Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

12.1
12. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MACHINE .............................................................................. 1
12.1 Torque of a Switched Reluctance Machine ......................................................................... 3
12.2 Average Torque ................................................................................................................... 6
12.3 Control of a Switched Reluctance Machine ......................................................................... 8
12.3.1 Control Circuits ............................................................................................................ 8
12.3.2 Current Control ............................................................................................................ 9
12.4 Control of a Switched Reluctance Machine ....................................................................... 11
12.4.1 General Controller Structure ...................................................................................... 11
12.4.2 Determination of the Rotor Position .......................................................................... 13
12.4.3 Current Profiling ........................................................................................................ 14
12.5 Position Sensorless Operation of an SR Machine .............................................................. 15
12.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 16
12. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MACHINE

A switched reluctance machine (SRM) is an electrical machine, which in practice operates only
together with intelligently controlled power electronics. Reluctance machine has been applied for a
long time to stepper motor drives, which have not required a stepless torque control. Only the
development of power electronics and control systems has enabled the application of reluctance
machine in a reasonable power range, while previously the stepper motor applications operated in
the range of only a few hundred watts.

The principle of a switched reluctance motor with a mechanical chopper was introduced as early as
in 1838; however, a high-quality motor drive could not be implemented reasonably before an
advance in knowledge and components in power electronics. In 197172, electronic commutation
based on rotor position was patented, and thus the performance of the SR motor reached the level of
DC and AC drives. The structure and theory of the motor was quite well documented by the end of
the 1970s, and the development has been steady ever since. When discussing a salient pole
reluctance machine, we have to define whether we talk about a doubly salient switched reluctance
machine or a synchronous reluctance machine; a synchronous reluctance machine is a salient
rotating field machine, the rotor of which is not excited.

A switched reluctance motor refers to an electronically commuted motor type, the stator and rotor
of which are both salient-pole constructions. The poles of the machine are designed such that a
maximum saliency ratio (the ratio of the lowest and highest inductance at two different rotor angles)
is reached, however, with certain restrictions, in the motor phases. There is no winding in the rotor,
and the shaft excluded, the rotor is usually made of laminated iron. A damper winding is also
always out of question. An ideal switched reluctance machine is a fully undamped machine. The
stator is also made of laminated iron, in addition to which each stator pole has a winding coil of its
own. Figure 12.1 depicts some parts of the magnetic circuits of three-phase reluctance machines.

In English, the term Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) is used of a doubly salient reluctance
motor; the term switched refers rather to the commutation method than the reluctance of the
machine. In the United States instead, the machine type is commonly known as Variable Reluctance
Motor (VRM), which is also a term for a certain stepper motor type. In German language, the term
is Reluktanzmaschine mit beidseitig ausgeprgten Polen (a reluctance machine with doubly salient
poles).

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.2



Figure 12.1 Stator and rotor laminations of 6/4-pole SR machines.

An SRM is an electrical machine, the torque of which is produced by the tendency of the rotor to
move into a position where the energy of the magnetic circuit is at lowest and the inductance of the
circuit is at highest. In practice, an even torque production is a demanding task, because the
inductance of the circuit changes non-linearly as the rotor rotates. The structure of a SRM is such
that the machine is, to some degree, applicable as a stepper motor. When employing a stepper motor
as a position servo, feedback of the rotor position is not necessarily required, as long as we ensure
that the stepped motion of the rotor is damped somehow. An SRM without feedback and with low
losses is only marginally stable as a stepper motor. It is difficult to drive at a very high speed, since
the oscillation of the motor does not damp sufficiently between the control steps.

In an SRM position servo with rotor position feedback, the oscillation tendency can be avoided,
since the torque of the SRM can be set at every instant appropriate for the situation. Based on the
same reluctance variation, in addition to the position servo, a rotating SRM can also be made a
linear switched reluctance motor (LSRM). The force produced by the LSRM is based on the same
phenomenon as in a rotating machine, in other words, on the change in the inductance of the
magnetic circuit due to the change in the rotor position. In many cases, the linear motor is well
applicable as a position servo. An LSRM can be made more compact than a rotating SRM,
equipped with a converter of electric energy into linear motion.

Advantages of a servo drive implemented by an LSRM are
direct conversion of electric energy to linear motion (cf. a compressor or pump required by a
hydraulic or pneumatic servo drive)
accurate positioning (no clearance, no notable friction)
maintenance-free; does not include wearing parts
high holding power is achieved at low losses
applicable to hazardous environments

The large size of the LSRM servo drive compared to the achieved mechanical force can be
considered a drawback of the drive. However, the comparison is unfavourable only if we compare
the drive with a hydraulic cylinder, the power production capacity of which is superior to a
magnetic device. Figure 12.2 illustrates the structure of a cylindrical 4-phase LSRM.

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.3


Figure 12.2 A 4-phase LSRM.
12.1 Torque of a Switched Reluctance Machine

The stator and rotor of a reluctance motor constitute a magnetic circuit, in which the stator winding
generates a magnetising current linkage, and further, the flux linkage+ penetrating the rotor and air
gap. Figure 12.3 illustrates the cross-section of a three-phase 6/4-pole SR motor, in which the coils
of the pole winding are connected in series. The inductance L of the magnetic circuit depends
strongly on the pole angle of the rotor. The magnetic force effects tend to minimize the magnetic
resistance of the magnetic circuit, that is, the reluctance, and the torque exerted to the rotor tends to
align the rotor poles with the stator poles.

i


Figure 12.3 A three-phase, 6/4-pole reluctance machine, in which i is the current of a single phase.

The easiest way to predict the torque of a SR motor is to apply d'Alemberts principle. Utilization of
the principle of virtual work presupposes that the hysteresis and eddy current losses are neglected,
in which case the energy W of the investigated magnetic field or the coenergy W* can be expressed
with the rotor angle (reference to the phase of the motor is omitted):


constant
constant
0
0
d ) , (
*
) , (
d ) , ( ) , (
=
(
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
(
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
}
i
i i
i
W
i T
i
W
T
i

c
c
c
c

c
c

c
c


(12.1)

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.4
If the torque of an SRM was alternatively defined by numerical methods, the advantage to
employing the virtual work principle would be that simultaneously also the distribution of forces in
the SRM could be determined, similarly as the flux density distribution can be determined by the
finite element method. The advantage would be that in the design of the machine structure, both the
electromagnetic and mechanical stresses could be taken into account.

A general method to calculate the mechanical forces exerted by the magnetic field to an iron object
is to employ the Maxwell stress equations. Figure 12.4 shows the flux solution of the machine in the
case of overlapping poles.



Figure 12.4 The flux solution of a three-phase reluctance machine in the case of overlapping stator and rotor poles.

When the magnetic field strength vector H is decomposed into the components orthogonal (n) and
tangential (t) to the surface H

H n t n t = + = = H H
n t
, 1, (12.2)

the Maxwell stress equations can be written in the form (Carpenter 1959)


( ) o
o
n n t
t n t
=
=
1
2
2 2
H H
H H
,
.
(12.3)

For instance, if the surface H is selected to be a cylinder of the radius r, located in the air gap of the
stator and rotor of the SRM, the magnitude and direction of the total force exerted to the rotor can
be determined by integrating the equation


| |
| | , d
d ) (
2
2
1
n
t n
2
t
2
n
2
1
}
}
=
+ =
H
H
H
H
n H
t n F
H H
H H H H
(12.4)
the result of which should be zero, if the rotor is centred. Hence the magnitude of torque is obtained
from equation

( )( ) n r H r n H T r = =
}
, d
H
H , (12.5)

where r is a vector from the rotation axis of the rotor to the integration point of the surface H . Eq.
(12.5) can be applied to, if either the magnetic field strength H, the flux density B, or the magnetic
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.5
vector potential A in the air gap of the motor has been determined in a numerical form for instance
by finite element method.

The operation of a reluctance machine is governed by the constant change in the machine
inductance as a function of the machine rotation angle. Furthermore, the machine saturates in the
region of pole edges, and therefore it is difficult to determine the inductances in different machine
positions and at different currents. The average torque of the machine is the higher, the larger is the
inductance difference between the aligned and unaligned (direct and quadrature) positions.
Previously it was shown that the instantaneous torque of the machine could be computed from the
change in the coenergy of the machine as a function of rotation angle. In motoring operation, the
current of the machine is often kept constant with a switch-mode power supply, Figure 12.5.

If the magnetization curves of the machine are known at sufficiently many rotor angles, as well as
the phase current at these positions, the magnetic coenergy W* can be calculated at different rotor
positions; further its change with respect to the angle can be investigated with difference equations.
This way, it is possible to obtain approximations for the instantaneous torque.

In the special case in which the motor does not saturate, the magnetization curve is linear, and thus
the magnetic coenergy W* and the stored energy W
e
are equal

W W Li * = =
e
1
2
2
, (12.6)

and the instantaneous torque in the case of constant current is

T i
L
=
1
2
2
d
d
. (12.7)

Figure 12.5 The inductance
of a saturating reluctance
motor as a function of angle
with current as a parameter;
and the current pulses in
both motoring and
generating operation, when
the voltage of the
intermediate circuit remains
constant. In motoring
operation, the phase is
commutated with the angle

C
. The current of the motor
does not quite reach zero
before the aligned position is
reached. Now a slight
braking takes place as the
machine shifts away from
aligned position.
L
rotor angle

aligned unaligned
motoring generating
motor current
generator current
increasing current

C

In an unsaturated circuit, the inductance changes almost linearly, and thus its change with respect to
the angle is constant. Now the torque is proportional only to the square of current, and its regulation
is quite easy. In practice, it is not advisable to aim at an unsaturated structure, since it would require
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.6
a large air gap. This would reduce the torque per the machine volume, since the inductance
difference between the direct and quadrature rotor position remains small. A large air gap would
also require an over-sized controller.
12.2 Average Torque

The instantaneous torque of a single phase does not remain constant when the rotor angle varies.
Considering the electrical drive, it is important to determine the average torque of the machine. We
assume here that the angular speed O of the machine remains constant.

When the supply voltage U
d
and the phase resistance are constant, and the resistive voltage loss
remains low, there is a linear increase in the flux linkage + as an integral of voltage after the
switching of the voltage ( ) ( ) ( )
} }
= =
O
+ d
1
d
d d
Ri U t Ri U t . The current i increases first also
linearly as the inductance L remains low and almost constant in the vicinity of the unaligned
position. When the poles approach the aligned position, the inductance increases rapidly, and the
resulting back emf restricts the current. This phase is illustrated as the period 0C (Fig. 12.6a).
With the rotor angle
C
at point C, the phase in question is commutated. Now the energy brought to
the system is W
mt

+ W
fc
(the bright + the shaded areas). Here W
fc
is the energy stored in the
magnetic field, and W
mt
is the energy converted into mechanical work when the transistor is
conducting. In this phase, the mechanical work is approximately equal to the energy stored in the
magnetic circuit. After the commutation, the polarity of the voltage is changed and the energy W
d

is
returned through the diode to the voltage source, and the remaining energy W
md
is the obtained
mechanical work in the period C0, Fig. 12.6b. During the complete working stroke, the
mechanical work is thus W
mec
= W
mt
+ W
md
and the energy returning to the voltage source is W
R
=
W
d
. The complete working stroke is illustrated in Fig. 12.6c. According to the example of the
figure, the proportion of the mechanical energy of the total energy is about 65 %.


Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.7
W
mt
C
W
md
W
d
C
C
i
i
i
+
+
+
0
0
0
a
lig
n
e
d
unaligned
a)
b)
c)
W
fc
W
mec
W
R


Figure 12.6 a) Transistor conduction period, b) diode conduction period, c) energy conversion loop.

The rest of the energy is reactive energy of the reluctance machine that is stored either in the
electric field of the capacitor of the intermediate circuit or in the magnetic field of the magnetic
circuit of the machine.

Usually, an energy ratio I is determined for an SR machine. This ratio expresses the energy that can
be converted into mechanical energy during the energy conversion loop


el
mec
R mec
mec
W
W
W W
W
=
+
= I . (12.8)

The energy ratio is to some degree a quantity analogous to the power factor in AC machines. In the
example of Fig. 7.69, the energy ratio gets a value of approx. I = 0.65. The average torque of a
reluctance machine can be determined when the number of strokes per revolution is known. In one
revolution, all poles N
r

of the rotor must be worked on by all stator phases, and therefore, the
number of strokes per revolution is mN
r
. The average electromagnetic torque over one revolution
obtains thus the value

T
mN
W =
r
mek
2t
. (12.9)

In practice, due to inaccuracies in manufacturing, the energy conversion loops for different phases
may differ slightly from each other, and thus cause differences in the torques of different phases.

The original energy W
el
supplied by the power electronics to the machine can be expressed as a
fraction k of the product i
C
+
C
, where +
C
is the value of the flux linkage at the instant of
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.8
commutation, and i
C
is the value of the current at respective moment. If the flux linkage increases
linearly during the flux formation period 0C as illustrated in Fig. 12.6, then

+ O
C d
= U u / . (12.10)

Here u is the angle during which the power stage supplies power to the machine. We obtain now


O
=
I
=
C d mec
el
i kU W
W
u
, (12.11)

and since i
C
is the peak value of the current yielded by the power electronics, the required power
processing ability of the output stage in a m-phase system is

S mU i
mW
k
T
N k
m d C
mek
r
= = =
O
I
O
I u u
2t
. (12.12)

The product of the torque and angular speed corresponds to the air gap power P
o
, and the product
N
r
o is constant, the maximum value of which is about t/2 at the base rotation speed of the machine.
The power processing ability of the power stage has to be thus


I k
P
S

m
4
= . (12.13)

The required power is thus independent of the phase number and the number of poles, and it is
inversely proportional to the energy conversion ratio I and the utilization ratio k. Both I and k
depend heavily on the static magnetizing curves of the machine, and on the curves of the aligned
and unaligned position in particular. These curves, however, are in practice highly dependent on the
pole number N
r
, which thus has a strong indirect effect on the dimensioning of the power bridge of
the machine. When the power processing ability of the power bridge is compared with the shaft
output power, we may approximate, assuming that k = 0.7 and I = 0.6 that 10 /
m
~ P S . This value
is typical of SR motor drives. Inverter power bridges of the same scale are required in induction
motor drives also (Miller 1993).
12.3 Control of a Switched Reluctance Machine

SR motors always require an individual control system, the performance of which decides the
overall characteristics of the machine. The control system is comprised of choppers and the control
and measuring circuits controlling them. The direction of the torque of a reluctance motor does not
depend on the direction of the phase current, and therefore, unidirectional switches can be
employed in the chopper.

12.3.1 Control Circuits

In motoring operation, it is important to make the flux linkage increase maximally from zero as
rapidly as possible at the moment when the rotor pole approaches the stator pole of the respective
phase, and the inductance of the circuit increases strongly. This is done by switching the supply
voltage on at the rotor angle
0
and by switching the voltage off at the commutation angle
C
. Figure
12.7a illustrates an possible circuit for the control of a single phase of a reluctance motor. The
illustrated switches can be either bipolar power transistors, power FETs (Field Effect Transistors),
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.9
or IGB (Insulated-Gate Bipolar) transistors. At low rotation speeds, the switches are controlled so
that the upper transistor T1 controls the magnitude of current, and the lower transistor T2 is
required for commutation. When the rotor angle reaches the position
0
, both transistors are turned
to a conducting state, and the current passes through them and the phase winding. As the current has
reached the upper limit, the upper transistor T1 is brought to reverse state, while the current of the
phase winding passes through the transistor T2 and the diode D2 and converts the energy stored in
the winding into mechanical work. At the commutation angle
C
, also the lower transistor is brought
to reverse state, and the rest of the energy of the winding discharges through the diodes to the DC
voltage source or to the DC link capacitor, since the polarity of the voltage across the winding
changes. The flux linkage has to reduce to zero before the rotor passes the aligned position, or else
there occurs a negative, that is, a braking torque. Figure 12.7b illustrates the flux linkage and the
current under the control of a single control pulse (Miller 1993, pp. 5355).

At high rotation speeds, both transistors are usually controlled simultaneously. In this method, the
current ripple increases, and thus also the torque ripple and noise are increased. This method is
known as hard chopping, and it is chiefly used in braking the motor, that is, in the generating
operation (Carpenter 1959, p. 246).
12.3.2 Current Control

Figure 12.7b shows that a single DC pulse during the working stroke produces an indefinite current
waveform and thus also an uneven torque. The current increases first linearly, but then the back-emf
caused by the increasing inductance restricts the current. At the commutation point, the direction of
the voltage changes and causes a sudden decrease in the phase current. In the aligned position, the
direction of the back-emf changes as the inductance of the circuit starts to decrease, and the rate of
the fall of current decreases. In this period, there is danger that the back-emf exceeds the supply
voltage and the current starts to increase again. Therefore, in single-pulse operation, the
commutation angle must precede the aligned position by several degrees. As the speed increases,
the commutation has to be advanced further; similarly, also the turn-on angle
0
may be advanced
well ahead of the unaligned position (Miller 1993, p. 57).

Chopping of the supply voltage is necessary for controlling the current at low speed. The easiest
way is to leave the transistor T2 of Figure 12.7 conductive during the period
0
to
C
, and to switch
the transistor T1 on and off at a sufficiently high frequency. Instead of this soft chopping, also hard
chopping may be used, in which both transistors are switched together at high frequency. The
advantage of this pulse width modulation of voltage is the increased torque range, since the
commutation instant can be delayed due to the lower energy stored in the magnetic circuit. To
reduce acoustic noise, the switching frequency should be above 10 kHz; however, due to the
slowness of the large switches, the frequency remains below that.
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.10


T1 and T2
conducting
T2 and D2
conducting
D1 and D2
conducting
T1 D1
T2 D2


a)
L(t)
u(t)
+U
DC
-U
DC
+(t)
i(t)

0

C


b)

Figure 12.7: a) The circuit controlling one phase of a reluctance motor and the current flow during the working stroke.
b) The current waveform in single-pulse operation in the case of idealized inductance (Miller 1993, p. 57).

If the switching frequency of the voltage remains the same during the whole working stroke of the
rotor, there occurs considerable ripple in the current, and therefore, the method is not recommended
for motoring operation. The ripple can be reduced by switching on and off the power transistors
according as the phase current is greater or less than a reference current. The waveforms of the
voltage, flux linkage and current obtained with a hysteresis-type current regulator are illustrated in
Figure 12.8. A simple hysteresis controller maintains the current waveform between the upper and
lower limit within the hysteresis band when the supply voltage is switched on. The switching
frequency decreases as the inductance of the magnetic circuit increases. In the case illustrated in
Figure 12.8, a hard shopping is applied; however, also soft chopping is possible; it decreases the
current ripple and noise and reduces the need for filtering in the DC link (Miller, pp. 6263).

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.11

+

0 C
i
u
L
+U
-U


Figure 12.8 The current waveform, when the magnitude of current is controlled by switching on and off the voltage. In
the hysteresis control, soft chopping is used (Miller 1993, p. 63).

12.4 Control of a Switched Reluctance Machine

Digital control enables a versatile and reliable parameter setting and programming of operation
modes. The control design and implementation depend strongly on the requirements set by the load,
and therefore, they have to be performed individually.
12.4.1 General Controller Structure

The servo drive of a reluctance motor sets extremely high requirements for low torque ripple and
rapid dynamic response; it also requires an ability to operate at zero speed and smooth reversing.
Even without these servo-quality requirements, the optimal operation in a simple variable-speed
drive requires continuous control of the firing angles. Four-quadrant operation, in other words, an
ability to operate in both rotation directions at a positive and negative torque, presupposes fast real-
time controllers that directly control the phase current and voltage. In the case of an SR motor, this
is difficult due to the fact that the ratios between torque, current, speed, and firing angles are often
nonlinear, and they vary as functions of speed and load. Figure 12.9 illustrates a general structure of
the controller of a switched reluctance machine. However, it is not capable of servo-quality
operation, since it does not include any dynamic control means for profiling the current waveform
in order to eliminate torque ripple, and no means for compensating the nonlinearities of the
magnetic circuit to produce a constant torque.

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.12
SR motor
+
Controller
P
I
T
s(J
L
+ J
M
)
1
-
+
L
T
m
s
1
Ign.
angle in
PWM
Ign.
angle in
Single pulse
u
C
0

Rotor
position
meas.
Speed
meas.
rpm
Braking
+ -
+
+
Current
limit
e
i*
m
e
ref
e

C
0

C 0

Figure 12.9 Structure of a controller capable of four-quadrant operation. Speed is controlled by feedback. i* is the
current demand signal, T
m
is the torque of the motor and T
L
is the torque of the load, e is the angular speed of the
motor, and e
ref
its reference value. J
m
and J
L
are the moments of inertia of motor and load (Miller 1993, p. 106).

Figure 12.9 illustrates a reluctance motor and its power electronic control circuit as a simple control
block, the output of which is torque, and the inputs are the current demand signal i* and the turn on
and off angles (switching and commutation angles)
0
and
C
. The control block is assumed to
include a current regulator that can maintain the current within the desired limits, that is,
approximately constant. The diagram also includes a notional conversion from torque to angular
speed and further to rotor angle. The difference of the torque T
m
and the load torque T
L
is, according
to the Newtons second law of motion, a product of the common moment of inertia of the motor and
load (J
M
+J
L
) and the angular acceleration. The block after the error element thus integrates the
difference of the torques and divides it by the common moment of inertia; the result is the angular
speed e
m
. The next block integrates the angular speed, and as a result, the rotor position angle is
obtained. In practice, the rotor position is sensed with an encoder, which generates a digital pulse
train. The speed is estimated from this pulse train by a suitable digital algorithm.

This digital speed estimate is compared with the reference speed e
ref
. The error is applied to the PI
controller, which generates the current demand signal i*. If the speed error increases, that is, the
speed lags behind the reference, the proportional P-controller and the integral I-controller increase
the current reference; however, the current limiter sets a limit for the current to prevent damages for
the current circuit. If the speed exceeds the reference speed, the four-quadrant operation requires
that the motor produce a braking torque. In many ordinary variable-speed applications, this is not
necessary, since the load torque causes a sufficient deceleration whenever the motor torque
decreases below it. To produce a braking torque, current has to be fed to the circuit while the firing
angles are delayed. The magnitude of braking torque is a nonlinear function of the current and firing
angles, similarly as the motoring torque.

Figure 12.10 depicts the average torque of an SR motor as a function of rotation speed. From zero
speed to the base speed e
b
, the motor current is kept constant by chopping the voltage in the
winding, and the motor operates at almost constant torque. As the speed increases further, the
switch is conducting during the whole working stroke, and the motor operates at maximum power.
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.13
As the power remains constant at the maximum value, the rotation speed is controlled based on the
firing angles.

PWM increases

D constant
constant
current
constant
power
Tconstant
0
O
b
O
T

D
TO constant
TO
2
constant

Figure 12.10 The average torque of the motor as the angular speed varies.
12.4.2 Determination of the Rotor Position

A closed-loop control system controls the chopper switches based on the rotor position and the
rotation speed, as well as on grounds of the phase currents. Position can be measured either by
optical or magnetic positions sensors. An optical encoder consists of a slotted pulse disc rotating
with the rotor, a stationary reading mask, and a light detector connected to the logic unit. Figure
12.11 illustrates a simple SR motor drive with the LMB1008 control IC by National
Semiconductor. The drive includes three optical encoders for determining the rotor position. Since
the current waveform is at high speeds highly dependent on the firing angles, the switching
precision of 0.5 or even 0.25 is desirable (Miller 1993, pp. 99101; Carpenter 1959, p. 247).

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.14
commutation
logic
Rotor
position
measuring
Rotor
Speed
sensor
TACHO
PWM
generation
Compar-
ator
Current
limiting
Speed reference
U
d
1 2 3


Figure 12.11 A simple SR motor drive with the LMB1008 control IC by National Semiconductor (Miller 1993, p. 100).

In the LMB1008 control, the error of the desired and real speed produced by the speed error
amplifier controls the chopping frequency of the external power transistors. As the speed error
increases, the chopping frequency is decreased. The control is thus pulse width modulation rather
than current regulation. The data obtained by current measurement is compared to the value of the
current limiter, and if the measured value exceeds the permitted value, the transistors are turned off.
The firing angles can be selected by the logic controller based on the data of the shaft sensors A, B,
and C.

Although the stepper motors operate well without a rotor position feedback, this open-loop control
method is not stable for a low-loss reluctance motor. Nevertheless, controllers have been developed
that operate without rotor position sensors. Reasons for this are cost reduction and improved
reliability particularly in extraordinary and difficult conditions.
12.4.3 Current Profiling

SR motors have conventionally been controlled similarly as stepper motors; constant voltage and
current pulses are fed to the phase windings of the stator by a frequency determined by the rotor
angle. The resulting large torque ripple has made the motors unsuitable for many applications.
Recently, however, control methods have been developed, in which the torque ripple has been
brought nearly or exactly to the level of the conventional electrical machines. These control
methods are based on experimental results, which determine an optimal duty type in different
operating situations. The advantage of a reluctance motor when compared with the conventional
applications is the large torque also at low speed, as well as the simple structure of the motor itself.

By regulating the current waveform, it is nowadays possible to reach a level of 510 % torque
ripple. This, however, is possible only in the low-speed range. At high speed, limiting the torque
ripple is problematic. Increased application of reluctance motors will require new control and
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.15
inverter solutions, when aiming at an even torque in wide rotation speed range. Figure 12.12
illustrates the control of a three-phase SR motor for constant torque production

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
F
L
U
X

L
I
N
K
A
G
E
S

[
V
s
]
PHASE 2
PHASE 3
ROTOR ANGLE
u
t
/12
u
t
/12
ROTOR ANGLE ROTOR ANGLE
P
H
A
S
E

C
U
R
R
E
N
T
S

[
A
]
T
O
R
Q
U
E

P
.
U
.
P
H
A
S
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
S

[
V
]
PHASE 3
PHASE 2
PHASE 3
PHASE 2
PHASE 2
PHASE 3
u
t
/12
u
t
/12
ROTOR ANGLE


Figure 12.12 A solution to produce constant torque at certain voltage limitation for profiling the currents in a three-
phase machine.

12.5 Position Sensorless Operation of an SR Machine

The control of an SR machine requires quite accurate information on the rotor position. This
information is obtained accurately only by an angle sensor; however, if the requirements of the
drive are not very strict, some position sensorless method may be applied to the determination of
the rotor position.

In literature, several authors have suggested the application of the currentless phases of the SR
machine in inductance measurements. This method, in which appropriate measurement signal is fed
to the currentless phases, is best applicable to machines of a four-phase arrangement at minimum.
The results obtained by the method can be applied to some degree to the control of an SR motor;
however, the method is quite sensitive to disturbances.

If the machine is well known, it is possible to construct a flux linkageanglecurrent diagram as
shown in Figure 12.13; the diagram can be applied to the estimation of the rotor position. Since
there is also a voltage integral available for the flux estimation, and since the current can be
measured, the illustrated diagram can be employed to determine the position angle of the machine at
an instantaneous state. This is a kind of direct flux linkage control of an SR machine. In this case,
there are no problems of stator flux linkage drifting as in the DFLC of a rotating field machine,
because the flux linkage of the phase increases at every stroke always from zero, and thus the
possible offset error can always be eliminated before the working stroke of the phase.
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.16
+
current
rotor position


Figure 12.13 Flux linkageanglecurrent diagram of an SR motor, which can be employed in the determination of
machine position when the current has been measured and the flux linkage has been integrated from the voltage.

12.6 Conclusions

Advantages of a reluctance machine when compared with conventional electric drives are for
instance the following:

- No winding is required in the rotor; the rotor construction is simple and easy to
manufacture.
- The moment of inertia of the rotor is low; a fact that improves the dynamics of a controlled
electric drive.
- The stator winding is easy to construct, and the losses of an end-winding are lower than in a
corresponding induction machine.
- Most of the losses occur in the stator, and therefore, cooling of the motor is easier, and a
higher load capacity is achieved.
- The large free spaces in the rotor enable efficient ventilation through the machine.
- The torque of the machine is independent of the direction of current, giving thus more
degrees of freedom in the inverter and control solutions.
- The machine can produce a very high torque also at small rotation speeds and with a steady
rotor at low current.
- The machine constant of an SR machine is higher than the machine constant of an induction
motor.
- The torque is independent of the direction of the phase current, and therefore, in certain
applications, it is possible to reduce the number of power switch components.
- In the event of a failure, the open-loop voltage and the short circuit current are low.
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.17
- In reluctance motor applications, the power electronic circuits do not have a so called shoot-
through path, which eases the implementation of the control system.
- Extremely high rotation speeds are possible.

A disadvantage of a reluctance motor is for instance a discontinuous torque that causes vibration in
the configuration as well as acoustic noise. In the low-speed range, the torque ripple can be
restricted to 510 %, which is comparable to induction motor drives. In the high-speed operation
range, the restriction of the torque ripple is impossible in practice. This is not a problem thanks to
mechanical filtering. Already at the present, the best drives produce a very low degree of torque
ripple at low speeds. The fact is that the smoothest torque is required just at low speeds, when the
loads are the most vulnerable to the harmful effects of the torque ripple. In small motors, the noise
can be damped at high speeds by selecting a switching frequency above the range of audibility.

In the torque control, the power is taken from the intermediate circuit in a pulsating manner, and
therefore, efficient filtering is necessary. In this sense, the drive does not differ considerably from
an inverter drive of an induction motor. A small air gap advantageous to the operation of the motor
increases the production costs. A small air gap is required to maximize the inductance ratio.

Despite notable advantages, the application of reluctance motors has so far been restricted by the
problems in the smooth torque production in a sufficiently wide rotation speed range. In order to
solve these problems, the operation principle of an SR machine requires new inverter and control
solutions. On the other hand, the present processor technology and power electronics allow control
algorithms of complicated electric drives also.

The design of an SR machine is based to a large extent on field calculation; in this calculation
process, the shape of the magnetic circuit of the machine and the inductances in different rotor
positions are determined. This is manually a demanding task due to the local saturation at salient
pole tips, which is typical of the operation of an SR machine. Due to the saturation, it is difficult to
employ an orthogonal field diagram. Therefore, field calculation software is required in the design
of an SR machine. The task becomes easier as the field solutions can usually be made in steady
states excluding the problems caused by eddy currents. However, the use of an SR machine is so far
so limited that no extensive calculation instructions can be found in literature.

Reluctance motors are nowadays manufactured in an extremely wide rotation speed and power
range, yet the wider utilization of the machine type has been delayed. One of the main reasons for
this delay is that a reluctance motor has so far always required a machine-specific electronic
chopper and control system.

Nowadays, high-torque, slow-operation motors of 30200 kW are employed in heavy four-quadrant
drives for instance in mining industry. General-purpose motors are manufactured for various
purposes, for instance to replace old DC and AC drives in applications that require accurate rotation
speed control.

Rotation speed control has become more common in pump and blower drives, improving their
efficiency. In the drives of this kind, SR motors are not yet competitive with frequency converter
drive induction motors for example due to their complicated control. The torque of an SR motor is
very high at low rotation speeds, and therefore, the motor type may become more popular in
applications in which a high torque is required.

The applicability of reluctance motors to electric tools has also been investigated. In these
applications, the size and the torque properties of reluctance motors are most beneficial. A
disadvantage of the mixed current motor, which is commonly used at the present, is wear of the
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
12.18
mechanical commutator and the electromagnetic disturbances caused by the commutation. These
problems could be solved with an SR drive. Thanks to its durability and other favourable qualities,
a reluctance motor is also a suitable power source for electric vehicles.



References

Carpenter, C. 1959. Surface-Integral Methods of calculating forces on magnetized iron parts. IEE
Monograph, 1959, No 342.

Miller, T.J.E. 1993. Switched Reluctance Motors and their Control. Oxford: Magna Physics
Publications, Oxford University Press.

Tolsa, Kimmo. 1997. Licentiates thesis. Lappeenranta University of Technology.