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The latest milling tools definitively disprove the arguments that this material is difficult to machine, or that poor productivity and tool-life are inevitable problems. A common feature of all stainless steels is their great resistance to chemical attack. The alloying materials that produce these properties often adversely affect the machinability.
The latest milling tools definitively disprove the arguments that this material is difficult to machine, or that poor productivity and tool-life are inevitable problems. A common feature of all stainless steels is their great resistance to chemical attack. The alloying materials that produce these properties often adversely affect the machinability.
The latest milling tools definitively disprove the arguments that this material is difficult to machine, or that poor productivity and tool-life are inevitable problems. A common feature of all stainless steels is their great resistance to chemical attack. The alloying materials that produce these properties often adversely affect the machinability.
Machining stainless steels has traditionally been regarded as a problematic task, the perceived wisdom being that their poor heat conduction and inherently sticky nature generate a large amount of heat dur- ing the cutting operation. This reasoning is often based on prior bad experiences of using a continuous process like turning or drilling, but, when an intermittent process such as milling is employed the machining of stainless steel becomes a different propo- sition. The latest milling tools definitively disprove the arguments that this material is difficult to machine, or that poor produc- tivity and tool-life are inevitable problems. Stainless steel is high-alloy steel where the most important alloying materials are chrome (Cr) and nickel (Ni) together with small quantities of carbon. Small amounts of other alloying materials may also be added to obtain specific properties. A common feature of all stainless steels is their great resistance to chemical attack. This property is sometimes characterised as passivity and is obtained when 1113% of chrome is added. A continuous, thin, impervious layer consisting mainly of chromic oxide is formed on the surface of the steel, which protects the underlying material against attack. Stainless steels can be classified in accor- dance with their microstructures which to a large extent affect their machinability into the following main groups: - Martensitic - Austenitic - Ferrite-austenitic (Duplex) - Precipitation hardened (PH) Stainless steel alloys 76 Machinability The most important properties of stainless steel are corrosion resistance and tensile strength, but the alloying materials that produce these properties often adversely affect the machinability. In theory, further modifications to the alloy mixture could fine tune the properties and produce an ideal alloy with all the advantages and none of the drawbacks, but such recipes always generate problems of their own. It would be easy, for example, to improve the machinability by adding sulphur, which is in fact done in certain free cutting steels - but poorer corrosion resistance inevitably results. And in practice, current material standards place clear restrictions on the use of chemical additions to modify the machinability of stainless steels. But there is plenty of scope within the machining process variables themselves for improving the machinability, as long as the choices are made carefully. Potential problems when machining stainless steel Type of stainless steel Built-up edge area Temperature Strain hardening Burr formation Abrasive wear Austenitic/ Duplex High High High High Low Ferritic/ Martensitic and PH steel Low High Low Low High Built-up edge A very common problem when machining austenitic or duplex steels, is the tendency for the chips to become welded onto the cutting edge and onto the workpiece. This unavoidably leads to reduced tool life, since the welded on chips wear away flakes of the coating, and even parts of the substrate, when they are ultimately torn off the cut- ting edge. An unacceptable surface finish to the workpiece is another very likely result. When edge build-up takes place it is recom- mended that the cutting speed be increased, in order to obtain a temperature above the so-called built-up edge area shown in cutting data charts, and that a sharp cutting edge together with a PVD coated grade be used. This combination will reduce the ten- dency of the chips to become welded onto the edge. 77 Temperature The heat conduction capacity plays an important role in metal cutting since most of the heat from the cutting zone is carried away with the chips. However, stainless steel has poorer heat conduction capacity and leaves more heat in the cutting zone. These higher temperatures increase both the tendency for tool wear, and the risk of plastic deformation of the cutting edge, particularly with continuous cutting processes like turning. Limiting the cutting forces can control these high temperatures, eg. by using a CoroMill concept with positive angles of inclination, combined with the very posi- tive rake angles in inserts adapted for machining stainless materials (e.g. ML). Furthermore certain insert grades are par- ticularly resistant to the effects of high tem- peratures, e.g. GC2030 with an especially hard substrate, or GC2040 which is coated with an insulating layer of aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ). Low productivity Built-up edge area High productivity Working area Produced quantity v c m/min 101 126 156 201 251 314 78 Strain hardening of the machined surface Stainless steels with a high austenitic con- tent often have a tendency to strain harden. Most susceptible are the austenitic and super austenitic types, the duplex varieties less so. This strain hardening effect leads to changes in the structure of the material and markedly increases the hardness of the material at the surface, which duly increases wear on the cutting edge at the cutting depth. This effect can be reduced both by strengthening the main cutting edge, and by varying the cutting depth so that the wear is distributed over a larger proportion of the main edge. It is normally most advanta- geous to choose a cutting depth and a feed which ensure that the cutting edge in ques- tion is driven into the material below the hardened zone. In addition the cutting speed could be reduced, since the strain hardened zones generate considerably higher temperatures. Burr formation Burr formation is normally the result of negative insert angles, often in the strength- ening chamfer. The problem can be reduced or even eliminated by using a positive, sharper cutting edge, more suitable for this range of materials. (This is the reason why the substantially stronger, but negative, geometries, developed for milling in steel are often unsuitable for the milling of stain- less steel.) Novel machining methods The traditional approaches to problem solving when machining are usually founded on simple, well known and under- stood principles, such as: G choose a tougher grade that can cope with built-up edge better G reduce the temperature by reducing the cutting speed and using coolant. These empirical approaches can often be based on experience of continuous metal cutting such as turning, but not all such experience can be directly transferred to milling because the conditions are different. Milling in stainless steel can, in certain cases, be more advantageous than turning, and may open up alternative solutions which could potentially be employed. For example, the traditional way of avoid- ing BUE-wear has been to reduce the cut- ting speed and apply coolant, aiming to reduce the temperature below the built-up edge area of the temp vs v c charts. This approach stems, logically enough, from experience of built-up edge while turning or drilling, where the risk of plastic defor- mation on the cutting edges often makes it impossible to increase the machining parameters sufficiently to avoid the built- up edge area altogether. 79 Produced quantity 156 201 251 314 v c m/min But in a milling operation the cutting envi- ronment of the inserts is very different, and these empirical principles do not apply. The intermittent nature of the process, in which each individual insert is not constantly in cut but rather passes in and out, means that the cutting speed can in fact be increased above the built-up edge area without auto- matically increasing the likelihood of insert damage. Similarly, the addition of more coolant alongside such an increase in cutting speed, another seemingly logical step, is in fact precisely the wrong course. In milling, when the inserts go into cut their tempera- ture increases very quickly and the coolant actually has very little effect: the coolant does not enter the cutting zone because the chips block the way. However, the coolant does subsequently reach the cutting edge and cools it effectively, particularly on the surface of the insert, as soon as the insert emerges from cut. So for each revolution of the milling cutter this repeated cycle causes the difference in temperature between the surface and the centre of the insert to rise, which in turn creates large thermal stresses that soon lead to cracks in the cutting edge. Therefore dry machining should be adopted when the cutting speed is increased. 80 With those stainless steels that have a great propensity to strain hardening, parameters such as run-out in the cutter body are of great significance and can be very disadvan- tageous. If there is a feed per tooth of 0,150,20 mm/tooth and a run-out in the cutter body of 0,1 mm (in certain tools there may be much more), this means that some inserts will not cut at all but will rather rub against the surface and produce heat. This will inevitably increase the strain hardening in the component. Consequently, a general recommendation from Sandvik Coromant is to use the newly developed products for the milling of stain- less steel, with a cutting speed of approxi- mately 200 m/min without the use of coolant. There are a number of factors that make this possible: 1. Positive tool concepts such as different CoroMill tooling systems. 2. Positive insert geometries that provide a good chip flow, low cutting forces and have sharp edges that cut easily even in sticky and strain hardened materials. 3. Grades that are able to cope with higher temperatures, having a hard substrate or a heat protecting layer. Importance of tool precision 81 Two grades with different characteristics for machining stainless materials As a general principle, if the material is "sticky" such as austenitic, super duplex and duplex, an insert grade with a fine- grained substrate and PVD coating is pre- ferred. This is because a fine-grain struc- ture enables a sharp edge to be ground, and this can then be maintained if it is protected with a PVD coating. Furthermore a PVD layer reduces the tendency for edge build- up - and in those cases where such built up edges are created and torn off anyway, the fine-grained substrate copes better than the more coarse-grained ones, since the damage to the edge is not as severe. If, on the other hand, the material is abra- sively wearing, as for example precipitation hardened, ferritic/martensitic steel, or has a casting skin, then a grade with a tough bulk and a wear resistant coating has clear advantages. As well as these two extreme cases, there are naturally overlapping areas where both grade types can be used, e.g. cast austenitic stainless steel and titanium stabilised austenitic stainless steel. GC2030 Inserts in grade GC2030 have a medium- hard, very fine-grained substrate that is PVD coated with TiAlN + TiN. It is possi- ble to grind this grade to form sharp edges on the inserts, which make them light-cut- ting and thereby suitable for sticky mate- rials. PVD coated inserts often have advan- tages over CVD coated ones which can be of great benefit in certain types of opera- tions demanding toughness, e.g. 90 milling of stainless steel. GC2040 GC2040 has its toughness in the substrate as a result of its relatively high proportion of binder (Co) and a wear resistant, heat resistant coating which enables the grade to retain its hardness even at high tempera- tures. CVD inserts are coated with TiCN + Al 2 O 3 +TiN, where the TiCN layer pro- vides abrasive wear resistance and Al 2 O 3 acts as a heat barrier in the coating. GC2040 has a medium-large grain size in the substrate and is used particularly with inserts that do not have any need of sharp cutting edges, since the edges must be rounded off before coating in order to avoid flaking. The tough substrate of inserts in GC2040 has been developed to cope with applications requiring toughness, such as components with a casting skin, workpieces with hard particles that are abrasively wearing on cutting edges, or cases where vibration problems demand bulk toughness. 82 MM/2040 ML/2040 MM/2040 ML/2040 ML/2040 ML/2040 MM/2040 ML/2040 MM/2030 ML/2030 MM/2040 MM/2030 MM/2030 ML/2030 MM/2040 MM/2030 ISO M geometries for milling in stainless steel Some general requirements are applicable for the machining of stainless materials. More positive than steel geometries which means: G minimum burr formation G reduced tendency to edge build-up G less heat development G less risk of strain hardening of the work- piece Open chipbreakers: G generate less heat G facilitate chip evacuation Periphery ground inserts (ML for all CoroMill cutters and MM for CoroMill 245) provides: G good tolerances G minimal run-out G sharp cutting edges with minimal ER There are two different geometries for use when machining in stainless materials, depending on the type of operation that is to be undertaken. ML geometries are the first choice for: G Precipitation hardened (PH) steel G Ferritic/martensitic steels G Finish milling of all types of pre-treated stainless steels MM geometries are the first choice for: G Rough milling in austenitic steels G Rough milling in all cast stainless steels G For operations requiring a tough cutting edge, e.g. components with a casting skin or gas cut components. Roughing Finishing Roughing Finishing Type of stainless steel Ferritic/Martensitic PH-steel Austenitic Duplex Condition Pre-machined, rolled Cast Insert recommendations 83 Trouble shooting for milling in stainless materials The importance of fully appreciating the interplay between the tool concept, grade, insert geometry and cutting data in order to obtain a good result is vital when machin- ing stainless steel, a very distinctive material with its own particular characteristics. A half-hearted implementation of the recom- mendations, or an attempt to combine them with more traditional and familiar methods, is very likely to result in failure. Some of the obvious problems which can arise, and some suggested solutions, are listed in the following table. Problem Suggested Insert geometry Alteration to cutting data Temperature Suggested insert grade CoroMill cutter GC2030 hardness GC2040 Al 2 O 3 thermal barrier ML positive rake angle Positive machining angles Abrasive wear GC2040-CVD coated GC2040-CVD coated Built-up edge GC2030-PVD coating ML/MM-sharp edges High cutting speed Strain hardening ML-sharp edge with positive rake angle Minimal run-out If a p >1 mm increase feed/tooth Burr formation ML-sharp edge with positive rake angle Positive machining angles Reduce feed/tooth Austenitic stainless steels, especially grade AISI 316, are by far the most common group of stainless steels and represent approximately 60% of the total machined, largely because of their superior corrosion resistance. The most familiar type is the 18/8 type (18% Cr 8% Ni), which repre- sents a basic level of corrosion resistance within the group. Some typical machining operations on AISI 316 might include rough machining. Here suitable cutting parameters could, for example, be a cutting depth (a p ) of 24 mm, a feed per tooth of approximately 0,2 mm/tooth, and a non machined surface, e.g. with a casting skin still on the workpiece. With finish machining the parameters will be different. A cutting depth of <= 1 mm, a feed per tooth of approximately 0,1 mm/tooth and a pre-treated surface will alleviate any problem of excessive heat and, if the surface finish so requires, coolant can be used without forfeiting too much in tool life. Machining example 84 A combination of increased cutting speed and dry machining can often provide a way to avoid problems of built-up edge on the cutting inserts, particularly in milling oper- ations. But only if both elements are used together. If an austenitic steel is wet milled, for example AISI 316 with a cutting speed of 120 m/min, and then the coolant is removed, the heat will increase, and the process will end up in the built-up edge area. Equally, if the cutting speed is increased to 150 m/min and the coolant is retained, the working temperature will again rise undesirably, the machining will enter the built up edge area and the results will still be poor. However, if the cutting speed is increased to around 200 m/min and dry machining carried out, then the built- up edge area will be passed and the tool life of the insert, as well as the surface finish of the workpiece, will be improved considerably. 85 Feed recommendations E-ML 0,14 (0,080,21) 0,10 (0,060,15) K-MM 0,23 (0,100,28) 0,16 (0,070,20) E-ML 0,10 (0,050,15) 0,10 (0,050,15) M-MM 0,13 (0,080,20) 0,13 (0,080,20) E-ML 0,10 (0,050,15) 0,10 (0,050,15) M-MM 0,15 (0,080,20) 0,15 (0,080,20) M-MM 0,18 (0,080,25) 0,18 (0,080,25) E-ML 0,10 (0,050,15) 0,10 (0,050,15) M-MM 0,13 (0,080,20) 0,13 (0,080,20) M-MH 0,16 (0,080,22) 0,16 (0,080,22) M-MM 0,18 (0,080,25) 0,18 (0,080,25) E-ML 0,10 (0,080,15) 0,10 (0,080,15) M-MM 0,16 (0,100,20) 0,16 (0,100,20) M-ML 0,12 (0,080,15) 0,12 (0,080,15) M-MM 0,17 (0,100,20) 0,17 (0,100,20) E-ML 0,21 (0,080,28) 0,15 (0,060,20) M-MM 0,28 (0,100,42) 0,20 (0,070,30) E-MM 0,10 (0,100,50 0,10 (0,070,20) E-MM 0,15 (0,100,50) 0,10 (0,070,20) E-MM 0,20 (0,150,50) 0,10 (0,070,20) E-MM 0,25 (0,200,50) 0,10 (0,070,20) E-MM 0,30 (0,200,50) 0,10 (0,070,20) E-M 0,05 (0,050,10) 0,05 (0,050,10) M-M 0,05 (0,050,10) 0,05 (0,050,10) M-M 0,08 (0,080,15) 0,08 (0,080,15) M-M 0,10 (0,100,20) 0,10 (0,100,20) M-M 0,12 (0,150,25) 0,12 (0,150,25) M-M 0,15 (0,150,35) 0,15 (0,150,35) M-M 0,15 (0,150,35) 0,15 (0,150,35) M-M 0,20 (0,200,40) 0,20 (0,200,40) M-M 0,25 (0,250,40) 0,25 (0,250,40) H-ML 0,15 (0,080,22) 0,10 (0,050,15) H-ML 0,18 (0,080,22) 0,12 (0,050,15) Insert for: Insert geometry Starting value (min.max.) CoroMill 245 CoroMill 390 CoroMill 390 long edge CoroMill 290 CoroMill 200 CoroMill 300 CoroMill Ball Nose CoroMill 331 Starting value (min.max.) Feed, f z (mm/tooth) Max chip thickness, h ex (mm) Size 11 11 17 17 18 Size 11 11 11 18 r
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