1

Fundamentals of Microfabrication with

Applications to BioMEMS
ENSC E 130
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Fundamentals of Microfabrication with
Applications to BioMEMS
Fawwaz Habbal
Senior lecturer on Applied Physics
and Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Executive Dean
Ofce: Pierce Hall 216
ENSC E 130
Mondays at 5:30 PM
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Fundamentals of Microfabrication with
Applications to BioMEMS
Teaching Assistant:
Alexis Vitti
Email address: lexvitti@seas.harvard.edu
ENSC E 130
Mondays at 5:30 PM
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Fundamentals of Microfabrication with
Applications to BioMEMS
Course website
http://courses.fas.harvard.edu/ext/13210
Course e-mail
(homework - Communications - Questions)
mems130@fas.harvad.edu
Ofce Hours
By Appointment only -- Write to:
Habbalf@SEAS.Harvard.edu
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Course Objective
This course
Teaches you microfabrication Techniques,
Familiarize you with Micro-Electro-Mechanical-
Systems (MEMS).
Present applications in several domains: Biological
and medical, Electrical, Magnetic, Structural, Fluids,
Thermal ..
You will not become an expert - but you will be able to
take more advanced courses and complement your
working knowledge - if any.
Discussion is important - Ask questions
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Lectures
Lectures will contain support materials and
needed background
Only general and introductory physical sciences
background is necessary
Some mathematics (not at a high level) will be
encountered
Lectured can be viewed on the internet
Questions are welcomed during class and by
e-mail
We will devote a lecture or more to visit CNS labs
at Harvard
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Citation
This course is part of 4 courses that may
earn you a Citation
*
in
Nanotechnologies and applications in Bioscience
The courses are:
ENSC E-130 (BioMEMS) - offered this semester
ENSC E-140 (Nanotechnology) - offered next Fall
ENSC E-150 (Bio-Nano) - offered this semester
ENSC E-155 (Microuidics) - offered next semester
(*) Minimum grade B is required
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Homework and Exams
Homework:
Series of questions to expand on.
Articles to read and discuss during the lectures.
40 % of your nal grade
Final is a combination of:
Questions (take home exam): 30% of your nal grade
Term paper: 30% of your nal grade
60% of nal grade
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Lecture 3
Fabrication Technologies
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Fabrications Technologies
Outline
! Hard Fabrication
! Lithography
! Etching Methods
! Deposition of Materials
! Soft Fabrication
! Micomolding
! Three Dimensional Photopolymerization
! Thick Film Technologies
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Hard Microfabrication
Will discuss mainly Silicon materials
12
Device Fabrication
A material to create the device -- Silicon
A process to follow -- Micromachining
Process Characteristics
Reproducible
Reliable
Scalable
Inexpensive
Environmentally friendly
Tools to create the device - Lithography
Tools to examine and verify - Microscopy
Packaging
Integration methods and tools
13
Micromachined Materials
Device Material -- Substrates
Silicon
GaAs
Other elemental or compound semiconductors
Metals (bulk and foils)
Glasses
Quartz
Sapphire
Ceramics
Plastics, polymers and other organics
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Additive Materials
Silicon (amorphous, polycrystalline, epitaxial)
Silicon compounds (oxides, nitrides, carbides, )
Metals and metal compounds
Glass
Ceramics
Polymers and other organics
Biomaterials
Micromachined Materials
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Fabrication Processes
Reference materials:
Chapter 1 in Madous Book
In Particular pages 1-31
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Process needs to be one in a Cleanroom
Small Features require cleanroom environment
No particles or dust !
Different Classes for different applications
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Methods - Top down
Write the required pattern with:
1) Optical Lithography
2) Ion and Electron Beam Lithography
3) X-ray Lithography
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Bottom Up Approach
Chemical and statistical forces can create systems
with natural scale in the sub-100 nm.
Self-assembly
Energetic and statistical forces cause crystalline
order in solids, can spontaneously form of
arrays of highly ordered nanostructures.
Examples:
Quantum dots
Langmuir-Blodgett lms
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Process to Create Patterns
Pattern Generation
Design
Wafer
WRITE the Pattern
20
Direct Write
21
Direct Write
Mask
Light Light
Ions Ions
X-ray
Electrons Electrons
Wafer
Process to Create Patterns
Pattern Generation
Design
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Direct Write Hardware
No mask is needed
Higher end systems use Direct Write on Wafer
(DWW) exposure systems
Excimer lasers: geometries down to 1 - 2 m
Electron beams: geometries down to 0.1 - 0.2 m
Focused ion beams: geometries down to 0.05 - 0.1 m
But, this is a serial process
wafer cycle time is proportional to the beam writing
time, the smaller the spot, the longer it takes
23
Reactive Ion Etching (RIE and DRIE)
RIE : chemical etching is accompanied by ionic
bombardment
Bombardment opens areas for reactions
Ionic bombardment:
No undercutting since side-walls are not
exposed
Greatly increased etch rate
Structural degradation
Lower selectivity
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Reactive Ion Etching (RIE and DRIE)
Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
Uses electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) source to
supplement RIE
Microwave power at 245 GHz is coupled into
ECR
Magnetic eld is used to enhance transfer of
microwave energy to resonating electrons
DRIE uses lower energy ions --> less damage
and higher selectivity
25
DRIE
AMMI
Locus Nova
BOSCH Patent
26
Lithography
27
Process to Create Patterns
Pattern Generation
Design
Direct Write
Mask
Light Light
Ions Ions
X-ray
Electrons Electrons
Wafer
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Photolithography
A process to transfer a pattern that is created
on a photomask onto a photoresist thin
lm
Photo masks are generated by an optical
system or an electron system
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Overview: Device Fabrication
Surface Preparation
Coating (Spin Casting)
Pre-Bake (Soft Bake)
Mask Alignment
Exposure
Development
Post-Bake (Hard Bake)
Processing Using the Photoresist as a Masking Film
Stripping
Post Processing Cleaning (Ashing)
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Si Wafer Fabrication and
Characteristics
31
Material Structure
Atoms are arranged with a certain periodicity
Each side has a length (a)
There are also Hexagonal structures
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Material Structure
Miller indices for a simple Cubic Crystal
[010]
[001]
[100]
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Material Structure
Miller indices for a simple Cubic Crystal
[010]
[001]
[100]
(100)
(110)
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Silicon Structure
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Wafer Preparation
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Wafer Fabrication
http://www.egg.or.jp/MSIL/english/msilhist0-e.html
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Float Zone Process
Gradual pull - from a rotating
silicon seed
SEED
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Wafer Fabrication
YEAR
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Silicon Oxides
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Silicon Oxides: SiO
2
Uses
Diffusion masks
Surface passivation
Gate insulator (MOSFET)
Isolation, insulation
Formation:
Grown / native
Thermal: highest quality
Anodization
Deposited:
CVD, evaporate, sputter
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Thermal Oxidation of Silicon
Thermal Oxidation is at high temperatures
(900 - 1200 C)
Two main processes :
Dry Oxidation
Si + O
2
--> SiO
2
@1 atm , 1000 C
Wet Oxidation
Si + 2H
2
O --->SiO
2
+ 2H
2
Dry oxidation produces a better (more dense)
oxide as compared to wet oxidation
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Silicon Oxide
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Other Silicon Compounds
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Doping
Doping
n-type (e.g., Sb, As, P, Bi) electron donors
(5 electrons in outer shell)
p-type (e.g., B, Ga, In)
acceptors
(3 electrons in outer shell)

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Polysilicon
Silicon Carbide
Polycrystalline Diamond
Refractory Metals
2WF
6
+ 3SiH
4
--> 2W + 3SiF
4
+6H
2
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Silicon Nitride Si
3
N
4
uses
Diffusivity of O
2
, H
2
O is very low in nitride
Mask against oxidation, protect against
water/corrosion
Diffusivity of Na is also very low
Protect against mobile ion contamination
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Silicide Films
Silicides are metal-silicon compounds.
They are used for contacts.
Typical thickness 0.1 to 0.2 m
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Silicide Films
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Silicide Films
Ion Implant for mixing
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Method for Creating Features
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Si Etching and Characteristics
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Etchant Properties
Selectivity to masking layer(s)
Selectivity to metals (e.g., Al)
Etch rate
Anisotropy (crystal plane selectivity)
Surface roughness
Control of etch parameters
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Etching Plans
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Etching
Silicon etching: different rates
Anisotropic
Isotropic
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KOH Etching
Etching Rate: Varies with Temperature and
Concentration
(110) > (100) > (111)
(100) > (110) > (111)
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Anisotropic Etching
(100 Surface)
(110 Surface)
Petersen
Anisotropic = direction dependent
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Anisotropic Etching
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Creating Patterns with Lithography
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An Overview
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Major Pieces of Equipment
Stepper position
Accuracy can be
as good as 50 nm
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Masking with Photoresist
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Creating a Mask
The mask is the stencil of the required
pattern
CAD systems are used to create the patterns
Pattern is created by photo projection
exposure
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Masks
Create master patterns are transferred to wafers
Both glass and quartz are used
Photographic emulsion on soda-lime glass (cheap)
Fe
2
O
3
on soda-lime glass
Cr on soda-lime glass
Cr on quartz glass (expensive, used with deep UV)
Polarity
light-eld: mostly clear, drawn feature are opaque
dark-eld: mostly opaque, drawn feature are clear
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Masking
Shadow masking 15nm
diameter had been prepared
Exposure
1:1 to 10:1
Lateral resolution (b) is
b = k (! / NA)
NA is the numerical aperture;
k = 0.5 theoretically
b is affected by depth of
focus
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Mask Alignment
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Mask Alignment
Create marks on wafer to consecutively
align several masks
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Alignment
3 degrees of freedom between mask and wafer
Modern process lines use automatic pattern
recognition and alignment systems
Usually takes 1-5 seconds to align and expose on a
modern stepper
Human operators usually take 30-45 seconds with
well-designed alignment marks
Normally requires at least two alignment mark sets
on opposite sides of wafer or stepped region
Use a split-eld microscope to make alignment
easier
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Alignment - Exposure
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Alignment and Exposure Hardware
Projection systems give the ability to change the
reproduction ratio
10:1 reduction allows larger size patterns on the
mask - more robust to mask defects
Most wafers contain an array of the same pattern,
so one cell of the array is needed on the mask
These machines are also called Steppers
Example: GCA-4800
Disadvantage of steppers: absolutely no
defects, since it will be reproduced all over the
wafer
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An Alignment Machine (Karl-Suss)
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Photoresist
Materials and Application
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Photoresist
PR: Radiation-sensitive compound
Requirements
Etch resistance
Thermal stability
Ease of development
Good adhesion
Difcult to achieve in the UV region
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Photoresist -Types
Positive resists
Exposed region becomes more soluble
Patterns are the same as those on the mask
Negative resists
Exposed regions become less soluble
Patterns are the reverse of the mask patterns
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Components of Photoresist
Conventional optical photoresist has three components
1) Matrix material
2) Sensitizer
3) Solvent
Sensitizer (also called inhibitor)
Photoactive compound (PAC) - Insoluble without
radiation - preventing resist to be dissolved
Take photochemical reaction upon exposing to light,
transferring from dissolution inhibitor to dissolution
enhancer
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Photoresist - Matrix and Solvent
Solvent
Keep photoresist in liquid state
Allows spin coating of the resist
Solvent content determines resists viscosity and hence the
its thickness
Matrix Material (resin)
Serves a binder
Inert to radiation
Dissolves fast in developer (~ 150 A/s)
Provides resistant to etchers
Provides adhesion to the substrate
Contributes to the mechanical properties of the resist
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Photoresist - Photo active Compound
Function of PAC
Dissolution Enhancer 1000 2000 /s Matrix +
Sensitizer with Radiation
Dissolution Inhibitor 10 20 /s
Matrix + Sensitizer without Radiation
NA 150 /s Matrix
Differential solubility before and after exposure
100 : 1
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Photoresist - Types
Positive photoresist
Three constituents: a photosensitive compound, a base resin,
and an organic solvent.
After irradiation, the photosensitive compound changes its
chemical structure, and transforms into a more soluble species.
Upon developing, the exposed areas are expunged.
Negative photoresist
Polymers combined with a photosensitive compound.
Photosensitive compound absorbs the radiation energy - initiate a
chain reaction that causes crosslinking of the polymer molecules.
The cross-linked polymer has a higher molecular weight and
becomes insoluble in the developer solution.
After development, the unexposed portions are removed.
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Positive and Negative Photoresist
Positive Resist
The solubility of exposed
regions is much higher than
the unexposed region in a
solvent (developer) produces a
positive image of the mask
Negative Resist
The solubility of exposed
regions is much lower than the
unexposed region in developer
produces a negative image of
the mask

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Commercial Photoresist
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Absorption of x-rays in some materials
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Applying the Photoresist
Spin Coating
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Photoresist Spin Coating
Wafer is held on a spinner chuck by vacuum
Resist is coated to uniform thickness by spin coating
Typically 3000-6000 rpm for 15-30 seconds
Resist thickness is set by
Resist viscosity
Spinner rotational speed
Resist thickness is given by
t = kp
2
/ " w
k = spinner constant, typically 80-100
p = resist solids content in percent
w = spinner rotational speed in rpm/1000
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Spin Coating
Use a centrally rotating
substrate. Fast rotation
creates centrifugal force with
solvent evaporation create a
constant thickness.
Thickness can be 100nm
Organic polymers and
biopolymers can be deposited
Stretching and orienting of
molecules
83
Spin Coating
84
Spin Coating Machine
PR applicator
Wafer
85
Stages of Coating
86
Spin Coating - Defects
Striations
30 nm variations in resist thickness due to nonuniform drying
of solvent during spin coating
80-100 mm periodicity, radially out from center of wafer
Edge Bead
residual ridge in resist at edge of wafer; 20-30 times the
nominal thickness of the resist
radius on wafer edge greatly reduces the edge bead height
Solvents are spun on after resist coating - partially dissolve
away the edge bead
Streaks
radial patterns caused by hard particles of diameter greater
than the resist thickness
87
Wafer Baking
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Pre-Bake
Pre-bake
evaporate coating solvent
Increase the density of the resist after spin coating.
Typical thermal cycles
90-100C for 20 min. in a convection oven
75-85C for 45 seconds on a hot plate
Microwave heating and IR lamps are also used in
production lines
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Pre-Bake
A narrow time-temperature window is
needed to achieve best linewidth control.
The thickness of the resist is usually
decreased by 25 % during prebake for both
positive and negative resists.
90
Pre-Bake
Convection ovens
Solvent at surface of resist is evaporated rst can
develop impermeable skin, trapping the remaining
solvent inside
Heating must go slow to avoid solvent burst effects
Conduction (hot plate)
Need an extremely smooth surface for good thermal
contact and heating uniformity
Temperature rise starts at bottom of wafer -- more
thorough evaporation
Faster and more suitable for automation
91
Hard Bake
Removes all traces of the coating solvent or
developer.
Harden the developed photoresist prior to the
processing steps - e.g. metal deposition, acid
etching
Main parameter is the plastic ow or glass
transition temperature
Some shrinkage of the photoresist may occur;
introduces some stress into the photoresist
92
Photoresist Removal
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Photoresist Removal
Simple solvents are generally sufcient for none hard baked
photoresists
Positive photoresist
acetone
trichloroethylene (TCE)
phenol-based strippers (Indus-Ri-Chem J-100)
Negative photoresist:
methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), CH
3
COC
2
H
5
methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), CH
3
COC
4
H
9
Plasma etching with O
2
is effective for removing organic
polymer debris
Shipley 1165 stripper (contains n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone) -
effective on hard baked resist
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Creating Patterns
Using Masks and Photoresist
95
Pattern Transfer
Now we have a substrate coated with a resist stencil.
The stencil can be used to protect parts of the
substrate during an additive step like a metal
deposition.
Or the stencil can allow some etching procedure to
reach the substrate in well-dened locations in a
subtractive step.
Deposition is usually through evaporation or
sputtering.
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Photomask and Pattern Creation
Mask Silicon wafer covered with Photoresist
Expose
Remove the exposed (or
the unexposed) areas
Z
97
Another Patterning Method
mask
Subtractive Additive
Function layer
mask
Remove mask
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Exposure
99
Exposure Methods
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Projection
Wafer
Dioptric
Reticle
101
Projection Lithography
102
Characteristics of a Microlithography System
Resolution
The resolution of an optical system is its capability to
distinguish closely spaced objects. For a
microlithography system, resolution denes the
minimum linewidth or space that the system can print.

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Characteristics of a Microlithography System
Registration Capability
A measure of degree to which the pattern being printed can be t
(aligned) to previously printed patterns.
Dimensional Control
Ability to produce the same feature size with the same tolerance
and position accuracy across an entire wafer and wafer-to-wafer
Throughput
The time to complete a print

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Resolution
Airy Disk: the smallest distance, L
min
, an optical system can
resolve
Rayleigh Criterion: The central maximum of each point sources
lie at the rst minimum of the Airy disk
L
min
= 0.61 ! / NA
Numerical Aperture:
NA = sin "
For small ", sin " = "
Numerical Aperture NA = ",
L
min

105
Depth of Focus (DoF) Requirement
Why do we need to meet DoF Requirement?
Substrate is not at - can varies as much as 10 m across a wafer
There are previously fabricated patterns on the wafer
DOF - The range over which there are clear optical images
Depth of focus, DoF, can be expressed as:
DoF = n

l / [2(NA)
2
]
DOF decreases fast when NA increase!
106
Homework
Due next week.
Send by e-mail to
lexvitti@Seas.harvard.edu
Also copy to:
mems130@fas.harvard.edu
Homework
What is the depth of focus for a situation with
! = 435 nm, NA = 0.6, n =1.47 (DI water)
107
Depth of Focus

108
Photoresist - Contrast
Contrast is determined by the Gamma (slope) of the
response curve
Gamma Represents the
ability of resist to distinguish
between light and dark
regions
Resist UV DUV
+ ive 2 - 3 1 - 2
- ive 5 - 10 3 - 6
Sensitivity (mJ/Cm
2
)
Resist UV DUV
100 20 - 40
109

Photoresist - Fabrication Issues
Surface Reection Standing Wave
Anti-reection coating
Add unbleachable dyes to resist
Post baking after exposure (before development)
Multi-wavelength exposure

110
Light Transmission Near the Edges
Z
D = the thickness of the photoresist
2b = the minimum pitch of line spacing
Z = the spacing
For Contact Imaging: 2 b = 3 " (0.5 d ! )
For Proximity Imaging: 2 b = 3 " ! (Z + 0.5 d)
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Homework
Due next week.
Send by e-mail to
lexvitti@Seas.harvard.edu
Also copy to: mems130@fas.harvard.edu
Homework
For the case of
!= 400 nm, d = 1m , Z = 10 m
What is the minimum resolution for contact and
proximity imaging?
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Edges and Proles
Feature edge prole is affected by
The distance between the mask and the photoresist
(Reduce the diffraction)
The thickness of the photoresist
The Exposure time
The development
113
Modulation Transfer Function
114
How to Create Contact
Problems:
Optically at photoresist
Dust
Stiff masks
115
Smallest Features
In the far eld approximation (like in
microscopy), resolution limit is determined
by diffraction
L
min
=

!/ (2 #$)
In contact printing, the exposure takes place
via near eld.
So, diffraction is not a limiting factor
116
Near Field Diffraction
Z
117
Proximity Exposure
118
Phase Shifting Masks
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Conformable Contact Lithography
Wave Length = 220 nm
Pattern Resolution = 100 nm
L
min
= 50 nm
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200 nm Grating
Scanning electron micrograph of a 200-nm-pitch grating
embedded in a deep-ultraviolet transparent SiO2 substrate
depicts the structure of the embedded-amplitude mask
121
SEM image of a pattern replicated by
Deep UV (100nm)
500 nm
100 nm
122
45 nm
123
Other Exposing Beams
Electron and X-rays Beams
Other Methods
124
E-Beams and X-ray Lithography
DoF and resolution are improved with short
wave illumination
Throughput is an issue. So, these are used to
create the masks
Early 80s, deep UV (248 nm and 193 nm) was
used with ArF and KrF excimer lasers
X-ray required using synchrotron generators
125
Advanced Lithography Technology

E-Beam Lithography
X-Ray Lithography
Focused Ion Beam Lithography
Imprinting Lithography
126
Electron-beam lithography
The most common method to create very
small features
Electron beam exposure alters the chemistry
of the resist instead of light exposure.
127
Electron Beam Lithography
Electron beam lithography is one of the most
promising of nanolithography.
Similar to a Scanning Electron Microscope and
often a scanning electron microscope is used.
An electron beam is formed and scanned at a
controlled rate over the surface of a photoresist.
Scan rate is adjusted to deliver a "critical" dose of
electrons to a selected area of the resist.
The resist is either developed in a chemical bath
similar to photolithography, or the electron beam
interacts with the material to remove the resist
material.
128
Electron-Beam Lithography (EBL)
Diffraction is not a limitation on resolution
Resolution depends on beam size, can reach ~ 5 nm
Two applications:
Direct Writing
Projection (step and repeat)
Issues:
Throughput of direct writing is very low research
tool or low pattern density production
Projection stepper is in development stage. Mask
making is the biggest challenge.
Back-scattering and second electron reduce
resolution with dense patterns
129
Schematic of E-Beam System

130
E-Beam Issues
Electron Scattering in Resist and Substrate
The scattered electrons also expose the resist!

131
E-Beam Issues - Proximity Effect
MTF is greatly reduced at high pattern density - requires
Use thin resist and thin substrate
Adjust acceleration voltage
Split pattern into several writings using different doses
Adjust pattern size and shapes
Adjust dose level to compensate scattering

132
Raith-150 EBL System at CNS
Direct Writing and SEM system - Thermal
assisted eld emission
Resolution: 2 nm @ 1.0 KeV
Column voltage range: 200 30V
Resolution of laser interferometer register: 2 nm
Maximum wafer size: 6
Writing speed: 10MHz

133
X-ray Lithography
134
X-ray Lithography
X-ray lithography is one of the most promising
technologies for nanolithography.
Mask is made of an X-ray transparent material with
a pattern of high Z material either etched or
deposited on it.
The mask is the limiting factor in X-ray
lithography.
Resolution of the pattern is dependant on the
variations in the mask.
Scalability to manufacturing would be relatively
easy compared to some other techniques such as
SPM lithography.
135
X-Ray Lithography (XRL)
Very short wavelength (1.0 0.01 nm), Very high resolution
Area exposure: higher throughput than e-beam system
X-ray is transparent: Low level of dust/contamination impact
Issues:
Optics is extremely difcult no lens available for focused of
defocused
Point source and shadow exposure
Geometric error
Expensive and complicated X-ray sources
Very complicated mask (Boron nitride) and fabrication
Heavy metal (Au) as opaque material
Low mass membrane (1 ~ 2 micrometer Si
3
N
4
) as substrate
136
Minimum Feature Size in a Proximity Exposure with
soft x-rays
S
nm
Resist
Mask
137
Focus Ion Beam Lithography
138
Focused Ion-Beam (FIB) Lithography
Like EBL, FIB is used as direct writing exposure
Potential:
Less backscattering (larger mass than electron)
Resist for FIB lithography is more sensitive
Energy higher than electrons
Better resolution and faster exposure speed than E-beam
Issues:
Lack of reliable ion sources
Harder to be focused
Shorter penetrate (absorption) depth in resist (~ 30 500 nm) -
multilayer resist process
Unexpected ion implantation on substrate beneath resist
139
Focused Ion-Beam (FIB) Lithography
Conventional Photoresist
Resist Implantation
140
Focused Ion-Beam (FIB) Lithography
Inorganic Resist Ion Induced etching and
Development
141
Focused Ion-Beam (FIB) Lithography
Ion Beam Etching and Ion Implantation
142
Scanned Probe Lithography
143
Scanned probe lithography (SPL)
Plowing: use an AFM tip to literally plow a groove
through either a very thin resist layer or a self-assembled
monolayer (SAM) on the substrate.
Can produce lines in these layers as narrow as 20-30 nm
Local oxidation: use either a conductive AFM tip or an
STM tip to do local electrochemistry on the substrate
Dip-pen lithography: use the tip of a AFM to transfer
SAMs from reservoirs down the tip to the substrate
STM lithography: position individual atoms one at a
time to build up structures
144
Scanning Probe Microscope Lithography
Performed by oxidizing a material with the
electric eld created at the tip of a scanning probe
microscope.
Oxidized material can be removed by preferential
etching.
Resist materials can include Si and Ti (easily
oxidized).
25 nm and 35 nm lines were formed by oxidizing
Si with the AFM and then dry etched to a depth of
30 nm.
145
References
146
References
B. J. Lin
Contact and proximity Printing
in Fine Line Lithography, Elsevier
J. Goodberlet
Applied Physics Letters Volume 76, 2000
Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication
Richard C. Jaeger, Addison-Wesley, 1993
S.K. Ghandi,
VLSI Fabrication Principles
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983 - Chapter 4