P n is true
to show that ( ) 1 P n + is true.

Note that induction does not help you to discover the correct form
of the statement ( ). P n Rather, induction only verifies that a given
statement ( ) P n is true for all integers n greater than or equal to some
initial one.
One possible variation on induction is that ( ) ( ) , 1 P n P n + can be
replaced with ( ) ( ) 1 , P n P n or with ( ) ( ) , , P j P n where . j n <

Proposition 11: For every integer
( )
1
1
1, .
2
n
k
n n
n k
=
+
=

Solution
Assume that ( ) P n :
( )
1
1
2
n
k
n n
k
=
+
=
is true.
Then, ( ) 1 P :
( )
1
1
1 1 1
1
2
k
k
=
+
= =
is true.
Since, ( ) 1 P n + :
( ) ( )
( )( )
1
1
1 1 1
1 2
.
2 2
n
k
n n
n n
k
+
=
+ + + (
+ +

= =

Using the fact that ( ) P n is true, we can write
( ) 1 P n + : ( )
( )
( )
( )( )
1
1 1
1 1 2
1 1 .
2 2
n n
k k
n n n n
k k n n
+
= =
+ + +
| |
= + + = + + =
|
\

Lesson 4-1
1.13 Elimination Method

When to use it When B has the form C OR D, such
as, A implies C OR . D

The keyword to look for is either/or.
What to assume A and NOT C (or A and NOT D)
What to conclude D (or C )
How to do it Work forward from A and , NOT C and
backward from . D (or work forward from
A and , NOT D and backward from C.)

Proposition 12: If
2
5 6 0, x x + then 2 x or 3. x

Solution
Using elimination method, we have

A1:
2
5 6 0. x x +
A2: ( NOT C) 2. x >
B1: 3. x
A3: ( )( ) 2 3 0. x x
A4: ( ) 3 0. x

Since A4 = B1, the proof is completed.
1.14 Cases Method

When to use it When A has the form C OR D, such
as, C OR D implies B.

What to assume Case 1: C
Case 2: D
What to conclude Both cases must imply B.
How to do it First prove that C implies ; B
then prove that D implies . B

Proposition 13: If a is a negative real number, then ( ) / 2 y b a = is a
maximum of the function
2
. ax bx c + +

Solution
Because there is no keyword in the proposition, we first use the
forward-backward method.

B1: For every real number , x
2 2
. ay by c ax bx c + + + +

Lesson 4-1
Since For every appears, we use the choose method.

A1: Choose a real number . x
B2: Such that
2 2
. ay by c ax bx c + + + +
B3: ( ) ( ) 0. y x a y x b + + (

A2: If 0, y x = the proposition is true. So, we then concentrate when
0. y x
A3: Therefore, either 0 y x > or 0. y x <

Since either/or appears, we now use cases method.

A4: Case 1: assume that 0. y x >
B4: ( ) 0. a y x b + +
A5: From the fact that / 2 y b a = and 0, a < working from A4, we have
2 0. ax b + >
A6: And so ( ) ( ) / 2 2 / 2 0. a y x b ax b ax b + + = + = + >

Since A6 = B4, the proof of case 1 is completed.

A4: Case 2: assume that 0. y x <
B4: ( ) 0. a y x b + +
A5: From the fact that / 2 y b a = and 0, a < working from A4, we have
2 0. ax b + <
A6: And so ( ) ( ) / 2 2 / 2 0. a y x b ax b ax b + + = + = + <

Since A6 = B4, the proof of case 2 is completed.
Since both cases are proved, the proof is now completed.

We can see that the proof of case 2 is almost identical to that of
the first case. We can therefore omit the proof of case 2 by saying that
Assume, without loss of generality, that case 1 occurs, which means
that the proof of case 1 can in general be applied with case 2 or any other
cases.
1.15 Max/Min Method
There are two max/min methods: max/min 1 and max/min 2. The
max/min 1 method is used when we want to prove
1) All of set S is to the right of . x { } min : . s s S x
2) All of set S is to the left of . x { } max : . s s S x

0
x
SS
0
x
SS

The max/min 2 method is used when we want to prove
1) Some of set S is to the right of . x { } min : . s s S x
2) Some of set S is to the left of . x { } max : . s s S x

0
x
SS

Lesson 4-1

The max/min 1 method can be summarized as follows.

When to use it When B has the form
{ } min : s s S x or
{ } max : . s s S x
What to assume Choose an , s S and A
What to conclude s x or s x
How to do it Convert B to For all statement.

Use choose method.

Work forward from A and the fact that
. s S Also work backward.

The max/min 2 method can be summarized as follows.

When to use it When B has the form
{ } max : . s s S x
What to assume A
What to conclude That there is an s S for which s x or
s x
How to do it Convert B to There is statement.

Use construction method to produce the
desired . s S

Proposition 14: If R is the set of all real numbers, then
( ) { }
min 2 : 1. x x x R

Solution
We use max/min 1 method. Converting B to for all statement,
we have

B1: For all real numbers ( ) , 2 1. x x x
A1: Choose a real number . x
B2: ( ) 2 1. x x
B3:
2
2 1 0. x x +
B4: ( )
2
1 0, x which is always true for all real numbers.

Therefore, A1 = B4 and the proof is completed.
Lesson 4-1
Summary of proof methods

Proof Method When to Use It What to Assume What to Conclude How to Do It
Forward - Backward As a first attempt, or when B does not have a
recognizable form.
A B Work forward using the facts given in A and apply the
backward process to B by asking How or when can I
conclude that the statement B is true?
Contrapositive
When NOT A and NOT B give useful
information.

When the statement A and B are one of the
two possible alternatives.

When the statement A and B contain the key
word no or not.
NOT B NOT A Work forward from NOT B and backward from
. NOT A
Construction When B has the quantifiers there is, there are,
there exists.

B is in the form:
There is an object with a certain property
such that something happens.
A That there is the
desired object.
Construct the object, then show that it has the certain
property and that the something happens.
Choose When B has the quantifiers for all, for each, for
every, for any.

B is in the form:
something happens.
A, and choose a
general object with
the certain
property.
That the something
happens.
Work forward from A and the fact that the general object
has the certain property to conclude that something
happens.

Be sure that the general object can be replaced with any
object to satisfy the for all quantifier.
Specialization When A has the quantifiers for all, for each,
for every, for any.

A is in the form:
something happens.
A B Identify, in the for-all statement, the object, the certain
property, and the something that happens.

Look for one particular object to apply specialization to.
(Usually it is the same object as when the choose method
is used in the backward process.)

Verify that this object has the certain property and that
something happens for this particular object.
Direct Uniqueness When B has the word unique in it. There are two such
objects, and . A
That the two
objects are equal.
Work forward using A and the properties of the objects.
Also work backward to show the objects are equal.

Lesson 4-1
Proof Method When to Use It What to Assume What to Conclude How to Do It
Elimination When B has the form C OR D, such as,
A implies C OR . D

A and NOT C
(or A and
NOT D)
D (or C ) Work forward from A and , NOT C and backward from
. D (or work forward from A and , NOT D and
backward from C.)
Cases When A has the form C OR D, such as,
C OR D implies B.

Case 1: C
Case 2: D
Both cases must
imply B.
First prove that C implies ; B
then prove that D implies . B
Max/Min 1
When B has the form { } min : s s S x
or { } max : . s s S x
Choose an , s S
and A
s x or s x Convert B to For all statement.

Use choose method.

Work forward from A and the fact that . s S Also work
backward.
Max/Min 2 When B has the form
{ } max : . s s S x
A That there is an
s S for which
s x or s x
Convert B to There is statement.

Use construction method to produce the desired . s S
Contradiction When NOT B gives useful information.

When the statement B is one of the two
possible alternatives.

When the statement B contains the key word
no or not.
A and NOT B Some contradiction Work forward from A and NOT B to reach a
contradiction.
Indirect Uniqueness When B has the word unique in it. There are two
different objects,
and . A
Some contradiction. Work forward from A using the properties of the two
objects and the fact that they are different.
Induction
When a statement ( ) P n is true for each
integer n beginning with
0
. n
( ) P n is true for
. n
That ( ) 1 P n + is
true; also show
that ( )
0
P n is
true.
First show that ( )
0
P n is true by replacing n in ( ) P n by
0
. n

Write ( ) 1 P n + and relate ( ) 1 P n + to ( ) P n then use
the fact that ( ) P n is true to show that ( ) 1 P n + is true.

Lesson 4-1
Diagram of proof methods
Forward-Backward Contradiction
Contrapositive
Construction
Choose
Specialization
Direct Uniqueness
Elimination
Cases
Max/Min 1
Max/Min 2
Induction
Indirect Uniqueness

References
[1] How to Read and Do Proofs, by Daniel Solow, Wiley, 2002.

Proofs Cheatsheet

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208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering

are least upper bounds for a set , T then

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